PPT2: JAPANESE LITERATURE The cultural history of Japan is divided into three

periods: ANCIENT, MEDIEVAL, and MODERN.

During the Archaic period of the Ancient Age,
JAPAN – Land of the Rising Sun
CHINESE SCRIPT was introduced in Japan by
Do you know why Japan is called The Land of the
Wani. The NARA period was the GOLDEN AGE of
Rising Sun?
Japanese court poetry.
- The Japanese flag is made up of a red
circle, symbolizing the sun (hinomaru),
NARA PERIOD
against a white background. Because Japan
• During this period, lyric verses on nature, love and
lies at the far West of the Pacific Ocean, the
death in the form of tanka and choka were written.
sun rises spectacularly over the sea to the
• The tanka has a very definite form. It is composed
East.
of the five lines of 31 syllables (5, 7, 5, 7, 7
syllables on each line). The combination of five
JAPAN: INTRO
and seven syllables is a basic Japanese rhythm.
Ancient Japanese chronicles and legends state that
• This period produced two important books: THE
the first emperor Jimmu Tenno ruled from 660
KOJIKI (Records of Ancient Matters, 712 A.D.)
B.C. The first inhabitants of Japan may have been
and THE NIHON SHOKI (Chronicles of Japan,
the Ainu, a pale-skinned people. Families in Japan
720 A.D.)
used to be big but now smaller families are
• In the second half of the 18th century,
common.
MANYOSHU (Collection of Ten Thousand
Leaves), the first and largest anthology of
The old way of life has not entirely disappeared
Japanese poetry was compiled.
despite Japan’s tremendous change resulting from
industrialization. Love of nature is very reflected in
MANYOSHU
the ancient religion of SHINTO, and Japanese form
• It contains 4516 poems; 262 are CHOKA or long
of BUDDHISM. Followers of SHINTO for example,
poems and the rest are TANKA.
worship the spirits of trees, rocks, mountains,
• CHOKA is a narrative poem alternating five and
rivers, and other forces of nature.
seven syllable line. Some Choka have 150 lines.
• The Choka is followed by a HANKA which is
similar to the envoy or envoi, a short concluding
stanza found in French ballad.
• HANKA has the form of TANKA.
 After Manyoshu, Japanese poets stopped
writing CHOKA, only the TANKA has
survived until today.

THEMES OF TRADITIONAL JAPANESE

POETRY
• Repressed love
• Sorrow of parting
• World weariness
Characteristics of Japanese Literature • Apprehension by earthly evanescence
1. Japanese literature is voluminous.
2. Chinese characters occupy the most important KOJIKI
places in the alphabet • Contains the very first tanka composed by one of
3. A large portion of the literary works was written the ancestors of the Japanese royal family.
by women. • Is considered as the first history book of Japan.
• Prince Susa-no-wo-no Mikoto wrote this tanka
when his new palace was built for him and his wife:
Yagumatatsu Eightfold fence of Izumo
Izumo yaegaki Where eight clouds rise
Tsumagomi ni I make an eight fold fence
Yaegaki tsukuru To surround my wife –
Sono yaegaki o That eightfold fence!
HEIAN PERIOD
• This period was highlighted by the “Collection of
Ancient and Modern Poems” of the KOKINSHU,
completed in 905 A.D. by Imperial order.
• KOKINSHU, written in hiragana, contains a total
of
1,111 tanka.
• In the history of Japanese poetry, the prefaces of
Kokinshu which was written by Kio no Tsurayuki
served as a kind of declaration of independence
from
Chinese poetry.
• Great literary figures during this period were
mostly
women: Lady Murasaki Shikibu (Tale of Genji”),
Shei
Shonagon (“Pillow Book”) and Sugazawara
Takasue no
Musume (“Sarashina Diaries”)
• The Ryojin Hisho was compiled, a collection of
popular songs called imayo (modern-style
songs).
• Imayo has four lines, composing of alternating
lines of five and seven syllables. These imayo
were written by unknown poets for lower-class
audiences such as farmers, artisans and
merchants.
• In contrast, tanka were written by courtiers,
aristocrats, and priests.
8th – 9th CENTURIES
• Japan’s great “borrowing” ages in terms of
culture and civilization.
• During this period, China was the model of
Japan.
• The Japanese government sent official students,
priests, scholars, and artisans to study and learn
from China during the T’ang Dynasty (618-906).
• The T’ang Dynasty was China’s golden age and
China then was the most advanced nation in the
world. With the decline of the T’ang Dynasty, Japan
severed its relationship with China; thus, Japan’s
first “borrowing” age has ended.
KAMAKURA PERIOD
• The period which saw the rise of the Samurai
class.
• They meant “servants”, low in rank and even
regarded as uneducated.
• Gradually, they acquired political power because
they had weapons.
• During this period, renga (linked verse) became
popular, it is not just composed by a single person.
It
is a group poem; it required cooperative effort.
• A renga gathering is a social gathering.
• Renga composition is usually done by people
while
drinking and conversing.
• A renga has no plot but moves along a sequence
of
separated poetic images linked loosely by
association.
• There are two types of renga: Tan renga (short
linked
verse) and the other is kusari renga (chain
renga).
MUROMACHI PERIOD
• The period which continued renga-writing.
• While battles were waged in many areas in Japan,
warriors had renga parties and invited masters
while
fighting was still in progress.
• The shogum Ashikaga Yoshimasa was
composing
renga as Kyoto burned.
• Two prominent works: An Account of my Hut by
Komo No Chomei and Essays in Idleness by
Yoshida
Kenko.
TOKUGAWA PERIOD
• This period saw the emergence of three HAIKU
poets:
BASHO (1644-1694), BUSON (1716-1783), and
ISSA
(1763-1827).
• The HAIKU is also known as hokku and haikai.
• A haiku as defined by Haiku Society of America is
an
unrhymed Japanese poem recording the essence
of a
moment keenly perceived which is linked to human
nature.
• It usually consists of 17 Onji (Japanese sound-
symbols) in three parts of five, seven, five onji
each.
• Basho, who first developed the haiku said: “The
haiku is a matter of juxtaposition. A man who brings
two elements together and does it well is a skillful
poet.”. Most of his haikus are inspired by his
devotion to Zen Buddhism.
• Toriawase or juxtaposition means mixing or
putting two elements or images together.
-Example of Haiku by Basho (translated by R.H.
Blyth)
Umi kurete The sea darkens
Kamo no koe The voices of the wild ducks
Honokami shiroshi Are faintly – white
Analysis
• This haiku has one image of a darkening sea, and
to his image, Basho added another image “the
voices of the wild ducks are faintly-white.”
• The combination of two elements – the dark sea
and faintly-white voices of wild ducks – succeeded
in bringing about a certain poetic effect: the
loneliness of the seashore.
• Buson is the second best haiku poet after
Basho.
• He is a son of well-to-do farmer.
• Buson’s haiku are more colorful and
picturesque than Basho’s. He captured nature
with eyes of a painter.
Example of Haiku by Buson (translated by H.G.
Henderson)
Yellow rape in bloom;
In the west there is the sun
In the east, the moon.
Analysis: Rape flowers are brilliant yellow, typical
spring flowers in Japan’s country side. The time in
this haiku is afternoon in spring. The sun is setting
while the moon is rising.
HAIKU
• Kobayashi Issa, a son of a middle-class farmer,
was a contemporary of William Blake.
• Unhappy experiences led him to wander and his
sentiments are reflected in his haiku.
Most Important Books in Japan
 Kojiki - - Records of Ancient Matters
- about the creation of the world, gods and
goddesses and fact about the early history
of Japan
 Nihongi - -Chronicles of Japan
-composed of poetry that shows the
influence of Japan
TRIVIAS
Japan, is made up of 6,852 islands.
Japan, has the highest life expectancy in the world.
There are now over 55,000 Japanese people over
100 years old.
Sleeping at work in Japan is seen as acceptable as
it is viewed as exhaustion from dedication to one's
job.
Japan was once a closed country under Tokugawa
shogunate from 1633- 1853.
Did you know that Anne Hathaway, Ellen
Degeneres, Oprah Winfrey and Pamela Anderson
are fond of collecting and reading haikus?
POETRY
- can be written, spoken, or chanted, and some are
written using Chinese Language
Types of Poetry
1. WAKA – has the general meaning of
"poetry in Japanese”
2. HAIKU – 3 lines with a distribution of 5, 7,
and 5
3. KANSHI – poetry written in Chinese by
Japanese poets
4. TANKA - with five lines having a 5–7–5–7–
7 metre
SHORT STORY - - it is ambiguous because of
grammar and most topics are about gender,
religion and social status
FOLKTALES - it has been influenced by foreign
literature in terms of their theme and topics
Japanese DRAMA and POETRY
Drama
 Favorite form of entertainment
 About history, tradition and lives of gods
and goddesses
 Setting is always in Japan
Types of Drama : Noh Play, Joruri or Puppet
Play, Kabuki Play
 Noh Play
 National theatre of Japan
 Reserved for the nobility
 Originated from the gods’ dance
 Dramatic art from that has no special
settings except for a stylized painting of a
pine tree which is a permanent feature of a
Noh Stage.
  Actors may wear or may not wear masks. I do not cry though.
The mask is considered as a highly refined
theatrical device. An old silent pond…
A frog jumps into the pond,
 Joruri or Puppet Play Splash! Silence again.
 Very popular
 Lifelike in size
 Type of chanted recitative that came to be
used as a script in bunraku puppet drama
 derived from the Jōrurihime monogatari, a
15th-century romantic tale, the leading
character of which is Lady Jōruri
o Bunraku - Gives life and soul to
inanimate dolls
- Black robes and masks worn by
doll-manipulators signify non-
existence
- Doll manipulators are considered to
be invisible to the audiences.

 Kabuki Play
 Very popular
 Less intellectual, more realistic and
sensational, the actions themselves are the
focus of attentions, not on realism or the
written words

Contemporary Japanese Writers

 Kawabata Yasunari
 Kawagihashi Hekigoto
 Kawatake Mokuami
 Hegiwara Sakutaro
 Hayashi Fumiko
 Oe Kenzaburo

Poetry
 Favorite among Japanese
 Writing a poem is a required ability among
aristocratic

Man’yoshu
 Oldest collection of poetry
 “Collection of Myriad Leaves

Haiku
 Shortest form of Japanese poetry
 Seventeen syllables; three lines of five-
seven- five syllables
 “Matsuo Basho” – Father of Haiku
 Topic is Nature
 1st and 2nd line- image & 3rd- conclusion Appreciating Japanese Poetry
 Haiku, the famous poem which originated in
Examples Japan, evolved from Tanka, a 31 – syllable
A fat bee stings me, poem in five lines of 5-7-5-7-7 syllables
It hurts very badly but, respectively.
OKUJO NO KYOJIN – THE MADMAN ON THE ROOF
By Kan Kikuchi
Hiroshi Kikuchi (December 26, 1888 – March 6,
1948), known by his pen name Kan Kikuchi (which uses
the same kanji as his real name), was a Japanese author
born in Takamatsu, Kagawa Prefecture, Japan.
He established the publishing company
Bungeishunjū, the monthly magazine of the same
name, the Japan Writer's Association and both the
Akutagawa and Naoki Prize for popular literature.
He was also the head of Daiei Motion Picture
Company (currently Kodakawa Pictures). He is known to
have been an avid player of Mahjong.
His reputation as a versatile and prolific
author between World Wars I and II brought him the
unofficial title of BUNDAN NO AGOSHO or “Prince of
the Literary World”
Characters:
 KATSUSHIMA YOSHITARO, the madman,
twenty-four years of age
 KATSUSHIMA SUEJIRO, his brother, a
seventeen-year-old high school student
 KATSUSHIMA GISUKE, their father
 KATSUSHIMA OYOSHI, their mother
 TOSAKU, a neighbor
 KICHIJI, a manservant, twenty years of age
 A PRIESTESS, about fifty years of age
Setting:
Time: Meiji, in the Thirties (1900)
Place: an island off the coast of Sanuki in the Inland
Sea.
What is the original title of the drama?
The Madman on the Roof: Overview
● Original Title: The Housetop Madman (1916)
● Translated from the Japanese by Glenn W. Shaw
● Published by Hokuseido, Tokyo, 1925
The Madman of the Roof
• The Madman of the Roof is a Japanese play written in
1916. The conversation is written in a script or
dialogues and being played by actors and actresses.
• It is a short, funny story about a father who is
concerned about his 24-year-old son, who climbs on the
roof to watch the sunset.
What is the plot of the drama?
Flow of Events
 Gisuke was trying to make his son, Yoshitaro, to
go down the roof.
 Gisuke ordered Kichiji, their servant, to get
Yoshitaro on the roof. Kichiji went outside to
get a ladder.
 Tosaku, their neighbor, entered the house and
noticed what was happening in the house. And
he recognized that it was Yoshitaro again on the
roof. Then Tosaku recommended a Holy woman
who could cure Yoshitaro.
 The encounter between the Holy
Woman/Priestess and Yoshitaro happened.
 The Holy Woman/Priestess started her healing
procedure.
 Suejiro entered and rescued his brother
Yoshitaro.
 Suejiro defended and reasoned out his
brother’s condition with their parents. The Holy
Woman/Priestess got out of the scene.
 Suejiro justified his brother’s side and condition.
 Their parents understood and accepted the
truth about their eldest son.
 Brotherly love prevails and made the family
unite and compromise.
Themes:
● Perception in Life ● Sanity ● Nature
Cultural Background
• Although this drama is brief, it gives considerable
insight into the life of the common people during a
period of social change.
• The dichotomy of generations is dramatized in the
conflict between the father and his younger son who
rejects religious superstition and speaks in behalf of
modern scientific methods.
• Nevertheless, an undercurrent of Zen thought may be
sensed in the concluding emphasis on the soaring spirit
of the “mad” elder brother and his apparent ability to
communicate directly with the gods.
This is absolutely a SHINGEKI play, yet there are several
opportunities for the introduction of traditional
methods of production.
SHINGEKI play (New Drama) – based on modern ELED 3 REVIEWER
realism.
PPT2: VERBS
In this KABUKI THEATRE, Earle Ernst points out Stative Verbs
that supposedly realistic dramas given in Japan’s ● believe ● understand ● remember ● impress ●
Shingeki theaters may still be so heavily influenced by dislike
Dynamic Verbs
the traditions of Noh and Kabuki that playing time is
● squash ● enjoy ● explain ● listen ● return
almost doubled.
The mie, the dance, and other stylized methods VERBS: DEFINITION
can be introduced in a variety ways. In a staging of the - shows action
Madman on the Roof, one can imagine the use of an - links another word to the subject
effective dance sequence in the scene of the priestess’s - helps another verb
incantations, or of the mie performed by the younger - Indicates existence
brother when he breaks upon this scene.
Sometimes the verb is a single word; other times,
In fact, Kikuchi Kan seems to prepare the way for the the verb is made up of two or more words called a
mie when, in his stage instructions, he says that Sujiero VERB PHRASE.
“stands amazed at the scene before him.
A VERB PHRASE consists of a main verb plus one or
Mie more helping verbs.
Powerful and emotional pose struck by an actor, who - Sometimes a verb phrase is interrupted by
then freezes for a moment, distinctive element of other words. Example: My songs and poems
aragoto Kabuki performance shall not always be heard.

KINDS OF VERBS ACCORDING TO USE

1. ACTION VERB (Transitive/Intransitive)
2. NON-ACTION VERB (Linking
Verb/Copulative)

TRANSITIVE VERB - Expresses an action which

passes from the subject to a direct object or when the
subject is acted upon. It needs a receiver of the action
or a direct object.

INGTRANSITIVE VERB - Does not need an object or

receiver of its action.
 bear bore born
befall befell befallen
bleed bled bled
bet bet bet
beat beat beaten
LINKING VERB - Non-action word that connects the bind bound bound
subject to a word in the predicate. The word linked to bite bit bitten
the subject may be a noun, a pronoun, or an adjective blow blew blown
that identifies or describes the subject. bring brought brought
build built built
burst burst burst
Catch caught caught
choose chosen Chosen
come came Come
creep crept Crept
cut cut cut
do did Done
draw drew Drawn
drink drank Drunk
Eat ate Eaten
find found Found
flee fled fled
Fly flew flown
get got Got/gotten
give gave given
go went Gone
grow grew grown
hang hung hung
hurt hurt hurt
hide hid hidden
hear heard heard
keep kept kept
know knew known
let let let
lead led led
Lay laid laid
(put/place)
read read read
ride rode ridden
ring rang rung
KINDS OF VERBS ACCORDING TO FORM Rise (ascend) rose risen
a) REGULAR - Forms their past and past run ran run
participle by adding –d or – ed to their simple see saw seen
form seek Sought sought
b) IRREGULAR - Form their past tense and past stand Stood stood
participle by undergoing certain changes other steal stole stolen
than by simply adding –d or –ed. (Forms have to swim swam swum
be memorized) take took taken
teach taught taught
PRESENT PAST PAST throw threw thrown
PARTCIPLE wear wore worn
am (is, be) was been wake woke woken
begin began begun wring wrung wrung
bend bent Bent slay slain slain
 speak spoke spoken a) SIMPLE PRESENT TENSE - - expresses current
Spend spent spent events, recurring events, and general facts
send sent sent EXAMPLES:
sink sank sunk There is a shady park down the block.
feel felt felt I paint a portrait of my cat every week.
sit sat sat Mary hears a noise in the attic.
split split split 1. I walk.
2. She walks.
1. Zap – REGULAR (zap-zapped) 3. Samanea sainan, a tropical tree, collects
2. exchange – REGULAR (exchange-exchanged) moisture in its pods during the day, and each
3. lie (rest/recline) – IRREGULAR (lie-lay-lain) morning dumps it in a form of heavy downpour.
4. tear – IRREGULAR (tear-tore-torn) b) PRESENT PROGRESSIVE - - expresses
5. seek – IRREGULAR (seek-sought-sought)
continuous actions.
6. investigate – REGULAR (investigate-
EXAMPLES:
investigated)
7. freeze – IRREGULAR (freeze-froze-frozen) I am reading a letter.
8. forgive – IRREGULAR (forgive-forgave-forgiven) The car is running at high speed.
9. cast – IRREGULAR (cast-cast-cast) Michael and Anna are always working in the
10. garnish – REGULAR (garnish-garnished) library.
c) PRESENT PERFECT - - expresses a completed
 lie – lied – lied (lying to someone) event that is still relevant to the present
 lay – laid – laid (put/place) EXAMPLES:
 lie – lay – lain (rest/recline) I have read several of Shaw’s novels.
She has seen him every Saturday this month.
VERB Jed has sampled six ice cream flavors so far.
● Every sentence needs a verb. - indicates action, being, or state of being
● Verbs are influenced by tense, aspect, and mood. completed in the present time.
VERB TENSE EX. Methods of farming have improved greatly.
● indicates when the action expressed by a verb takes - uses has/have + past participle of the verb.
place d) PRESENT PERFECT PROGRESSIVE - - expresses a
● refers to when the action occurred continuous action that began in the past and
● set sentences in time periods. continues into the present.
VERB ASPECT EXAMPLES:
● refers to the flow of time I have been standing on this corner for six
● addresses whether or not the action takes place in a hours.
single block of time or if the action is continuous or She has been dreaming of becoming an actress
repeated since she was ten.
VERB TENSES Even though it’s raining, that Girl Scout has
● Present (Simple Present, Present Progressive, Present been selling cookies all day.
Perfect, Present Perfect Progressive
● Past (Simple Past, Past Progressive, Past Perfect, Past 2. PAST TENSE
Perfect Progressive) - denotes an action that was completed in a definite
● Future (Simple Future, Future Progressive, Future time in the past
Perfect, Future Perfect Progressive) - used for actions that started and finished in the past
1. PRESENT TENSE - can also be used when discussing hypothetical
- denotes a habitual action or anything that is true in situations
the present or in general e) SIMPLE PAST - - expresses a past event:
- expresses unchanging actions and states of being EXAMPLES:
- is also used with recurring actions and with universal Last week, I read several of Shaw’s novels.
or widespread truths. The mother took her son to the beach every day
- can also be used to express basic facts or last summer.
circumstances that are continuous. The book sat on the shelf, collecting dust.
1. I walked.
2. She ran.
 3. Gossain, a city judge of Imphal India who
suffered from inverted vision, presided over
trials for a period of 19 years while standing on
his head.
f) PAST PROGRESSIVE - - expresses a continuous
action in the past:
EXAMPLES:
She was giving a presentation when the
microphone broke.
The computer was downloading the file for 20
minutes.
During their first year, the puppies were
growing at an alarming rate.
g) PAST PERFECT - - expresses a completed action
from the past:
- - indicates completed or perfected action
before some definite time in the past
- uses had + past participle
EXAMPLES:
I had already seen him that morning. As soon as
my car had been repaired, I continued my trip.
The power had gone out by then.
Methods of farming had improved greatly after
the government implemented new agricultural
policies.
h) PAST PERFECT PROGRESSIVE - - expresses a
continuous, completed action that had taken
place in the past:
EXAMPLES:
I had been listening to the radio when she
dropped in.
The car had been running smoothly until the
exhaust pipe fell off.
She realized she had been standing on his foot
when he gently shoved her.
c) FUTURE TENSE
- denotes the occurrence of an action that is
yet to be done or that will happen sometime in
the future - expresses an action or event that
will take place in the future - future verbs are
formed by combining them with words like will
or shall, or the phrase going to.
a. SIMPLE FUTURE - expresses an action that will take
place in the future:
EXAMPLES:
Next week, her uncle will be in town.
Will you carry this bag for me?
1. I will walk.
2. She will run.
3. Lien will try to search for a purple shore crab whose
weight is proportional to the strength of 20 men.
b. FUTURE PROGRESSIVE - - expresses a continuous
action which will take place in the future:
EXAMPLES:
He will be conducting a meeting between noon and one
o’clock every day this week.
Next summer, Jake will be traveling through South
America.
c. FUTURE PERFECT - - expresses a completed action
that will have taken place in the future:
- - denotes an action completed before some specified
time in the future.
- uses will/shall have + past participle form
EXAMPLES:
We will have finished cooking by the time you arrive.
Margaret will have dropped off her niece at the airport
before meeting Joe.
Methods of farming will have improved greatly by the
next quarter.
d. FUTURE PERFECT PROGRESSIVE - - expresses a
continuous, completed action that will have taken place
in the future:
EXAMPLES:
I will have been exercising for hours by the time you
wake up tomorrow.
When they arrive, they will have been traveling for 12
hours straight.
VERB ASPECT
- - refers to the timing of the verb
- - addresses whether the action occurs in a
single block of time, continuously, or
repetitively
1. Simple - is used to express a single action, a
repeated action, or a permanent state.
 Permanent state: David lives in Manila,
Philippines.
 Repeated or habitual action: He runs
every morning.
 Single action: He graduated from the
University of the Philippines.
2. Progressive - is used to talk about continuous
events.
 Dr. Jones was lecturing about grammar.
 Jane is reading a novel.
3. Perfect - is used to discuss completed actions.
- is often formed by the verb have combined with a
past tense verb.
 My family had left before the flooding
reached our home.
 She has visited their mountain home.
 3. Perfect Progressive - combines the perfect and
the progressive to refer to the completed
portion of a continuous action.
1. The news crew had been working for more
than twelve hours to provide full coverage of
the event.
2. I will have been sleeping for many hours by
then.
VERBAL MOOD
- is to the “attitude” of the verb
- refers to the degree of necessity, obligation, or
probability
- Is it a statement of fact? Is it a command?
- can be expressed in any verb tense.
- ● Is the verb actually happening, possibly happening,
or being commanded to happen?
1. Indicative/Stative -is used for factual
statements.
 Sally is drinking coffee.
 Sally drinks coffee.
 Sally drank coffee.
 Atlanta is the capital of Georgia.
 Penguins cannot fly.
 Jebediah likes the beach.
2. Subjunctive - - is for hypothetical situations,
emotions, or making requests
- is often (but not always) paired with a clause
containing would, should, or could, or an ifthen
statement.
 If I were a pilot, I would fly through the
clouds.
 The carousel closed. I wish it were still
in use.
 I wish (indicative) Paul would eat
(subjunctive) more healthfully.
 I suggest (indicative) that we wait until
(subjunctive) after dinner to eat the
cake.
3. Imperative - the subject is almost always
implied to be “you.”
 Do your homework now.
 Please don’t leave your bag there.
- However, sometimes the subject can be
implied to be “we.” Let’s go!
- is used to give commands
 Go finish your homework.
 Please hang your coat.
 Don’t eat a snack now or you’ll ruin
your supper.
4. Conditional – is used for speaking of an event
whose completion depends on another event
- is usually of the form “would” + bare verb with
no tense or aspect markers.
 I would go swimming if it weren’t so
rainy.
 He would bake more often if he had a
better oven.
5. Interrogative - - is used to ask questions
 Has Juan done his homework?
VERB VOICE
- refers to that quality of a transitive verb which
conveys whether the subject is the doer or the
receiver of the action.
- A verb in the passive voice is formed by using
the verbs to be (am, is, are, was, were, be,
being, been) and the past participle of the main
verb.
1. ACTIVE VOICE - if its subject is the DOER of the
action.
 The Apollo astronauts brought to earth the
oldest rock from the moon which was 4.6 billion
years old.
2. PASSIVE VOICE - if its subject is the RECEIVER of
the action.
 The oldest rock from the moon which was 4.6
billion years old was brought to earth by the
Apollo astronauts.
ELED 13 – STORY & POETRY
What is Contemporary
Literature?
The literature of the contemporary period
not only refers to a quality/style of writing
but also to poetry and prose, which
includes works of fiction such as: novels,
novellas, essays, and dramatic works.
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE CONTEMPORARY STYLE
1 . Reality-based stories
¬Believable story-line, sometimes portraying a harsher
reality or degradation of society
2. Current, modern setting
¬ “Well-defined, realistic, highly developed” and strong
character (s).
3. Well-structured
¬ Writing is “more character driven than plot driven”
WHAT IS A STORY?
- A story or narrative is a connected series of
events told through words (written or spoken),
imagery (still and moving), body language,
performance, music, or any other form of
communication.
TYPES OF STORIES
Fiction
1. Drama - Stories composed in verse or prose, usually
for theatrical performance, where conflicts and emotion
are expressed through dialogue and action.
2. Fable - Narration demonstrating a useful truth,
especially in which animals speak as humans; legendary,
supernatural tale.
3. Fairy Tale - Story about fairies or other magical
creatures, usually for children.
4. Fantasy - Fiction with strange or other worldly
settings or characters; fiction which invites suspension
of reality.
5. Fiction - Narrative literary works whose content is
produced by the imagination and is not necessarily
based on fact.
6. Fiction in Verse - Full-length novels with plot,
subplot(s), theme(s), major and minor characters, in
which the narrative is presented in (usually blank) verse
form.
7. Folklore - The songs, stories, myths, and proverbs of a
people or "folk" as handed down by word of mouth.
8. Historical Fiction - Story with fictional characters and
events in a historical setting.
9. Horror - Fiction in which events evoke a feeling of
dread in both the characters and the reader.
10. Humor - Fiction full of fun, fancy, and excitement,
meant to entertain; but can be contained in all genres
11. Legend - Story, sometimes of a national or folk hero,
which has a basis in fact but also includes imaginative
material.
12. Mystery - Fiction dealing with the solution of a
crime or the unraveling of secrets.
13. Mythology - Legend or traditional narrative, often
based in part on historical events, that reveals human
behavior and natural phenomena by its symbolism;
often pertaining to the actions of the gods.
14. Poetry - Verse and rhythmic writing with imagery
that creates emotional responses.
15. Realistic Fiction - Story that can actually happen and
is true to life.
16. Science Fiction - Story based on impact of actual,
imagined, or potential science, usually set in the future
or on other planets.
17. Short Story - Fiction of such brevity that it supports
no subplots.
18. Tall Tale - Humorous story with blatant
exaggerations, swaggering heroes who do the
impossible with nonchalance.
All Nonfiction
1. Biography/Autobiography - Narrative of a person's
life, a true story about a real person.
2. Essay - A short literary composition that reflects the
author's outlook or point.
3. Narrative Nonfiction - Factual information presented
in a format which tells a story.
4. Nonfiction - Informational text dealing with an actual,
real-life subject.
5. Speech - Public address or discourse.
IMPORTANCE OF STORY
 Stories are, have been, and always will be an
absolutely essential part of human culture.
 Stories are how we learn about each other, our
past, and our cultures.
 Whether they are created for entertainment or
to recount a real-life event—new stories are
literally being lived, told, and created every
second of every day.
 So, even if there was only one story for every
person who ever lived, there would still be
billions of stories in the world; it would be
impossible to measure how many have existed.
 Stories let us share information in a way that
creates an emotional connection.
  They help us to understand that information
and each other, and it makes the information
memorable. Because stories create an
emotional connection, we can gain a deeper
understanding of other people's experiences.
EXAMPLES OF STORY
 Here are a few examples of the same story told
different ways.
 You can sometimes tell a story in just one line:
The girl met the love of her life and lived happily
until the day she died.
 Stories let us share information in a way that
creates an emotional connection.
 They help us to understand that information
and each other, and it makes the information
memorable. Because stories create an
emotional connection, we can gain a deeper
understanding of other people's experiences.
EXAMPLES OF STORY IN LITERATURE
Example 1
 Author Shel Silverstein is known for the quirky
and memorable stories he tells through poetry.
Here is “Masks” from his collection of poems
Everything On It: She had blue skin. And so did
he. He kept it hid And so did she. They searched
for blue Their whole life through, Then passed
right by— And never knew. As you’ve just read,
Silverstein tells a whole story in just eight short
lines of poetry. Tons of poems do the same in
even fewer lines. Either way, you can see that a
story definitely doesn’t have to be lengthy.
Example 2
 A fairy tale is a classic type of story about
imaginary events. When we want to tell a fairy
tale, we often start with the famous words
“Once upon a time,” which adds a more
whimsical feel to what we are about to share.
 Here’s an example from Rapunzel of Grimm’s
Fairy Tales:
Once upon a time there was a man and a woman who
had long, but to no avail, wished for a child. Finally, the
woman came to believe that the good Lord would fulfill
her wish. Through the small rear window of these
people’s house they could see into a splendid garden
that was filled with the most beautiful flowers and
herbs. The garden was surrounded by a high wall, and
no one dared enter, because it belonged to a sorceress
who possessed great power and was feared by
everyone. The fairy tale’s intro is just a small part of the
story, telling us about the beginning and a bit about the
characters who will be the focus. Example 3 Of course,
newspapers and magazines are filled with stories. As
you know, a news story reports on real events that have
happened. Here’s a passage from a CNN Tech article:
There’s no other shopping bonanza quite like Alibaba’s
Singles Day, which has once again smashed records. The
tech giant reported $17.8 billion in sales during this
year’s frenzy, breaking the record of $14.3 billion set in
2015. That’s more than Black Friday and Cyber Monday
combined. Reading a news story gives you an update on
events that are happening throughout the world. Here,
Tech Crunch writes about China’s 11.11 Singles’ Day,
the world’s biggest shopping event. The story
specifically reports on the money that Alibaba made in
their latest Singles’ Day event.
EXAMPLES OF STORY IN POPULAR CULTURE
 Stories are a part of every type of today’s
media, from TV, film, and radio; to what gets
shared on social media platforms; music; stage
performance; art exhibitions, celebrity
magazines—you name it, and you’ll find stories.
But here are a few examples of stories in
popular film and TV culture, told through
performance, music, and animation.
Example 1
 Cult-classic fantasy film The Never-ending Story
is about a story that goes on as long as time
exists. It unfolds in real time as the reader is
reading it, who in this case is a boy named
Bastian. But it’s soon revealed that he has more
of a stake in the story than he ever imagined…
The Never-ending Story (9/10) Movie CLIP – Call
My Name (1984) HD
 Bastian finally realizes that he’s a part of the
story he’s been reading, so in a way, it’s actually
about him. So long as he keeps reading, the story
will continue.
Example 2
Everybody knows Will Smith’s retro anthem “Prince of
Bel Air,” the theme song to the hit ’90s sitcom Fresh
Prince of Bel Air. In the show’s intro, Smith uses this
rap to fill the audience in on his backstory: The fresh
prince of Bel Air theme song [short version] The song
quickly reviews the story of his past, which serves as an
intro to what the show is about. He recounts the events
that led to his life being turned “upside down”; the story
of how he became the Prince of Bel Air.
Example 3
In Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows, Hermione
reads the story of the Three Brothers, which is part of
the wizarding world. The Story of the Three Brothers is
actually a story within a story—Harry Potter’s story.
Rowling tries to make the wizarding world seem as real
as possible, and adding background is a big part of that.
By sharing stories that her characters read, she is giving
evidence of the wizarding world’s storytelling and
literary culture…and perhaps even some history.
CONCLUSION
 Stories are a major part of every aspect of our
lives, from what we read to what we do to what
we talk and think about.
 They’re also crucial to our understanding of
history and culture and have been recorded and
passed on since man’s earliest days. Stories
have always been and will always be at the core
of not only literature, but life!
All Summer in a Day by Ray Bradbury
- "All Summer in a Day" refers to the rare event
on Venus when the rain stops and the sun shines,
giving children the opportunity to play outside.
While the title sounds warm and whimsical, the
story itself deals with the brevity of this
opportunity and the cruelty that can be born
from envy.
- The children at school eagerly await the
predicted appearance of the sun, a brief
phenomenon that occurs only once every seven
years on Venus, a planet of seemingly endless
rain. Margot, a transfer student from Earth, is the
only child who remembers the sun, and she
desperately longs to experience it again. Envious
of Margot’s memories of Earth, her classmates
lock her in a closet, causing her to miss the sun’s
fleeting appearance.
POETRY
Poetry - type of literature based on the interplay of
words and rhythm. It often employs rhyme and meter.
“prose” – that is, normal text that runs without line
breaks or rhythm.
ELEMENTS OF POETRY – Structure, Sound, Imagery,
Figurative Language
STRUCTURE
1.Poetic Line – the words that form a single line of
poetry.
Example: “‘Twas the night before Christmas, when all
through the house” is the well-known first poetic line of
“A Visit from Saint Nicholas” by Clement Clarke Moore.
2. Stanza – a section of a poem named for the number
of lines it contains.
Example: A couplet is a stanza of two lines. The first
stanza from “Barbara Frietchie” by John Greenleaf
Wittier is a couplet: Up from the meadows rich with
corn, Clear in the cool September morn,
3. Enjambment – when there is no written or natural
pause at the end of a poetic line, so that the word-flow
carries over to the next line.
Example: the following lines from “Knoxville,
Tennessee” by Nikki Giovanni contains enjambment:
and listen
to gospel music
outside
at the church
homecoming
4. Placement – the way words and poetic lines are
placed on the page of a poem.
Example: The following are creatively-placed lines from
a poem by E.E. Cummings:
in Just-
spring when the world is mud-
luscious the little
lame balloonman
whistles far and wee.
5. Verse – a line in traditional poetry that is written in
meter.
Example:In “When I do count the clock that tells the
time” from Shakespeare’s “Sonnet Number Twelve,”
the underlined syllables are accented, giving the line a
metric pattern known as an iambic pentameter.
6. Capitalization and Punctuation – In poetry, rules of
capitalization and punctuation are not always followed;
instead, they are at the service of the poet’s artistic
vision.
Example: the first stanza from “Laughing Tomatoes” by
Francisco X. Alarcón.
 in our backyard
we plant
tomatoes
SOUND
1. Rhythm – the basic beat in a line of a poem.
Example: “Whose woods these are, I think I know” is
the first line from “Stopping by Woods on a Snowy
Evening” by Robert Frost. - Notice that the accented
words (underlined) give the line a distinctive beat.
2. Meter – a pattern of stressed and unstressed
(accented and unaccented) syllables (known as a foot)
in a line of poetry.
Example: In an iambic pentameter, the pattern is five
iambic (unaccented + accented) feet in each line.
3. End Rhyme – same or similar sounds at the end of
words that finish different lines.
Example: The following are the first two rhyming lines
from “The King of Cats Sends a Postcard to His Wife” by
Nancy Willard:
Keep your whiskers crisp and clean,
Do not let the mice grow lean,
4. Internal Rhyme – same or similar sounds at the end
of words within a line.
Example: A line showing internal rhyme (underlined)
from “The Rabbit” by Elizabeth Maddox Roberts:
When they said the time to hide was mine.
5. Rhyme Scheme – a pattern of rhyme in a poem.
Example: A quatrain – a stanza of four lines in which the
second and fourth-lines rhyme – has the following
rhyme scheme: abcb.
6. Assonance – the repetition of vowel sounds within
words in a line.
Example: A line showing assonance (underlined) from
“A Visit from Saint Nicholas” by Clement Clarke Moore:
The children were nestled all snug in their beds
7. Consonance – the repetition of consonant sounds
within words in a line.
Example: A line showing consonance (underlined) from
“A Visit from Saint Nicholas” by Clement Clarke Moore:
Not a creature was stirring, not even a mouse
8. Alliteration – the repetition of consonant sounds at
the beginning of words.
Example: Notice the alliteration (underlined) in “Sarah
Cynthia Sylvia Stout Would Not Take the Garbage Out”
by Shel Silverstein.
9. Onomatopoeia – words that sound like their
meaning.
Example: buzz, swish, hiss, gulp.
10. Repetition – sounds, words, or phrases that are
repeated to add emphasis or create rhythm. Parallelism
is a form of repetition.
Examples: Two lines from “Jabberwocky” by Lewis
Carroll showing parallelism:
Beware the Jabberwock, my son!
The jaws that bite, the claws that catch!
11. Refrain – a line or stanza repeated over and over in
a poem or song.
Example: In “Jingle Bells,” the following refrain is
repeated after every stanza: Jingle Bells
12. Word Play – to play with the sounds and meanings
of real or invented words.
Example: Two lines from the poem “Synonyms” by
Susan Moger: Claptrap, bombast, rodomontade,
Hogwash, jargon, and rant
IMAGERY
1. Precise Language – the use of specific words to
describe a person, place, thing, or action.
2. Sensory Details – the use of descriptive details that
appeal to one or more of the five senses.
FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE
1.Simile – a comparison of two unlike things, using the
words like or as.
Example: “I read the shoreline like an open volume.”
2. Metaphor – a comparison of two unlike things, not
using the words like or as.
Example: “Ribbons of sea foam / wrap the emerald
island.”
3. Personification – to ascribe human traits to non-
human or non-living things.
Example: “The unfurled sailboat glides on / urged by
wind and will and brilliant bliss.”
4. Symbolism – a person, place, thing, or action that
stands for something else.
Example: In “From Mother to Son” by Langston Hughes,
a set of stairs symbolizes life.
5. Hyperbole – the use of exaggeration to express
strong emotion or create a comical effect.
Example: “I’m so hungry I could eat a hippo.”
6. Verbal Irony or Sarcasm – when you mean the
opposite of what you say.
Example: “My darling brother is the sweetest boy on
Earth,” she muttered sarcastically.
7. Pun – a humorous phrase that plays with the double
meaning or the similar sounds of words.
Example: “Tomorrow you shall find me a grave man,”
said the duke on his deathbed. The cookbook Lunch on
the Run by Sam Witch is awesome.
8. Allusion- a reference to a familiar person, place, or
event.
Example: The following two lines from the poem “My
Muse” contain an allusion to Pandora’s Box: hunched
over from carrying that old familiar Box
10. Idiom - a cultural expression that cannot be taken
literally.
Example: She is the apple of his eye. He drives me up
the wall.
• TWENTY POETIC FORMS
1. Acrostic – a poem in which the first letter of
each word forms a word – usually a name – if
read downward. Example: “A Rock Acrostic” by
Avis Harley.
2. Couplet – two lines of poetry that rhyme and
usually form one complete idea. Example: The
poem “Catch a Little Rhyme” by Eve Merriam is
written in couplets.
3. Haiku - a Japanese three-line poetic form –
usually about nature – with lines of three,
seven, and five syllables, respectively.
Example: I call to my love
on mornings ripe with sunlight.
The songbirds answer.
4. Quatrain – a stanza made up of four lines, often
containing a rhyme scheme.
Example: “The Toaster” by William Jay Smith.
5. Cinquain – a five-line untitled poem, where the
syllable pattern increases by two for each line, except
for the last line, which ends in two syllables (2,4,6,8.2).
Example: The cinquain that begins with “Oh, cat” by
Paul B. Janeczko.
6. Limerick – a humorous rhyming poem written in five
lines and having a particular meter. It often begins with
“There once was a…”
Example: Limericks by Edward Lear.
7. Sonnet – a poem that is 14 lines long, generally
written in iambic pentameter. Example: “Sonnet 116”
by William Shakespeare.
8. Free Verse – a poem that does not follow a
predictable form or rhyme scheme or metric pattern.
Example: “Mother to Son” by Langston Hughes.
9. List or Catalog Poem – a poem in the form of a list,
that uses sensory details and precise language to
persuade the reader to take notice of what is being
listed. Example: “Things to Do If You Are a Subway” by
Robbi Katz.
10. Villanelle – a challenging poetic form that includes
five tercets (aba rhyme) followed by a quatrain (abaa
rhyme) and a pattern of repetition of lines 1 and 3 of
the first stanza. Example: “Is There a Villain in Your
Villanelle?” by Joan Bransfield Graham.
11. Ode – a poem that celebrates or praises something.
Example: “Ode to Pablo’s Tennis Shoes” by Gary Soto.
12. Lyric Poetry – poetry that expresses a poet’s
personal experience, feelings, and emotions. Example:
“I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud” by William
Wordsworth.
13. Blank Verse – a poem written in iambic pentameter,
but with no rhyme.
Example: Verses in Romeo and Juliet by William
Shakespeare.
14. Blues Poem – poems that – like blues songs – deal
with personal or world issues. Example: “Evening Air
Blues” by Langston Hughes.
15. Nonsense Poem – a fun, usually rhyming poem that
makes no sense, focusing instead on the sounds and the
rhythm of the poem.
Example: “The Jumblies” by Edward Lear.
16. Concrete Poem – a poem that uses words to form
the shape of the subject of the poem (also known as a
“shape poem”). Example: “Concrete Cat” by Dorth
Charles.
17. Narrative Poem – a poem that tells a story.
Example: “The Sneetches” by Dr. Seuss (Theodor
Geisel).
18. Ballad – a poem that tells a story, usually written in
four-line stanzas. Example: “The Wreck of the
Hesperus” by Henry Wadsworth Longfellow.
19. Epic Poem – a long and heroic narrative poem.
Example: “The Odyssey” by Homer.
20. Imagist Poetry – poems that contain precise visual
images.
Example: “The Red Wheelbarrow” by William Carlos
Williams.
• IMPORTANCE OF POETRY
• This style of writing may have developed to help
people memorize long chains of information in
the days before writing. Rhythm and rhyme can
make the text more memorable, and thus easier
to preserve for cultures that do not have a
written language.
• Poetry can be written with all the same
purposes as any other kind of literature –
beauty, humor, storytelling, political messages,
etc.
• EXAMPLES IN POETRY LITERATURE
Example 1
I think that I shall never see -->
A poem lovely as a tree…-->
poems are made by fools like me,-->
but only God can make a tree.--> (Joyce Kilmer, Trees)
This is an excerpt from Joyce Kilmer’s famous short
poem. The poem employs a fairly standard rhyme
scheme (AABB, lines 1 and 2 rhymes together and lines
3 and 4 rhymes together), and a meter called “iambic
tetrameter,” which is commonly employed in
children’s rhymes.
Example 2
I saw the best minds of my generation destroyed by
madness,
starving hysterical naked,
dragging themselves through the negro streets at dawn
looking for an angry fix,
angel headed hipsters burning for the ancient heavenly
connection to the starry dynamo
in the machinery of night, who poverty and tatters and
hollow-eyed and high sat up smoking…
(Alan Ginsberg, Howl)
These are the first few lines of Howl, one of the most
famous examples of modern “free verse” poetry. It has
no rhyme, and no particular meter. But its words still
have a distinct, rhythmic quality, and the line breaks
encapsulate the meaning of the poem. Notice how the
last word of each line contributes to the imagery of a
corrupt, ravaged city (“madness, naked, smoking”), with
one exception: “heavenly.” This powerful juxtaposition
goes to the heart of Ginsburg’s intent in writing the
poem – though what that intent is, you’ll have to decide
for yourself.
Example 3
In the twilight rain,
these brilliant-hued hibiscus –
A lovely sunset
This poem by the Japanese poet Basho is a haiku. This
highly influential Japanese style has no rhymes, but it
does have a very specific meter – five syllables in the
first line, seven in the second line, and five in the third
line.
• EXAMPLES OF POETRY IN POPULAR CULTURE
Example 1
Rapping originated as a kind of performance poetry. In
the 1960s and 70s, spoken word artists like Gil Scott-
Heron began performing their poems over live or
synthesized drumbeats, a practice that sparked all of
modern hip hop. Even earlier, the beat poets of the
1950s sometimes employed drums in their readings.
• EXAMPLES OF POETRY IN POPULAR CULTURE
Example 2
Some of the most famous historical poems have been
turned into movies or inspired episodes of television
shows. Beowulf, for example, is an Anglo-Saxon epic
poem that has spawned at least 8 film adaptations,
most recently a 2007 animated film starring Angelina
Jolie and Anthony Hopkins.
Edgar Allen Poe’s The Raven has also inspired many pop
culture spinoffs with its famous line, “Nevermore.”
DRAMA
Drama is a mode of fictional representation through
dialogue and performance. It is one of the literary
genres, which is an imitation of some actions.
Drama is also a type of a play written for theater,
television, radio, and film. In simple words, a drama is a
composition in verse or prose presenting a story in
pantomime or dialogue
It contains conflict of characters, particularly the ones
who perform in front of audience on the stage.
The person who writes drama for stage directions is
known as a “dramatist” or “playwright.”
• TYPES OF DRAMA
1. Comedy – Comedies are lighter in tone than ordinary
works and provide a happy conclusion. The intention of
dramatists in comedies is to make their audience laugh.
Hence, they use quaint circumstances, unusual
characters, and witty remarks.
2. Tragedy – Tragic dramas use darker themes, such as
disaster, pain, and death. Protagonists often have a
tragic flaw — a characteristic that leads them to their
downfall.
3. Farce – Generally, a farce is a nonsensical genre of
drama, which often overacts or engages slapstick
humor.
4.Melodrama – Melodrama is an exaggerated drama,
which is sensational and appeals directly to the senses
of the audience. Just like the farce, the characters are of
a single dimension and simple, or may be stereotyped.
5.Musical Drama – In musical dramas, dramatists not
only tell their stories through acting and dialogue, but
through dance as well as music. Often the story may be
comedic, though it may also involve serious subjects.
DRAMATIC STRUCTURE
• The structure is how the plot or story of a play is
laid out, including a beginning, a middle and an
end.
• Plays may also include subplots, which are
smaller stories that allow the audience to follow
the journey of different characters and events
within the plot.
• Plays also feature an element of conflict, which
does not necessarily mean a fight or argument
but instead an obstacle that needs to be
overcome.
•
DRAMATIC STRUCTURE
A typical dramatic structure is linear, with events
occurring chronologically.
This might include:
exposition - introduces background events and
characters
rising action - a series of events that create suspense in
the narrative
climax - the part of the story where the suspense
reaches its highest part
falling action - the main conflict starts to resolve
resolution –
the conclusion of the story where questions are
answered and loose ends are tied up A graph showing
how dramatic tension changes during a theatre
performance, from the exposition through rising action,
dramatic climax and falling action, ending in a
resolution.
Structures can also be non-linear, with the action of the
play moving forwards and back in time. This is done
through the use of flashbacks and flashforwards, to help
make the play more exciting or to highlight points
through contrast and juxtaposition.
• make the play more exciting or to highlight points
DRAMATIC STRUCTURE
• Alternatively, plays may follow a cyclical
structure, with the play ending at the same time
as it began. This can be exciting for the
audience as they try to work out how the
character ended up in the position they see at
the start of the play.
• Traditionally, plays use acts and scenes to help
define particular moments in time, and a new
scene will show the audience that the action is
taking place in a different location.
• DRAMATIC STRUCTURE
The structure is how the plot or story of a play is laid
out, including a beginning, a middle and an end.
Plays may also include subplots, which are smaller
stories that allow the audience to follow the journey of
different characters and events within the plot.
Plays also feature an element of conflict, which does not
necessarily mean a fight or argument but instead an
obstacle that needs to be overcome.
A typical dramatic structure is linear, with events
occurring chronologically.
This might include:
exposition - introduces background events and
characters
rising action - a series of events that create suspense in
the narrative
climax - the part of the story where the suspense
reaches its highest part
falling action - the main conflict starts to resolve
resolution –
the conclusion of the story where questions are
answered and loose ends are tied up A graph showing
how dramatic tension changes during a theatre
performance, from the exposition through rising action,
dramatic climax and falling action, ending in a
resolution.
Structures can also be non-linear, with the action of the
play moving forwards and back in time. This is done
through the use of flashbacks and flashforwards, to help
through contrast and juxtaposition.
Alternatively, plays may follow a cyclical structure, with
the play ending at the same time as it began. This can
be exciting for the audience as they try to work out how
the character ended up in the position they see at the
start of the play.
Traditionally, plays use acts and scenes to help define
particular moments in time, and a new scene will show
the audience that the action is taking place in a different
location.
• EXAMPLES OF DRAMA IN LITERATURE
Example #1:
Much Ado About Nothing (By William Shakespeare)
Much Ado About Nothing is the most frequently
performed Shakespearian comedy in modern times.
The play is romantically funny, in that love between
Hero and Claudio is laughable, as they never even get a
single chance to communicate on-stage until they get
married. Their relationship lacks development and
depth. They end up merely as caricatures, exemplifying
what people face in life when their relationships are - Racism in Literature
internally weak. Love between Benedick and Beatrice is
amusing, as initially their communications are very
sparky, and they hate each other. However, they all of
sudden make up, and start loving each other.

Example #2:

Oedipus Rex (By Sophocles) Tragedy: Sophocles’

mythical and immortal drama Oedipus Rex is thought to
be his best classical tragedy. Aristotle has adjudged this
play as one of the greatest examples of tragic drama in
his book, Poetics, by giving the following reasons:

1. The play arouses emotions of pity and fear, and

achieves the tragic Catharsis. IF YOU FORGET ME – Pablo Neruda

2. It shows the downfall of an extraordinary man of high  was a Chilean author who was exiled for his
rank, Oedipus. views on communism;

 he wrote “If You Forget Me” while on vacation

3. The central character suffers due to his tragic error
called Hamartia; as he murders his real father, Laius,
and then marries his real mother, Jocasta. Hubris is the
cause of Oedipus’ downfall.
• FUNCTION OF DRAMA
• Drama is one of the best literary forms through
which dramatists can directly speak to their
readers, or the audience, and they can receive
instant feedback of audiences.
with his mistress.
 It is believed that he wrote it while she was in
the same room- so one would naturally think
that it is dedicated to her, but there are
theories that this poem is actually addressing
his complicated relationship with his home-
Chile- from where he was banished for his
views.

• A few dramatists use their characters as a

vehicle to convey their thoughts and values,
such as poets do with personas, and novelists
do with narrators.

• Since drama uses spoken words and dialogues,

thus language of characters plays a vital role, as
it may give clues to their feelings, personalities,
backgrounds, and change in feelings.

• In dramas the characters live out a story

without any comments of the author, providing
the audience a direct presentation of
characters’ life experiences.

SOCIAL ISSUES IN CONTEMPORARY LITERATURE

- Women in Literature

- Ethnic in Literature