Rational Expressions 1

Here are the lessons to be discussed in Module 2 based in our course syllabus:
LESSON 1: Definition of Terms & Integer Exponents
LESSON 2: Addition and Subtraction of Algebraic Expressions
LESSON 3: Multiplication of Algebraic Expressions
LESSON 4: Special Product
LESSON 5: Division of Algebraic Expressions
LESSON 6: Factoring
LESSON 7: The Remainder and Factor Theorems
LESSON 8: Addition and Subtraction of Rational Expressions
LESSON 9: Multiplication and Division of Rational Expressions
LESSON 10: Complex Fractions

Algebraic Expressions & Polynomials 2

 On the completion of Module 2, the student is expected
to:
• solve different operations involving algebraic and
rational expressions;
• identify and use special products;
• apply factoring of algebraic expressions.
• simplify rational and complex fractions; and
• solve operations involving algebraic and rational
expressions.
Algebraic Expressions & Polynomials 3
Definition 3.1 A rational expression is a fraction whose numerator and denominator are
polynomials.
Note: In simplifying a rational expression always indicate the exclusion of the value of
𝑥 every time we apply the Cancellation Law.
Examples. Perform the indicated operation(s), reduce into lowest terms and write the
restrictions of the variables.

20𝑥 3 𝑦 2𝑧 4 4 5 𝑥3𝑦2𝑧4 4𝑧 3
1. = = where 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 ≠ 0.
15𝑥 6 𝑦 6 𝑧 3 5 𝑥 6 𝑦 6𝑧 3𝑥 3 𝑦 4

6𝑥 2 −𝑥𝑦+𝑦 2 3𝑥+𝑦 2𝑥−𝑦 3𝑥+𝑦 1

2. = = where 𝑥 ≠ 2 𝑦.
2𝑥 2 −9𝑥𝑦+4𝑦 2 2𝑥−𝑦 𝑥−4𝑦 𝑥−4𝑦

6𝑥 2 +17𝑥+7 2𝑥+1 3𝑥+7 2𝑥+1 7

3. = = where 𝑥 ≠ − 3.
12𝑥 2 +13𝑥−35 4𝑥−5 3𝑥+7 4𝑥−5

2𝑥−𝑦 2𝑥−𝑦 1 1
4. = = 4𝑥 2 +2𝑥𝑦+𝑦 2 where 𝑥 ≠ 2 𝑦.
8𝑥 3 −𝑦 3 2𝑥−𝑦 4𝑥 2 +2𝑥𝑦+𝑦 2

Rational Expressions 4
 2𝑥+4 𝑥−5 𝑥+3 2𝑥+4 𝑥−5 𝑥+3
5. − − = − −
𝑥 2 −8𝑥+15 𝑥 2 −𝑥−6 𝑥 2 −3𝑥−10 𝑥−3 𝑥−5 𝑥+2 𝑥−3 𝑥+2 𝑥−5
2𝑥+4 (𝑥+2)− 𝑥−5 𝑥−5 −(𝑥+3)(𝑥−3)
= 𝑥−3 𝑥−5 𝑥+2
2𝑥 +8𝑥+8 − 𝑥2 −10𝑥+25 −(𝑥 2 −9)
2
= 𝑥−3 𝑥−5 𝑥+2
2𝑥 2 +8𝑥+8−𝑥 2 +10𝑥−25−𝑥 2 +9
= 𝑥−3 𝑥−5 𝑥+2
18𝑥−8
= 𝑥−3 𝑥−5 𝑥+2

2𝑥−1 𝑥+3 2𝑥−3 2𝑥−1 𝑥+3 2𝑥−3

6. + − = + −
2𝑥 2 −𝑥−6 6𝑥 2 +𝑥−12 3𝑥 2 −10𝑥+8 2𝑥+3 𝑥−2 3𝑥−4 2𝑥+3 3𝑥−4 𝑥−2
2𝑥−1 3𝑥−4 + 𝑥+3 𝑥−2 − 2𝑥−3 2𝑥+3
= 2𝑥+3 𝑥−2 3𝑥−4
6𝑥 −11𝑥+4+𝑥 2 +𝑥−6−4𝑥 2 +9
2
= 2𝑥+3 𝑥−2 3𝑥−4
3𝑥 2 −10𝑥+7
= 2𝑥+3 𝑥−2 3𝑥−4

Rational Expressions 5
 𝑎𝑐 4 +𝑏𝑐 4 27𝑎3 −𝑏3 𝑎𝑐 3 −𝑏𝑐 3 𝑐 4 (𝑎+𝑏) 3𝑎−𝑏 9𝑎2 +3𝑎𝑏+𝑏2 𝑐 3 𝑎−𝑏
7. ∙ ÷ = ∙ ÷
9𝑎2 −𝑏2 𝑎𝑐+𝑏𝑐 3𝑎2 −2𝑎𝑏−𝑏2 3𝑎−𝑏 3𝑎+𝑏 𝑐(𝑎+𝑏) 3𝑎+𝑏 𝑎−𝑏
𝑐3 2 2 𝑐3 1
= ∙ 9𝑎 + 3𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏 ÷ where 𝑎 ≠ ± 𝑏, ±𝑏, &
3𝑎+𝑏 3𝑎+𝑏 3
𝑐3 2 + 3𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏 2 ∙ 3𝑎+𝑏 where 𝑎 ≠ ± 1 𝑏, ±𝑏, &
= ∙ 9𝑎 𝑐 ≠ 0.
3𝑎+𝑏 𝑐3 3
1
= 9𝑎2 + 3𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏 2 where 𝑎 ≠ ± 3 𝑏, ±𝑏, & 𝑐 ≠ 0.

9𝑦 3 −18𝑦 2 −4𝑦+8 9𝑦 3 −18𝑦 2 − 4𝑦−8 1

8. ÷ 8 − 12𝑦 = ∙ 4 2−3𝑦
3𝑦 2 −4𝑦−4 3𝑦+2 𝑦−2
9𝑦 2𝑦−2 −4(𝑦−2) 1
= ∙
3𝑦+2 𝑦−2 4 2−3𝑦
2
𝑦−2 9𝑦 −4 1
= ∙
3𝑦+2 𝑦−2 4 2−3𝑦
𝑦−2 3𝑦−2 (3𝑦+2) 1 2 2
= ∙ , 𝑦 ≠ 2, − , .
3𝑦+2 𝑦−2 −4 3𝑦−2 3 3
1 2 2
= − 4 where 𝑦 ≠ 2, − 3 , 3.

Rational Expressions 6
 𝑦 3+4𝑦 2 −5𝑦 𝑦 2 +𝑦−2 𝑦−4 𝑦 𝑦 2 +4𝑦−5 𝑦(𝑦 3 +8) 𝑦−4
7. 𝑦 2 −2𝑦+1
÷ 𝑦 4+8𝑦
∙ 𝑦 2 −2𝑦+4 = 𝑦 2 −2𝑦+1 ∙ 𝑦 2 +𝑦−2 ∙ 𝑦 2 −2𝑦+4
𝑦 𝑦+5 𝑦−1 𝑦(𝑦+2) 𝑦 2 −2𝑦+4 𝑦−4
= 𝑦−1 𝑦−1 ∙ ∙ , 𝑦 ≠ 1, −2
𝑦+2 𝑦−1 𝑦 2 −2𝑦+4
𝑦 2 𝑦+5 𝑦−4
= where 𝑦 ≠ 1, −2.
𝑦−1 2

2𝑥 𝑥2 𝑥3 2𝑥 𝑥2 −(𝑥−1)
8. + 𝑥 2 −1 ÷ 1−𝑥 = + ∙
𝑥−1 𝑥−1 𝑥−1 𝑥+1 𝑥3
2𝑥 𝑥+1 +𝑥 2 −(𝑥−1)
= ∙ 𝑥3
𝑥−1 𝑥+1
2𝑥 2 +2𝑥+𝑥 2 −(𝑥−1)
= ∙ 𝑥3
𝑥−1 𝑥+1
3𝑥 2 +2𝑥 −(𝑥−1)
= ∙
𝑥−1 𝑥+1 𝑥3
𝑥(3𝑥+2) −(𝑥−1)
= 𝑥−1 𝑥+1
∙ 𝑥3
, 𝑥 ≠ 0, 1
3𝑥+2
= − 𝑥 2 𝑥+1 where 𝑥 ≠ 0, 1

Rational Expressions 7
 3𝑥 3𝑥+2 𝑥+2 𝑥 3𝑥 3𝑥+2 𝑥+2 𝑥
9. − ∙ − = − ∙ −
𝑥−3 𝑥 2 −6𝑥+9 𝑥+3 𝑥 2 +6𝑥+9 𝑥−3 𝑥−3 𝑥−3 𝑥+3 𝑥+3 𝑥+3
3𝑥 𝑥−3 −3𝑥−2 𝑥+2 𝑥+3 −𝑥
= 𝑥−3 𝑥−3 ∙ 𝑥+3 𝑥+3
3𝑥 2 −9𝑥−3𝑥−2 𝑥 2 +5𝑥+6−𝑥
= 𝑥−3 𝑥−3 ∙ 𝑥+3 𝑥+3
3𝑥 2 −12𝑥−2 𝑥 2 +4𝑥+6
= 𝑥−3 𝑥−3 ∙ 𝑥+3 𝑥+3
3𝑥 2 −12𝑥−2 𝑥 2 +4𝑥+6
= 𝑥−3 𝑥−3 ∙ 𝑥+3 𝑥+3
3𝑥 2 −12𝑥−2 𝑥 2 +4𝑥+6
= .
𝑥−3 2 𝑥+3 2

𝑥 𝑥+𝑥−1
𝑥−1
+1 𝑥−1 2𝑥−1 𝑥−2 𝑥−2 1
10. 3 = 3+2𝑥−4 = ∙
𝑥−1 2𝑥−1
= 𝑥−1 where 𝑥 ≠ 2.
+2
𝑥−2 𝑥−2

Rational Expressions 8
 𝑥−𝑦 𝑥+𝑦 𝑥−𝑦 𝑥−𝑦 − 𝑥+𝑦 𝑥+𝑦
− 𝑥 2 −2𝑥𝑦+𝑦 2−𝑥 2 −2𝑥𝑦−𝑦 2 𝑥+𝑦 𝑥−𝑦
𝑥+𝑦 𝑥−𝑦 𝑥+𝑦 𝑥−𝑦
11. 𝑥−𝑦 𝑥+𝑦 = 𝑥−𝑦 𝑥−𝑦 + 𝑥+𝑦 𝑥+𝑦 = 𝑥+𝑦 𝑥−𝑦
∙ 𝑥 2 −2𝑥𝑦+𝑦 2 +𝑥 2 +2𝑥𝑦+𝑦 2
+
𝑥+𝑦 𝑥−𝑦 𝑥+𝑦 𝑥−𝑦
−4𝑥𝑦 𝑥+𝑦 𝑥−𝑦
= ∙ ,𝑥≠ −𝑦, 𝑦
𝑥+𝑦 𝑥−𝑦 2𝑥 2 +2𝑦 2
−4𝑥𝑦
= , 𝑥 ≠ −𝑦, 𝑦
2 𝑥 2 +𝑦 2
2𝑥𝑦
= − 𝑥 2 +𝑦 2 where 𝑥 ≠ −𝑦, 𝑦.

1 1
− 2𝑥+1−2𝑥−2ℎ−1 1
2𝑥+2ℎ+1 2𝑥+1
12. = ∙
ℎ 2𝑥+2ℎ+1 2𝑥+1 ℎ
−2ℎ
= ℎ 2𝑥+2ℎ+1 2𝑥+1 , ℎ ≠ 0
2
=− where ℎ ≠ 0.
2𝑥+2ℎ+1 2𝑥+1

Rational Expressions 9
 𝑥+ℎ+1 𝑥+1
− 𝑥+ℎ+1 𝑥−2 − 𝑥+1 𝑥+ℎ−2 1
𝑥+ℎ−2 𝑥−2
13. = ∙ℎ
ℎ 𝑥+ℎ−2 𝑥−2
𝑥 2 +ℎ𝑥−𝑥−2ℎ−2−𝑥 2 −ℎ𝑥+𝑥−ℎ+2
= ℎ 𝑥+ℎ−2 𝑥−2
3ℎ
= − ℎ 𝑥+ℎ−2 𝑥−2 , ℎ ≠ 0

1 1
− 𝑥 3 −(𝑥+ℎ)3 1
𝑥+ℎ 3 𝑥3
14. = 𝑥 3 𝑥+ℎ 3 ∙ ℎ
ℎ
𝑥 3 −𝑥3 −3𝑥 2 ℎ−3𝑥ℎ2 +ℎ3
= ℎ𝑥 3 𝑥+ℎ 3
−3𝑥 2 ℎ−3𝑥ℎ2 +ℎ3
= ℎ𝑥3 𝑥+ℎ 3
ℎ(3𝑥 2 +3𝑥ℎ+ℎ2)
= − ℎ𝑥 3 𝑥+ℎ 3 , ℎ ≠ 0
3𝑥 2 +3𝑥ℎ+ℎ2
= − 𝑥 3 𝑥+ℎ 3 , ℎ ≠ 0

Rational Expressions 10
 𝑎−𝑏 𝑏 (𝑎−𝑏)(𝑎−𝑏) −𝑏 𝑎+𝑏 𝑎2 −2𝑎𝑏+𝑏2 −𝑎𝑏−𝑏2
𝑎+𝑏
− 𝑎−𝑏 𝑎+𝑏 𝑎−𝑏 𝑎+𝑏 𝑎−𝑏
15. 2 3 = 2(𝑎−𝑏)+3 𝑎+𝑏 = 𝑎+𝑏 𝑎−𝑏 +2𝑏(𝑎−𝑏)+3𝑏 𝑎+𝑏
1+𝑏 − 1+𝑏
𝑎+𝑏 𝑏−𝑎 𝑎+𝑏 𝑎−𝑏 𝑎+𝑏 𝑎−𝑏
𝑎 −2𝑎𝑏+𝑏 2−𝑎𝑏−𝑏 2
2 𝑎+𝑏 𝑎−𝑏
= ∙ 𝑎2 −𝑏2 +2𝑎𝑏−2𝑏2 +3𝑎𝑏+3𝑏2 , 𝑎 ≠ ±𝑏
𝑎+𝑏 𝑎−𝑏
𝑎2 −3𝑎𝑏 𝑎(𝑎−3𝑏)
= = ,𝑎 ≠ 0, ±𝑏
𝑎2 +5𝑎𝑏 𝑎 𝑎+5𝑏
𝑎−3𝑏
= where 𝑎 ≠ 0, ±𝑏
𝑎+5𝑏

1 1 𝑦−𝑥
−1 − 𝑦
𝑥 −1 +𝑦 −1 𝑥 −1 −𝑦 −1 𝑥 𝑥𝑦 𝑦−𝑥 𝑥𝑦 𝑦−𝑥
16. = = 1 1 = 𝑦+𝑥 = ∙ 𝑦+𝑥 = 𝑦+𝑥 where 𝑥 ≠ 0 or 𝑦 ≠ 0 or
𝑥 −1 −𝑦 −1 𝑥 −1 +𝑦 −1 + 𝑥𝑦
𝑥 𝑦 𝑥𝑦
both not equal to zero.

Rational Expressions 11
Definition 3.5 Partial fraction is an expression of the sum of two or more simple quotients.
Case 1. The factors of 𝑄(𝑥) are all linear, and none is repeated. That is,
𝑄 𝑥 = 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑏1 𝑎2 𝑥 + 𝑏2 ∙ … ∙ 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 + 𝑏𝑛
where no two of the factors are identical. In this case we write
𝑃(𝑥) 𝐴1 𝐴2 𝐴𝑛
= + + …+
𝑄(𝑥) 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑏1 𝑎2 𝑥 + 𝑏2 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 + 𝑏𝑛
where 𝐴1 , 𝐴2 , … , 𝐴𝑛 are constants to be determined.

Example 1. Decompose the faction

7𝑥 − 1
𝑥2 − 𝑥 − 6
into partial fractions.
Solution:
7𝑥−1 7𝑥−1
=
𝑥 2 −𝑥−6 𝑥−3 (𝑥+2)
𝐴 𝐵
= +
𝑥−3 𝑥+2

Rational Expressions 12
Solution:
7𝑥−1 𝐴 𝐵
= 𝑥−3 + 𝑥+2. This equation is an identity provided that 𝑥 ≠ −2, 3.
𝑥−3 (𝑥+2)
With these restrictions of 𝑥, we have
7𝑥 − 1 = 𝐴 𝑥 + 2 + 𝐵(𝑥 − 3)
7𝑥 − 1 = 𝐴𝑥 + 2𝐴 + 𝐵𝑥 − 3𝐵
7𝑥 − 1 = (𝐴 + 𝐵)𝑥 + 2𝐴 − 3𝐵.
Thus,
(1) 𝐴 + 𝐵 = 7
2 2𝐴 − 3𝐵 = −1.
Solving for the respective value of 𝐴 and 𝐵 for these two equations, we have
(𝐴 + 𝐵 = 7)(3)
2𝐴 − 3𝐵 = −1
5𝐴 = 20
𝐴=4
Since 𝐴 = 4, it follows that 𝐵 = 7 − 4 = 3. Therefore
7𝑥−1 4 3
2 = + .
𝑥 −𝑥−6 𝑥−3 𝑥+2

Rational Expressions 13
Example 2. Decompose the faction
𝑥−1
𝑥 3 − 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥
into partial fractions.

Solution:
𝑥−1 𝑥−1 𝑥−1 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
=𝑥 =𝑥 = 𝑥 + 𝑥−2 + 𝑥+1
𝑥 3 −𝑥 2 −2𝑥 𝑥 2 −𝑥−2 𝑥−2 𝑥+1
and this equation is an identity if 𝑥 ≠ 0, −1, 2. With these restrictions, we obtain
𝑥 − 1 = 𝐴 𝑥 − 2 𝑥 + 1 + 𝐵𝑥 𝑥 + 1 + 𝐶𝑥(𝑥 − 2)
= 𝐴𝑥 2 − 𝐴𝑥 − 2𝐴 + 𝐵𝑥 2 + 𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶𝑥 2 − 2𝐶𝑥
= 𝐴 + 𝐵 + 𝐶 𝑥 2 + 𝐵 − 𝐴 − 2𝐶 𝑥 − 2𝐴.
This implies that
1 𝐴+𝐵+𝐶 =0
(2) 𝐵 − 𝐴 − 2𝐶 = 1
3 − 2𝐴 = −1
Hence
1
𝐴 = 2.
Rational Expressions 14
Solution:
1
When 𝐴 = 2, our values of 𝐵 and 𝐶 would be
1 1
+𝐵+𝐶 = 0 ⟺𝐵+𝐶 = −2
2
1 3
𝐵 − − 2𝐶 = 1 ⟺ 𝐵 − 2𝐶 =
2 2
Now,
1
𝐵 + 𝐶 = −2 2
3
𝐵 − 2𝐶 = 2
1
3𝐵 =2
1 1 1 2
Thus 𝐵 = 6 and consequently 𝐶 = − 2 − 6 = − 3 .
Therefore
𝑥−1 1 1 2
= + − .
𝑥 3 −𝑥 2 −2𝑥 2𝑥 6 𝑥−2 3 𝑥+1

Rational Expressions 15
Case 2. The factors of 𝑄(𝑥) are all linear, and some are repeated. Supposed that (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)𝑝
occurs as a factor of 𝑄(𝑥). Then 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 is said to be a 𝑝-fold factors of 𝑄(𝑥), and the
corresponding to this factor there will be the sum of 𝑝 partial fractions
𝐴1 𝐴2 𝐴3 𝐴𝑝−1 𝐴𝑝
+ + + ⋯ + +
𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)2 (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)3 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 𝑝−1 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 𝑝
where 𝐴1 , 𝐴2 , … , 𝐴𝑛 are constants to be determined.

Example 3. Decompose the faction

𝑥 4 + 𝑥 2 + 16𝑥 − 12
𝑥 5 − 4𝑥 4 + 4𝑥 3
into partial fractions.

Solution:
𝑥 4 +𝑥 2 +16𝑥−12 𝑥 4 +𝑥 2 +16𝑥−12 𝑥 4 +𝑥 2 +16𝑥−12 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶 𝐷 𝐸
= = = + 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 3 + 𝑥−2 + (𝑥−2)2
𝑥 5 −4𝑥 4 +4𝑥 3 𝑥 3 𝑥 2 −4𝑥+4 𝑥 3 𝑥−2 2 𝑥
and this equation is an identity if 𝑥 ≠ 0, 2.

Rational Expressions 16
With these restrictions of values of 𝑥, we have
𝑥 4 + 𝑥 2 + 16𝑥 − 12 = 𝐴𝑥 2 𝑥 − 2 2 + 𝐵𝑥 𝑥 − 2 2 + 𝐶 𝑥 − 2 2 + 𝐷𝑥 3 𝑥 − 2 + 𝐸𝑥 3
= 𝐴𝑥 4 − 4𝐴𝑥 3 + 4𝐴𝑥 2 + 𝐵𝑥 3 − 4𝐵𝑥 2 + 4𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶𝑥 2 − 4𝐶𝑥 + 4𝐶 + 𝐷𝑥 4 − 2𝐷𝑥 3 + 𝐸𝑥 3
= 𝐴 + 𝐷 𝑥 4 + 𝐵 − 4𝐴 − 2𝐷 + 𝐸 𝑥 3 + 4𝐴 − 4𝐵 + 𝐶 𝑥 2 + 4𝐵 − 4𝐶 𝑥 + 4𝐶.
Hence, we have the following
1 𝐴+𝐷 =1
2 𝐵 − 4𝐴 − 2𝐷 + 𝐸 = 0
3 4𝐴 − 4𝐵 + 𝐶 = 1
4 4𝐵 − 4𝐶 = 16
5 4𝐶 = −12
implying that 𝐶 = −3. With this value of 𝐶 = −3, we can solve for 𝐵 by using equation
4𝐵 − 4𝐶 = 16, that is,
4𝐵 − 4(−3) = 16
4𝐵 + 12 = 16
4𝐵 = 4.
Thus 𝐵 = 1.

Rational Expressions 17
Since 𝐵 = 1 and 𝐶 = −3, it follows that
4𝐴 − 4𝐵 + 𝐶 = 1
4𝐴 − 4(1) + (−3) = 1
4𝐴 = 8
and so 𝐴 = 2.
If 𝐴 = 2, then
𝐴+𝐷 = 1
2 + 𝐷 = 1 ⟹ 𝐷 = −1.
At this point we have the values of the following:
𝐴 = 2, 𝐵 = 1, 𝐶 = −3 and 𝐷 = −1
and so using equation
𝐵 − 4𝐴 − 2𝐷 + 𝐸 = 0
we can now determine the value of 𝐸, that is,
1 − 4(2) − 2(−1) + 𝐸 = 0
𝐸 = 5.
Therefore
𝑥 4 + 𝑥 2 + 16𝑥 − 12 2 1 3 1 5
= + 2− 3− +
𝑥 5 − 4𝑥 4 + 4𝑥 3 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 − 2 (𝑥 − 2)2
Rational Expressions 18
Case 3. The factors of 𝑄(𝑥) are all linear and quadratic, and none of the quadratic factors is
repeated.
Note: The corresponding of the quadratic factor 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 in the denominator is the
partial fraction of the form
𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵
𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐
Example 4. Decompose the faction
𝑥2 − 𝑥 − 5
𝑥3 + 𝑥2 − 2
into partial fractions.

Solution:
Our aim is to find the factors of the denominator of the given rational expression and by
the Rational Root Theorem, we see that the possible rational roots of 𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 − 2 are ±1, ±2.
Let us test if 𝑥 = 1, we have (1)3 +(1)2 −2 = 0 and so by Factor Theorem, 𝑥 − 1 is a linear
factor of 𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 − 2. To find the other factors we apply the synthetic division.

Rational Expressions 19
 1 1 1 0 −2
1 2 2
1 2 2 0
Thus, 𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 − 2 = 𝑥 − 1 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 2 and so
𝑥 2 −𝑥−5 𝑥 2 −𝑥−5 𝐴 𝐵𝑥+𝐶
𝑥 3 +𝑥 2 −2
= 𝑥−1 𝑥 2 +2𝑥+2
= 𝑥−1 + 𝑥 2 +2𝑥+2
Observe that this equation is an identity provided that 𝑥 ≠ 1, hence we have
𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 5 = 𝐴 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 2 + (𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶)(𝑥 − 1)
= 𝐴𝑥 2 + 2𝐴𝑥 + 2𝐴 + 𝐵𝑥 2 − 𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶𝑥 − 𝐶
= 𝐴 + 𝐵 𝑥 2 + 2𝐴 − 𝐵 + 𝐶 𝑥 + 2𝐴 − 𝐶.
From this identity, we obtain the following:
(1) 𝐴 + 𝐵 = 1
2 2𝐴 − 𝐵 + 𝐶 = −1
3 2𝐴 − 𝐶 = −5
Adding equations (1) and (2), we obtain
𝐴+𝐵 =1
2𝐴 − 𝐵 + 𝐶 = −1
(4) 3𝐴 + 𝐶 = 0
Rational Expressions 20
Similarly, adding equations (3) and (4), we get
2𝐴 − 𝐶 = −5
3𝐴 + 𝐶 = 0
5𝐴 = −5
and this means that 𝐴 = −1 and consequently we have the following:
𝐴+𝐵 =1 2𝐴 − 𝐶 = −5
−1 + 𝐵 = 1 2 −1 − 𝐶 = −5
𝐵=2 𝐶=3
Therefore
𝑥 2 −𝑥−5 𝐴 𝐵𝑥+𝐶 −1 2𝑥+3 2𝑥+3 1
= 𝑥−1 + 𝑥 2 +2𝑥+2 = 𝑥−1 + 𝑥 2 +2𝑥+2 = 𝑥 2 +2𝑥+2 − 𝑥−1.
𝑥 3 +𝑥2 −2

Case 4. The factors of 𝑄(𝑥) are all linear and quadratic, and some of the quadratic factors are
repeated. If 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 is a 𝑝-fold quadratic factor of 𝑄(𝑥), then, corresponding to this
factor (𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐)𝑝 we have the sum of the following 𝑝 partial fractions:
𝐴1 𝑥 + 𝐵1 𝐴2 𝑥 + 𝐵2 𝐴2 𝑥 + 𝐵2 𝐴𝑝 𝑥 + 𝐵𝑝
+ + + ⋯ +
𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 2 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 3 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 𝑝

Rational Expressions 21
Example 5. Decompose the faction
3𝑥 4 − 12𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 2 + 11𝑥 + 4
𝑥 𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 − 2 2
into partial fractions.
Solution:
3𝑥 4 −12𝑥 3 +4𝑥 2 +11𝑥+4 𝐴 𝐵𝑥+𝐶 𝐷𝑥+𝐸
= + + and this equation is an identity if
𝑥 𝑥 2 −3𝑥−2 2 𝑥 𝑥 2 −3𝑥−2 𝑥 2 −3𝑥−2 2
3± 17
𝑥 ≠ 0, 2
.
With these restrictions, we get
3𝑥 4 − 12𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 2 + 11𝑥 + 4 = 𝐴 𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 − 2 2 + 𝑥 𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶 𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 − 2 + 𝑥(𝐷𝑥 + 𝐸)
= 𝐴𝑥 4 − 6𝐴𝑥 3 + 5𝐴𝑥 2 + 12𝐴𝑥 + 4𝐴 + 𝐵𝑥 4 − 3𝐵𝑥 3 − 2𝐵𝑥 2 + 𝐶𝑥 3 − 3𝐶𝑥 2 − 2𝐶𝑥 + 𝐷𝑥 2 + 𝐸𝑥
= 𝐴 + 𝐵 𝑥 4 + −6𝐴 − 3𝐵 + 𝐶 𝑥 3 + 5𝐴 − 2𝐵 − 3𝐶 + 𝐷 𝑥 2 + 12𝐴 − 2𝐶 + 𝐸 𝑥 + 4𝐴
Thus we have
(1) 𝐴 + 𝐵 = 3
(2) −6𝐴 − 3𝐵 + 𝐶 = −12
(3) 5𝐴 − 2𝐵 − 3𝐶 + 𝐷 = 4
(4) 12𝐴 − 2𝐶 + 𝐸 = 11
(5) 4𝐴 = 4
Rational Expressions 22
Equation (5) tells us that 𝐴 = 1 and so we have
(1) 1 + 𝐵 = 3 ⟺ 𝐵 = 2
(2) −6 1 − 3𝐵 + 𝐶 = −12 ⟺ −3𝐵 + 𝐶 = −6 ⟺ −3 2 + 𝐶 = −6 ⟺ 𝐶 = 0
(3) 5 1 − 2 2 − 3 0 + 𝐷 = 4 ⟺ 𝐷 = 3
(4) 12 1 − 2 0 + 𝐸 = 11 ⟺ 𝐸 = −1
(5) 4𝐴 = 4 ⟺ 𝐴 = 1
Therefore
𝐴 = 1, 𝐵 = 2, 𝐶 = 0, 𝐷 = 3 𝐸 = −1
and so
3𝑥 4 − 12𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 2 + 11𝑥 + 4 1 2𝑥 + 0 3𝑥 − 1
= + +
𝑥 𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 − 2 2 𝑥 𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 − 2 𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 − 2 2
1 2𝑥 3𝑥−1
= 𝑥 + 𝑥2 −3𝑥−2 + 𝑥 2 −3𝑥−2 2

Rational Expressions 23
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Precalculus 7th Edition. McGraw-Hill, c 2011
2. Aufmann, Barker & Nation. College Algebra & Trigonometry 7th Edition.
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3. Johnson, Richard E., et. al. Algebra and Trigonometry 2nd edition. California: Addison
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4. Leithold, Louis College Algebra and Trigonometry. Massachusetts: Addison –
Wesley Publishing Company, c1989
5. Miller, Charles D. Fundamentals of College Algebra. New York: Harper Collins
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6. Robinson N. Elements of Plane and Spherical Trigonometry. American Book
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Vance, Elbridge P. Modern Algebra and Trigonometry. Massachusetts: Addison-Wesley
Publishing Company, c1975
Rational Expressions 24