Microwave Communications

SMART EDGE ECE REVIEW SPECIALIST

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Microwave Communications Engineering

THE MEDIUM
Channel
Medium
Unguided Medium
Radio waves

Guided Medium
Fiber optic cables
Transmission Lines
Microwave Communications Engineering

MICROWAVE FUNDAMENTALS
Microwave
MICROWAVES are radio signals in the frequency
range from 1 to 300 GHz.
FREQUENCY
BAND APPLICATION
(GHz)
L 1–2 Military
S 2–4 Mobile navigation
C 4–8 Commercial Use
X 8 – 12 Military/Marine Radar
Ku 12 – 18 Commercial Use
K 18 – 27 Astronomical Observations
Ka 27 – 40 ISL

ITU-R Rec V.431-6

Microwave Communications
A wireless communication system that uses
high radio frequencies that provides
connections between two points

More commonly referred to as Line-of-Sight

(LOS) communications.
CLASSIFICATIONS OF MICROWAVE COMMUNICATIONS

According to Nature
1. Analog
 Uses AM and FM modulators

2. Digital
 Uses PSK and QAM
CLASSIFICATIONS OF MICROWAVE COMMUNICATIONS

According to Distance
1. Short Haul
 Path distance is short.
 No repeaters are used.

2. Long Haul
 Path distance is long.
 Radio repeaters are used.
APPLICATIONS OF MICROWAVE
 Telephone channels
 Data information
 Facsimile
 Video, especially conference TV
 Program channels
 Telemetry
Microwave Communications Engineering

MICROWAVE DEVICES
WAVEGUIDES
A hollow metal pipe with a circular or
rectangular cross section used for carrying
microwave signals from one place to another.
WAVEGUIDES
TWO WAVEGUIDE MODES
TE - transverse electric (TE) mode is one where
the electric field is transverse or perpendicular
to the direction of propagation.

TM - transverse magnetic (TM) mode is one

where the magnetic field is perpendicular to
the direction of propagation.
WAVEGUIDES
PROBLEM SOLVING: WAVEGUIDES
A rectangular waveguide has an inner cross
section of 8 by 16 mm. Considering TE10
mode and operating frequency of 10 GHz,
determine the:
a. Cut-off frequency
b. Cut-off wavelength
c. Waveguide impedance
d. Guide wavelength
e. Group velocity
f. Phase velocity
Microwave Tubes
Cavity Resonator
 A cavity resonator is a hollow conductor
blocked at both ends and along which an
electromagnetic wave can be supported. It
can be viewed as a waveguide short-circuited
at both ends
 It serves as parallel-tuned circuit and filter
Microwave Tubes
Magnetron
 A cross-field microwave tube oscillator in
which electrons circle around the cathode
under the influence of magnetic field
 The oldest microwave tube design
 It serves as a microwave oscillator
Microwave Tubes
Klystron
 A type of linear beam tube that uses velocity
modulation of the electron beam, used for
microwave amplification and oscillation.
 Reflex klystron – uses a single cavity for
oscillation
 Multicavity klystron – used as a power
amplifier
Microwave Tubes
Travelling Wave Tube
 a linear-beam microwave that is used to
amplify microwave signals to a high power
Semiconductor Devices
Gunn Diode
 a microwave semiconductor device used to
generate microwave energy.
 When combined with a microstrip, stripline or
resonant cavity, simple low power oscillators
with frequencies up to 50 GHz are easily
implemented.
Semiconductor Devices
Varactor Diodes
 Widely used as microwave frequency
multipliers. Multiplication factors of 2 and 3
are common with power levels up to 20 W
and efficiencies up to 80 percent.
Semiconductor Devices
Step Recovery Diodes
 Also used as frequency multipliers with
multiplication factors up to 10, power ratings
up to 50 W. and efficiencies approaching 80
percent.
Semiconductor Devices
Schottky (Hot Carrier) Diodes
 widely uses as mixers in microwave
equipment as they have low capacitance and
inductance.
Couplers
Isolator
 a waveguide device that has low loss in one
direction and high in the other, providing
isolation
Couplers
Circulator
 is a device with three or more parts that
allows an input on one port to emerge only at
next port in order
Microwave Communications Engineering

TEST YOURSELF QUESTIONS

 TEST YOURSELF QUESTIONS
• The microwave frequency range is considered
to start at:
A. 100 MHz
B. 1 GHz
C. 10 GHz
D. 100 GHz
 TEST YOURSELF QUESTIONS
• The dominant mode of a rectangular
waveguide is:
A. TE01
B. TE10
C. TE11
D. TE12
 TEST YOURSELF QUESTIONS
• A resonant cavity is a type of:
A. tuned circuit
B. defect in a waveguide
C. antenna
D. none of the above
 TEST YOURSELF QUESTIONS
• An "isolator" is a device that:
A. isolates frequencies in a waveguide
B. allows a signal to pass in one direction only
C. separates signals among various ports
D. prevents microwaves from being "trapped" in a
waveguide
 TEST YOURSELF QUESTIONS
• The device commonly used in microwave
ovens is the:
A. klystron
B. YIG
C. magnetron
D. TWT
 TEST YOURSELF QUESTIONS
• When the beam generated by the electron
gun in a klystron amplifier passes a high-
frequency electric field, what will happen?
A. The electron beam is slowed down.
B. The electron beam is accelerated further.
C. The electron beam is deflected back to the gun.
D. Nothing happens, it is unaffected.
 TEST YOURSELF QUESTIONS
• What is the purpose of the attenuator in a
TWT?
A. There is no attenuator in TWT.
B. To slow down the electron beam like the
buncher cavity.
C. To amplify the signal further.
D. To prevent oscillation.
Microwave Communications Engineering

TERRESTRIAL MICROWAVE
COMMUNICATIONS
TERRESTRIAL MICROWAVE COMMUNICATIONS

TERRESTRIAL COMMUNICATIONS use microwave

frequencies to transmit information in a line-of-
sight or space wave propagation.
PATH PROFILE
Types of Path
• Line of sight – the straight path between a
transmitting and receiving antenna
unobstructed by the horizon.
• Grazing path – the microwave beam barely
touches the obstruction (zero clearance)
• Obstructed path – the microwave beam is
hindered by an obstruction
PARAMETERS
Radio Horizon - the point beyond the true
(geometrical horizon) at which reception of an
LOS wave is just discernible. This is about 4/3
times further than the optical horizon.
SAMPLE PROBLEM
Determine the radio horizon in miles given that
the antenna heights in site A and site B are equal
to 80 ft.
PARAMETERS
K – Factor – a numerical figure that considers the non-
ideal condition of the atmosphere resulting to
atmospheric refraction that causes the ray beam to be
bent toward the earth or away from the earth

where Ns - surface refractivity

Re – effective earth radius
Ro – 6370 km
K-FACTOR
SAMPLE PROBLEM
Determine the K- factor for a surface refractivity
of 301.
PARAMETER
Earth Bulge – the height an obstacle is raised
higher in elevation, owing to the earth curvature
SAMPLE PROBLEM
Calculate the earth bulge 2 miles away from a
transmitter for a 25 mile microwave link.
Assume a k of 4/3.
PARAMETER
Fresnel Zone – a region near an object where
diffraction effects are significant, this is one of
the conical zones that exist between microwave
transmitting and receiving antennas due to
cancellation of some portions of the wavefront
by other portions that travel different distances
PARAMETER
nth Fresnel Radius
PARAMETER
Fresnel Clearance - expressed as 60% of the first
Fresnel radius. This is the additional factor that
must be added to the height of an obstacle to
avoid problems in with diffraction.
SAMPLE PROBLEM
A SCADA link operates at 952 MHz and is 4 mi
long. What Fresnel zone clearance is required at
1.9 mi from one end?
PARAMETER
Total Effective Height – the total height a LOS
wave must clear (height that should be added in
the antenna height) in order to have an
unobstructed communication from transmitter
to receiver.

Total effective height = earth bulge + Fresnel

clearance + vegetation
SAMPLE PROBLEM
Solve for the total height in feet for an obstacle
situated 27 miles away from a 35-mile
microwave system, assuming if a tree growth
exists, add 40 feet for the trees and 10 feet for
additional growth. Assume f = 6 GHz and
standard earth condition.
LINK CALCULATIONS
 Effective Isotropic Radiated Power (EIRP)
 Free Space Loss (FSL)
 Isotropic Receiver Level (IRL)
 Receive Signal Level (RSL)
 Receiver Noise Threshold
 Carrier-to-Noise Ratio (C/N)
 Fade Margin (FM)
PATH CALCULATIONS
EFFECTIVE ISOTROPIC RADIATED POWER (EIRP)

EIRP is defined as the power radiated by an

antenna in its favored direction, taking the gain
of the antenna into account as referenced to the
isotropic radiator.
SAMPLE PROBLEM
What is the effective radiated power (ERP) of a
repeater with a 250 W transmitting power
output, 3 dB feedline loss, 4 dB duplexer loss, 5
dB circulator loss and feedline antenna gain of
20 dB
A. 1577.39 W
B. 1571.89 W
C. 1572.21 W
D. 1573.63 W
FREE SPACE LOSS (FSL)
Loss incurred by an electromagnetic wave as it
propagates in a straight line through a vacuum
with no absorption or reflection of energy from
nearby objects.
FREE SPACE LOSS (FSL)
SAMPLE PROBLEM
What is the free-space loss, in dB, between two
microwave parabolic antennas 38.0 kilometers
apart operating at 7.0 GHz?
A. 145.61 dB
B. 138.52 dB
C. 135.53 dB
D. 140.89 dB
ISOTROPIC RECEIVE LEVEL (IRL)
The RF signal level impinging on the far end
receive antenna as if it were an isotropic
antenna.
This is the signal level at the receiving antenna,
i.e., it is the EIRP minus the total path loss.
SAMPLE PROBLEM
Calculate the IRL of a radiolink where the EIRP is
28 dBW, the FSL is 137.25 dB, and the
atmospheric gaseous absorption loss is 0.6 dB
A. -109.85 dBW
B. -107.58 dBW
C. -105.85 dBW
D. -108.88 dBW
RECEIVE SIGNAL LEVEL (RSL)
It is simply the level of signal at the receiving
end of the transmission.
SAMPLE PROBLEM
A transmitter and receiver operating at 6 GHz are
separated by 40 km. How much power (in dBm) in
delivered to the receiver if the transmitter has an
output power of 2 W, the transmitting antenna has a
gain of 20 dBi, and the receiving antenna has a gain
of 25 dBi?
A. –59.8 dBm
B. –82 dBm
C. –62 dBm
D. –72 dBm
SAMPLE PROBLEM
Calculate the RSL in dBW where the transmitter output
power to the waveguide flange is 750 mW, the
transmission line losses at each end are 3.4 dB, the
distance between the transmitter and receiver site is 17
statute miles, and the operating frequency is 7.1 GHz;
the antenna gains are 30.5 dB at each end. Assume a
gaseous absorption loss of 0.3 dB.
A. -86.65 dBW
B. -85.58 dBW
C. -87.65 dBW
D. -84.56 dBW
RECEIVER NOISE THRESHOLD
This is the noise threshold brought to by the
receiver.
The RSL must be greater than this level by a
several decibels (which is the unfaded C/N at
this case) to ensure proper link connectivity.
SAMPLE PROBLEM
Determine the noise power (in dBW) for a link,
having a bandwidth of 10 MHz and a noise
figure of 10 dB.
A. -134 dBW
B. -124 dBW
C. -104 dBW
D. -94 dBW
CARRIER – TO – NOISE RATIO
The ratio of the minimum wideband carrier
power at the input to a receiver that will provide
a useable baseband output.
However, this is for unfaded assumptions only.
SAMPLE PROBLEM
Determine the unfaded C/N for a link whose RSL
in dBW is -85.56, having a bandwidth of 10 MHz
and a noise figure of 10 dB. Also, calculate the
noise input power.
A. 38.44 dB
B. 39.44 dB
C. 40.44 dB
D. 41.44 dB
FM IMPROVEMENT THRESHOLD (IT)
Improvement of the noise threshold to employ
the ‘capture effect’ on FM receivers
FADE MARGIN (FM)
A fudge factor included in the system gain
equation that considers the practical and non-
ideal less predictable characteristics of radio
propagations such as multipath propagation and
terrain sensitivity.
FADE MARGIN (FM)
FADE MARGIN (FM)
SAMPLE PROBLEM 
AN FM LOS microwave link operates at 6.15 GHz. The
required receiver IF bandwidth is 20 MHz. The
transmitter output power is 30 dBm. The receiver
front end’s first active mixer has a noise figure of 9 dB.
The path length is 21 miles, the antennas at each end
have a 35 dB gain and the transmission line losses at
each end are 3 dB. If the FM improvement threshold
is used as the unfaded reference, determine the
system reliability of the radio link.
ANS: 99.983%
OUTAGE TIME
The time that the microwave system will not
meet the necessary requirement/ full
connectivity in a given period of time.
SAMPLE PROBLEM
What is the outage time per year of a microwave
link that has a reliability of 99.9999%
A. 32 mins
B. 32 secs
C. 32 hrs
D. 32 days
Microwave Communications Engineering

TEST YOURSELF QUESTIONS

 TEST YOURSELF QUESTIONS
• Another term for a single microwave link is a:
A. section
B. skip
C. hop
D. jump
 TEST YOURSELF QUESTIONS
• The microwave signal path should clear
obstacles by at least:
A. 60% of the Faraday zone
B. 60% of the height of the antenna tower
C. 60% of the first Fresnel zone
D. 60% of the highest obstacle height
 TEST YOURSELF QUESTIONS
• If the line-of-sight distance for an optical beam
is 12 km, what would it be, approximately, for
a microwave beam?
A. 12 km
B. 16 km
C. 14 km
D. 17 km
 TEST YOURSELF QUESTIONS
• A single microwave path radio link has a path
distance of 30 km. It operates at 6 GHz.
Calculate the third Fresnel zone radius at a
distance of 12 km.
A. 19.89 m
B. 41.68 m
C. 32.82 m
D. 58.95 m
 TEST YOURSELF QUESTIONS
• The k factor under normal atmospheric
conditions in a microwave radio data profile
calculation is
A. 2/3
B. 0
C. 4/3
D. 1
 TEST YOURSELF QUESTIONS
• To install an antenna with an LOS transmission
at a distance of 75 miles, determine the height
of a receiving antenna if the transmitting
antenna is 250 ft.
A. 1385 ft
B. 600 ft
C. 400 ft
D. 255 ft
 TEST YOURSELF QUESTIONS
• An X band radar operates in which frequency
band?
A. 1 - 2 GHz
B. 2 - 4 GHz
C. 4 - 8 GHz
D. 8 - 12 GHz
 TEST YOURSELF QUESTIONS
• If K-factor is greater than 1, the array beam is
bent
A. away from the earth
B. towards the ionosphere
C. towards the earth
D. towards the outer space
 TEST YOURSELF QUESTIONS
• Rainfall is important factor for fading of radio
waves at frequencies above
A. 10 GHz
B. 100 GHz
C. 1 GHz
D. 100 MHz
 TEST YOURSELF QUESTIONS
• The microwave beam curves the same as that
of the earth when the value of the correction
factor k equals
A. 0
B. 4/3
C. 2/3
D. infinity
Microwave Communications Engineering

DIVERSITY
DIVERSITY
Diversity suggests that there is more than one
transmission path or method or transmission
available between a transmitter and a receiver.
Frequency Diversity
Space Diversity
Polarization Diversity
Hybrid Diversity
Quad Diversity
FREQUENCY DIVERSITY
It is simply modulating two different RF carrier
frequencies with the same IF intelligence, then
transmitting both RF signals to a given
destination.
FREQUENCY DIVERSITY
SPACE DIVERSITY
The output of the transmitter is fed to two or
more antennas that are physically separated by
an appreciable number of wavelengths.
SPACE DIVERSITY
POLARIZATION DIVERSITY
A single RF carrier is propagated with two
different electromagnetic polarization either
vertical or horizontal.
It used in conjunction with space diversity.
HYBRID DIVERSITY
 Consists of standard frequency-diversity path
where the two transmitter/receiver pairs at
one end of the path are separated from each
other and connected to antennas that are
vertically separated as in space diversity.
QUAD DIVERSITY
 Provides the most reliable transmission.
 It combines frequency, space, polarization,
and receiver diversity into one system.
DIVERSITY AND HOT STANDBY
Hot Standby protection
– Each working radio channel has dedicated backup
or spare channel.
Diversity protection
– A single back-up channel is made available to as
many as 11 working channels.
Microwave Communications Engineering

TEST YOURSELF QUESTIONS

 TEST YOURSELF QUESTIONS
• A fade margin of 28 dB has a reliability of
A. 99%
B. 99.9%
C. 99.99%
D. 99.999%
 TEST YOURSELF QUESTIONS
• What would be the ERP, in watts, if the
transmitter output is 30 dBm and the
waveguide loss is 20 dB and the antenna
connected to it has a power gain of 60 dB?
A. 10000 watts
B. 1000 watts
C. 100 watts
D. 10 watts
 TEST YOURSELF QUESTIONS
• Determine the gain of a 6 ft parabolic dish
operating at 1800 MHz.
A. 30 dB
B. 11.2 dB
C. 15.5 dB
D. 28.17 dB
 TEST YOURSELF QUESTIONS
• How many receiving antenna(s) are used with
frequency diversity?
a. 1
b. 2
c. 3
d. 4
 TEST YOURSELF QUESTIONS
• A type of diversity reception, where the
output of the transmitter is fed to two or more
antennas that are physically separated by an
appreciable number of wavelengths.
a. Frequency
b. Space
c. Angle
d. Polarization
 TEST YOURSELF QUESTIONS
• A ship-to-ship communications system is
plagued by fading. The best solution seems to
be the use of
a. A more directional antenna
b. A broadband antenna
c. Frequency diversity
d. Space diversity
 TEST YOURSELF QUESTIONS
• The extra strength needed in order to assure
that enough signal reaches the receiving
antenna and must be made available to
compensate for fades; computed as the
difference between the received signal strength
and the threshold level
a. Fade Margin
b. Threshold Level
c. Noise Figure
d. RSL
 TEST YOURSELF QUESTIONS
• These are re concentric circular zones about a
direct path of a microwave signal called
Huygens’ radiation center, forming an
imaginary solid called an ellipsoid
a. temperature zone
b. skip zone
c. Fresnel zone
d. Fraunhoffer zone
END OF SESSION 

ENGR. TIMOTHY M. AMADO

Instructor, Technological University of the Philippines – Manila
tim_amado@yahoo.com/0932-8672868