Viruses
(cold sores), and HSV-2, primarily associated with
1. Influenza: Caused by the influenza virus
(Orthomyxovirus). It is an RNA virus that primarily
infects the respiratory epithelium. Influenza viruses
undergo antigenic changes, leading to seasonal
epidemics and occasional pandemics. The virus
replicates in respiratory cells, causing inflammation
and damage to the respiratory tract.
2. Measles: Caused by the measles virus (Measles
morbillivirus), which belongs to the
Paramyxoviridae family. It is an enveloped RNA
virus that primarily infects the respiratory system.
Measles virus spreads through respiratory droplets.
It enters the body via the respiratory tract, replicates
in the respiratory epithelium, and then disseminates
systemically, leading to a characteristic rash, fever,
and respiratory symptoms.
3. Rabies: Caused by the rabies virus
(Rhabdovirus). It is an enveloped RNA virus that
primarily affects the central nervous system. Rabies
is usually transmitted through the bite or scratch of
an infected animal. The virus enters peripheral
nerves and travels to the central nervous system,
causing inflammation in the brain and leading to
neurological symptoms.
4. Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) Infection:
Caused by the human immunodeficiency virus
(HIV), which belongs to the Retroviridae family.
HIV is a retrovirus that primarily targets CD4+ T
cells of the immune system. It weakens the immune
system, leading to an increased susceptibility to
opportunistic infections and the development of
acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) if
left untreated.
5. Hepatitis B: Caused by the hepatitis B virus
(HBV), which belongs to the Hepadnaviridae
family. HBV is a partially double-stranded DNA
virus. It primarily affects the liver and is transmitted
through contact with infected blood or other body
fluids. HBV replicates within hepatocytes, leading
to inflammation and liver damage. Chronic
infection can result in cirrhosis and an increased
risk of liver cancer.
6. Herpes: Caused by the herpes simplex virus
(HSV), which belongs to the Herpesviridae family.
HSV is a double-stranded DNA virus. There are two
types: HSV-1, primarily associated with oral herpes
genital herpes. The virus infects epithelial cells and
establishes a latent infection in nerve ganglia.
Reactivation of the virus can lead to recurrent
outbreaks.
7. Poliomyelitis: Caused by the poliovirus, which
belongs to the Picornaviridae family. Poliovirus is
an RNA virus transmitted through the fecal-oral
route. It primarily affects the motor neurons of the
spinal cord and brainstem, leading to muscle
weakness, paralysis, and in severe cases, respiratory
failure.
8. Varicella (Chickenpox) and Herpes Zoster
(Shingles): Both caused by the varicella-zoster virus
(VZV), which belongs to the Herpesviridae family.
VZV is a double-stranded DNA virus. Primary
infection with VZV results in chickenpox,
characterized by a vesicular rash. After primary
infection, the virus establishes latency in nerve
ganglia. Reactivation of the virus in later life leads
to herpes zoster (shingles), characterized by a
painful rash along the distribution of affected
nerves.
9. Human Papillomavirus (HPV) Infection: Caused
by various types of human papillomavirus. HPV is a
DNA virus that infects epithelial cells, primarily
affecting the skin and mucous membranes. Different
HPV types can cause various conditions, including
genital warts and cervical, anal, or oropharyngeal
cancers.
10. Mumps: Caused by the mumps virus, which
belongs to the Paramyxoviridae family. Mumps is
an RNA virus that spreads through respiratory
droplets or direct contact with saliva of infected
individuals. It primarily affects the salivary glands,
leading to swelling and pain in the jaw area.
Complications can include orchitis (inflammation of
the testicles), meningitis, and pancreatitis.
Bacteria
1. Staphylococcus aureus: Gram-positive cocci in
clusters. It causes a range of infections due to its
ability to produce various toxins and enzymes,
including coagulase, hemolysins, and exotoxins.
These virulence factors enable S. aureus to colonize
and invade various body sites, leading to wound
infections, boils, pneumonia, septicemia, and food
poisoning.
2. Streptococcus pyogenes: Gram-positive cocci in
chains. S. pyogenes possesses numerous virulence
factors, such as M protein, streptolysin O,
streptokinase, and pyrogenic exotoxins. These
factors contribute to tissue invasion and damage,
allowing the bacterium to cause strep throat, scarlet
fever, necrotizing fasciitis, septicemia, and other
infections.
3. Streptococcus pneumoniae: Gram-positive
diplococci. S. pneumoniae colonizes the respiratory
tract and can invade deeper tissues. Its capsule plays
a significant role in evading the host immune
system. The bacterium causes pneumonia by
damaging lung tissue, and it can also lead to
meningitis and ear and sinus infections through its
ability to cross the blood-brain barrier.
4. Corynebacterium diphtheriae: Gram-positive,
spore-forming bacillus. C. diphtheriae produces a
potent exotoxin called diphtheria toxin. The toxin
damages host cells and forms a pseudomembrane in
the throat, leading to respiratory obstruction and
systemic effects seen in diphtheria.
5. Bacillus anthracis: Gram-positive, spore-forming
bacillus. B. anthracis produces three main
components: protective antigen, edema factor, and
lethal factor. These toxins contribute to tissue
damage, immune system evasion, and interference
with host cell signaling, resulting in the
characteristic manifestations of anthrax, including
cutaneous, inhalational, and gastrointestinal forms.
6. Clostridium botulinum: Gram-positive, spore-
forming bacillus. C. botulinum produces botulinum
toxin, one of the most potent toxins known. The
toxin blocks the release of acetylcholine at
neuromuscular junctions, leading to muscle
paralysis and causing botulism when ingested.
7. Clostridium perfringens: Gram-positive, spore-
forming bacillus. C. perfringens produces several
toxins, including alpha toxin, which contributes to
tissue destruction and gas production. In wounds, it
causes myonecrosis and gas gangrene. Ingestion of
contaminated food leads to the development of food
poisoning.
8. Clostridium tetani: Gram-positive, spore-forming
bacillus. C. tetani produces tetanus toxin, also
known as tetanospasmin. The toxin affects the
central nervous system, specifically the inhibitory
neurons, leading to sustained muscle contractions
and spasms characteristic of tetanus.
9. Neisseria gonorrhoeae: Gram-negative
diplococci. N. gonorrhoeae colonizes and infects the
genitourinary tract. It possesses pili and other
adhesins that allow it to attach to host cells and
evade the immune system, leading to the sexually
transmitted infection gonorrhea.
10. Neisseria meningitidis: Gram-negative
diplococci. N. meningitidis colonizes the respiratory
tract, where it can multiply and enter the
bloodstream. Lipooligosaccharide and capsule
contribute to its virulence. The bacterium can cross
the blood-brain barrier,
causing meningitis, and can also lead to respiratory
infections.
11. Bordetella pertussis: Gram-negative bacillus. B.
pertussis produces toxins, including pertussis toxin,
which interferes with signaling pathways in host
cells. The bacterium attaches to the respiratory
epithelium, causing inflammation and damage,
resulting in the characteristic severe coughing
episodes seen in whooping cough (pertussis).
12. Escherichia coli: Gram-negative bacillus.
Certain strains of E. coli possess virulence factors,
such as adhesins, toxins (e.g., Shiga toxin), and
fimbriae, enabling them to cause a range of
infections. These include urinary tract infections,
gastroenteritis (food poisoning), and other
infections depending on the strain and site of
infection.
13. Haemophilus influenzae: Gram-negative
bacillus. H. influenzae possesses a polysaccharide
capsule that aids in its pathogenicity. It can cause
respiratory tract infections, including pneumonia, as
well as ear and sinus infections.
14. Salmonella spp.: Gram-negative bacillus.
Various Salmonella strains can cause gastroenteritis,
with symptoms such as diarrhea, abdominal pain,
and fever. Salmonella typhi, specifically, causes
typhoid fever, a systemic illness with prolonged
fever and gastrointestinal symptoms.
15. Shigella spp.: Gram-negative bacillus. Shigella
species are highly invasive, allowing them to
penetrate the intestinal epithelium and cause
bacillary dysentery. They produce toxins that lead to
inflammation, tissue damage, and bloody diarrhea.
16. Yersinia pestis: Gram-negative bacillus. Y. pestis
is transmitted through fleas and causes the bubonic,
septicemic, and pneumonic forms of plague. The
bacterium's virulence factors, including the F1
capsule antigen and various toxins, contribute to
tissue damage and evade the immune system.
17. Vibrio cholerae: Gram-negative curved bacillus.
V. cholerae produces cholera toxin, which binds to
intestinal epithelial cells and causes excessive
secretion of water and electrolytes. This results in
profuse, watery diarrhea, leading to severe
dehydration and electrolyte imbalances seen in
cholera.
18. Treponema pallidum: Spirochete. T. pallidum is
the causative agent of syphilis, a sexually
transmitted infection. The bacterium invades the
host's tissues, primarily through mucous membranes
or breaks in the skin. The infection progresses
through distinct stages, characterized by diverse
clinical manifestations affecting multiple organ
systems.
19. Mycobacterium leprae: Acid-fast, Gram-
variable bacillus. M. leprae primarily infects skin
and peripheral nerves. The bacterium's ability to
evade the immune system and induce a prolonged
immune response leads to the chronic
granulomatous inflammation seen in leprosy
(Hansen's disease).
20. Mycobacterium tuberculosis: Acid-fast, Gram-
variable bacillus. M. tuberculosis primarily infects
the lungs but can disseminate to other organs. It
survives and replicates within macrophages, leading
to the formation of granulomas. The chronic
inflammation and tissue damage caused by the
bacterium result in the clinical manifestations of
tuberculosis (TB).
The pathophysiology of bacterial infections varies
depending on the specific bacterium involved.
Bacteria can cause diseases through various
mechanisms, such as direct tissue invasion,
production of toxins, or induction of an immune
response. Here are some examples of diseases
associated with specific bacteria and a brief
overview of their pathophysiology:
1. Streptococcus pneumoniae: This bacterium
commonly causes pneumonia, sinusitis, and
meningitis. It enters the respiratory tract and
adheres to respiratory epithelial cells. It can then
invade the underlying tissues, leading to
inflammation and damage. The bacterium produces
enzymes and toxins that contribute to tissue injury
and inflammation.
2. Escherichia coli: Certain strains of E. coli can
cause urinary tract infections (UTIs), diarrheal
illnesses, and bloodstream infections. UTIs typically
occur when E. coli ascends the urethra and reaches
the bladder, causing inflammation of the urinary
tract. In diarrheal illnesses, specific strains of E. coli
produce toxins that affect the intestines, leading to
diarrhea and abdominal pain.
3. Helicobacter pylori: This bacterium is associated
with gastritis and peptic ulcers. H. pylori colonizes
the gastric mucosa and induces an inflammatory
response. It produces enzymes and toxins that
damage the gastric epithelium, leading to chronic
inflammation, erosion of the protective mucosal
lining, and the development of ulcers.
4. Mycobacterium tuberculosis: This bacterium
causes tuberculosis (TB), a respiratory infection.
After inhalation, M. tuberculosis enters the lungs
and infects alveolar macrophages. The bacterium
can survive and replicate within these cells, leading
to the formation of granulomas, a characteristic
feature of TB. Granulomas help contain the
infection but can also contribute to tissue damage.
5. Staphylococcus aureus: S. aureus can cause
various infections, including skin and soft tissue
infections, bloodstream infections, and pneumonia.
The bacterium produces numerous virulence
factors, such as toxins and enzymes, that enable it to
invade and damage host tissues. It can also evade
the immune system, leading to persistent or
recurrent infections.
Certainly! Here's a short pathophysiology for each
of the mentioned diseases, including the name of the
bacteria:
1. Respiratory Infections:
- Pneumonia: Bacteria such as Streptococcus
pneumoniae, Haemophilus influenzae, and
Legionella pneumophila infect the lungs, causing
inflammation and fluid accumulation in the air sacs,
leading to symptoms like cough, fever, and
difficulty breathing.
- Bronchitis: Bacteria like Streptococcus
pneumoniae, Haemophilus influenzae, and
Moraxella catarrhalis infect the bronchial tubes,
resulting in inflammation, excess mucus production,
and persistent cough.
- Pertussis (Whooping cough): Bordetella
pertussis bacteria attach to the respiratory tract,
releasing toxins that damage the airways, leading to
severe and prolonged coughing spells.
2. Urinary Tract Infections (UTIs):
- Escherichia coli (E. coli): These bacteria,
commonly found in the digestive tract, can enter the
urethra and ascend to the bladder, causing infection
and inflammation in the urinary tract, resulting in
symptoms like frequent urination, pain, and burning
sensation.
- Klebsiella pneumoniae: Often acquired in
healthcare settings, these bacteria can enter the
urinary tract through catheters or other medical
interventions, leading to UTIs that can become
more severe if they reach the kidneys or
bloodstream.
3. Gastrointestinal Infections:
- Salmonella: Ingestion of food or water
contaminated with Salmonella bacteria leads to
colonization and infection in the intestines, causing
symptoms like diarrhea, abdominal pain, and fever.
In severe cases, it can result in typhoid fever.
- Campylobacter jejuni: These bacteria commonly
contaminate poultry and raw milk. Ingestion of
contaminated food or water leads to infection in the
gastrointestinal tract, causing gastroenteritis with
symptoms like diarrhea, abdominal pain, and fever.
- Shigella: Ingesting food or water contaminated
with Shigella bacteria leads to their colonization in
the intestines, causing bacillary dysentery
(shigellosis) characterized by severe diarrhea,
abdominal cramps, and fever.
- Escherichia coli (E. coli): Certain strains of E.
coli, such as enterohemorrhagic E. coli (EHEC),
produce toxins that can cause severe gastrointestinal
infections, leading to symptoms like bloody
diarrhea, abdominal pain, and sometimes kidney
complications.
4. Skin and Soft Tissue Infections:
- Staphylococcus aureus: These bacteria can enter
the skin through cuts or wounds, leading to skin
infections, abscesses (localized collections of pus),
and wound infections.
- Streptococcus pyogenes: These bacteria can
cause various skin and throat infections, including
strep throat, impetigo (skin infection), and cellulitis
(infection of the deeper layers of the skin).
- Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus
(MRSA): MRSA is a strain of Staphylococcus
aureus that is resistant to many antibiotics. It is
associated with difficult-to-treat skin infections and
can cause severe complications if the infection
spreads.
5. Sexually Transmitted Infections (STIs):
- Neisseria gonorrhoeae: These bacteria are
responsible for gonorrhea, a sexually transmitted
infection that primarily affects the reproductive
system, causing symptoms such as genital
discharge, pain during urination, and inflammation.
- Chlamydia trachomatis: Chlamydia is a common
sexually transmitted infection caused by these
bacteria. It can affect the genitals, throat, or rectum
and often presents with mild or no
symptoms but can lead to serious complications if
left untreated.
- Treponema pallidum: These bacteria cause
syphilis, a sexually transmitted infection that
progresses through different stages and can affect
multiple organ systems if not treated. It initially
presents with a painless sore (chancre) at the site of
infection.
6. Meningitis:
- Neisseria meningitidis: These bacteria can
invade the bloodstream and cross the blood-brain
barrier, leading to bacterial meningitis. The
inflammation of the meninges (membranes
surrounding the brain and spinal cord) causes
symptoms such as severe headache, neck stiffness,
and fever.
 - Streptococcus pneumoniae: This bacterium is a
common cause of bacterial meningitis, usually
occurring as a complication of a respiratory
infection or when the bacteria spread from other
sites in the body to the meninges.
7. Lyme Disease:
- Borrelia burgdorferi: Transmitted through the
bite of infected ticks, these bacteria can invade
various body tissues, leading to Lyme disease. It
manifests with symptoms such as a characteristic
skin rash (erythema migrans), joint pain, and flu-
like symptoms if left untreated.
8. Tuberculosis (TB):
- Mycobacterium tuberculosis: These bacteria
primarily infect the lungs but can also affect other
organs. TB is transmitted through inhalation of
airborne droplets containing the bacteria. The
bacteria can evade the immune system and form
granulomas (tubercles) in the lungs, leading to
progressive damage, cough, chest pain, and
systemic symptoms in advanced stages.
Protozoa
Here is an expanded list of diseases caused by
parasitic protozoa, along with the specific protozoa
involved and a brief explanation of their
pathophysiology:
1. Malaria: Caused by the protozoan Plasmodium
species (such as Plasmodium falciparum,
Plasmodium vivax, Plasmodium malariae, and
Plasmodium ovale). Malaria is transmitted through
the bite of infected female Anopheles mosquitoes.
The parasites enter the bloodstream and infect red
blood cells. They multiply within the cells, leading
to their rupture and the release of more parasites,
which further invade other red blood cells. This
cyclic destruction of red blood cells results in
recurring fevers, anemia, organ damage, and
potentially life-threatening complications.
2. Giardiasis: Caused by the protozoan Giardia
lamblia. This disease is commonly transmitted
through contaminated food or water. Giardia
parasites infect the small intestine and attach to the
intestinal lining, causing damage and interfering
with nutrient absorption. This leads to symptoms
like diarrhea, abdominal pain, bloating, and weight
loss.
3. African Sleeping Sickness (African
trypanosomiasis): Caused by the protozoan
Trypanosoma brucei, which is transmitted by the
tsetse fly. The parasites initially multiply at the site
of the fly bite and then spread through the lymphatic
system and bloodstream. They can invade various
organs, including the central nervous system.
African trypanosomiasis has two stages: the early
hemolymphatic stage characterized by fever,
fatigue, severe headaches, and muscle/joint aches,
and the late neurological stage characterized by
sleep disturbances, behavioral changes, and
neurological abnormalities.
4. Amebic Dysentery (Amebiasis): Caused by the
protozoan Entamoeba histolytica. It is typically
transmitted through contaminated food or water.
The parasites primarily target the large intestine,
where they invade the intestinal lining, causing
ulcers and tissue destruction. This results in severe
diarrhea with blood and mucus, abdominal pain,
and, in some cases, the formation of liver abscesses
when the parasites spread to the liver.
5. Toxoplasmosis: Caused by the protozoan
Toxoplasma gondii. Humans can acquire the
infection by consuming undercooked meat
containing cysts or through exposure to cat feces
containing the parasite. Toxoplasma gondii can
infect various organs, including the brain, heart, and
eyes. While it usually causes mild or asymptomatic
infections in healthy individuals, it can be severe in
those with weakened immune systems or during
pregnancy, potentially leading to severe
neurological complications or congenital
abnormalities.
6. Cryptosporidiosis: Caused by the protozoan
Cryptosporidium parvum. This parasite is often
transmitted through contaminated water or contact
with infected animals. Cryptosporidium infects the
cells lining the small intestine, leading to
inflammation and damage. It causes profuse watery
diarrhea, abdominal cramps, nausea, and fever,
especially in individuals with compromised immune
systems.
The pathophysiology of these protozoal diseases
involves the invasion, replication, and survival of
the parasites within human tissues, leading to tissue
damage, inflammation, and various clinical
manifestations. Protozoa may evade the host's
immune system, persist within certain cells or
tissues, or release toxins that contribute to the
pathogenesis. The severity of symptoms can vary
depending on the specific protozoan, the site of
infection, the host's immune response, and other
factors. Treatment typically involves anti-protozoal
medications targeted at eliminating the parasites and
managing the associated symptoms.
Certainly! Here are the diseases caused by protozoa,
along with the specific protozoa involved and their
pathophysiology:
1. Amebiasis:
- Protozoan: Entamoeba histolytica
- Pathophysiology: Entamoeba histolytica infects
the intestines, causing amebic dysentery. It can
invade the intestinal wall, leading to tissue
destruction and ulceration. In severe cases, it can
spread to other organs, causing extraintestinal
amebic abscesses.
2. Primary Amebic Meningoencephalitis (PAM):
- Protozoan: Naegleria fowleri
- Pathophysiology: Naegleria fowleri enters the
body through the nasal passages and migrates to the
brain, resulting in a rare but often fatal infection of
the central nervous system.
3. Acanthamoeba Keratitis:
- Protozoan: Acanthamoeba spp.
- Pathophysiology: Acanthamoeba can infect the
cornea, leading to a painful eye condition called
Acanthamoeba keratitis, primarily affecting contact
lens wearers.
4. Balantidiasis:
- Protozoan: Balantidium coli
- Pathophysiology: Balantidium coli infects the
large intestine and causes dysentery. It is usually
transmitted through the ingestion of contaminated
food or water contaminated with pig feces.
5. African Sleeping Sickness:
- Protozoan: Trypanosoma brucei subspecies
gambiense
- Pathophysiology: Trypanosoma brucei
gambiense is transmitted through the bite of the
tsetse fly. The parasite multiplies in the
bloodstream, invades the central nervous system,
and causes neurological symptoms, leading to a
sleep-wake cycle disturbance.
6. Chagas' Disease:
- Protozoan: Trypanosoma cruzi
- Pathophysiology: Trypanosoma cruzi is
transmitted by triatomine bugs. The parasite enters
the bloodstream and invades various tissues,
including the heart and gastrointestinal tract,
causing damage and leading to chronic
complications.
7. Trichomoniasis:
- Protozoan: Trichomonas vaginalis
- Pathophysiology: Trichomonas vaginalis infects
the urogenital tract, causing sexually transmitted
infections in both males and females. It disrupts the
normal flora and can lead to inflammation, itching,
and discomfort.
8. Giardiasis:
- Protozoan: Giardia lamblia (Giardia intestinalis)
- Pathophysiology: Giardia lamblia infects the
small intestine and causes giardiasis. It impairs
nutrient absorption and damages the intestinal
lining, resulting in symptoms such as diarrhea,
abdominal pain, and malabsorption.
9. Malaria:
- Protozoan: Plasmodium species (e.g.,
Plasmodium falciparum, Plasmodium vivax)
- Pathophysiology: Malaria is transmitted by
infected female Anopheles mosquitoes. The
Plasmodium parasites invade and multiply within
red blood cells, causing cyclical episodes of fever,
chills, anemia, organ dysfunction, and potentially
life-threatening complications.
10. Cryptosporidiosis:
- Protozoan: Cryptosporidium parvum
- Pathophysiology: Cryptosporidium parvum
infects the gastrointestinal tract and causes diarrheal
disease. It damages the intestinal lining and impairs
nutrient absorption, leading to prolonged diarrhea,
especially in immunocompromised individuals.
These diseases highlight the diverse range of
clinical conditions caused by protozoa, affecting
various organ systems and leading to a wide array
of symptoms and complications.