Materials and Processes - Engr - Purigay

AIRCRAFT MATERIALS
AND PROCESSES
FEATI UNIVERSITY – AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING REVIEW CENTER NMP

METALS

PROPERTIES OF METALS
Strength
One way to classify metals is according to theamount of strength they possess. A
metal's strength is determined by the percentage of parent metal andother elements
used to make an alloy.
Tensile Strength
It is the maximum tensile load per unit area which a material can withstand.
Yield Strength
It is the ability of metal to resist deformation.Once the yield point is reached the metal
deforms without an increase in the applied stress.
Ultimate Strength
It is the maximum stress a material can sustain without rupture.
Limit Strength
It is the maximum stress expected in any structural member. Compression members
have lower limit load due to stability (buckling and crippling).

Properties of Metals
Shear Strength
Shear strength describes a metal's ability to resist opposing forces.A rivet holding two
or more sheets of metal together resisting the force of the sheets try-ing to slide apart
is an example of a shear load.
Bearing Strength
Bearing strength is the ability of a joint to withstand any form of crushing or excessive
compressive dis-tortion. Material under a compression load usually fails by buckling or
bending. The force at which something buckles while being compressed varies with an
object's length, cross-sectional area, and shape.
Flexural Strength (Modulus of Rupture, Bend Strength, or Fracture Strength)

It is defined as a material's ability to resist deformation underload. The flexural
strength represents the highest stress experienced within the material at its moment of
rupture.
Elastic Limit – is the greatest stress a material can withstand without a permanent
deformation remaining upon complete release of the load. The aim in aircraft design is
to keep the stress below this point.

Other Strength Terms
Stress – is the load per unit are acting on a material
Strain – is the deformation of a material caused by an appliedload
Proportional Limit – is the greatest stress at which strain (deformation) is directly
proportional to stress.
Proof Stress – is a stress a material can withstand without resulting in permanent
elongation of more than 0.0001 inch per inch of gage length after complete release of
stress.
Elongation – is the difference in gage length before being subjected to any strength and
after rupture.
Reduction of Area – is the difference between the original cross-sectional area and the
least cross-sectional area after rupture.
Permanent Set – (also called set, permanent deformation, plastic strain, or plastic
deformation). This is any strain remaining after removing the stress.
Ultimate Factor (Factor of Safety)– is the ratio of ultimate stress to limit stress. For
nearly all aircraft design, the ultimate factor is 1.5
Margin of Safety – ultimate factor minus 1
Stress Ratio – the ratio of maximum to minimum stress applied in one cycle of loading
in fatigue test.

Stiffness Ratio – is the ratio of applied load per deformation
Poisson’s Ratio – is the ratio of lateral strain to axial strain

μalum = 0.33 μsteel = 0.3
Moduli within the Proportional Limit (Elastic Range)

1. Modulus of Elasticity (Young’s Modulus)- is a number that measures an object or
substance's resistance to being deformed elastically when a force is applied to .it
Ealum = 10x106 psi ECRES = 26x106 psi
Esteel = 29x106 psi Etita = 16x106 psi
2. Modulus of Rigidity (Shear Modulus) - is the coefficient of elasticity fora
shearing force.
Galum = 4x106 psi Gtita = 6x106 psi
Gsteel = 12x106 psi
Moduli above the Elastic Limit (Plastic Range)
1. Tangent Modulus– slope of tangent to the stress-strain curve
2. Secant Modulus – slope of secant to the curve that passes through the origin and a point
on the curve

Et < Es < E
Resilience – capacity of a material to absorb energy in the elastic range

Modulus of Resilience – ratio of maximum energy absorbed per unit volume
Toughness – energy absorption in the plastic range
Modulus of Toughness- Amount of work per unit volume of a material required to carry that
material to failure under static loading. Equal to the area under the entire stress-strain curve.

Hardness
A metal's hardness refers to its ability to resist cut-ting, penetration,

or abrasion. The tensile strength of steel relates directly to its
hardness, but for most metals this relationship is not absolute.
Some met-als are hardened through heat-treating or work-
hardening, while others are softened by a process called annealing.
Brittleness
Brittleness describes a material's tendency tobreak or shatter when

exposed to stress, and is the oppo-site of ductility and malleability.
A brittle metal is more apt to break or crack before it changes
shape. Because structural metals are often subjected to shock
loads, brittleness is not a desirable property. Cast iron, cast
aluminum, and very hard steel are examples of brittle metals.

Malleability
A material's ability to be bent, formed, or shaped without cracking or breaking is

called malleability. It is this property that permits the manufacture ofsheets,
bar stocks, forgings, and fabrication by bending and hammering.Hardness and
malleability are generally considered opposite characteristics. To help increase
malleabil-ity, several metals are annealed, or softened. In this condition complex
shapes can be formed. After forming is complete, the metal is then heat treated
to increase its strength.
Ductility
The ability of metal to be drawn intowire stock, extrusions, or rods is called
ductility. Ductile metals are preferred for aircraft use because of their ease of
forming and resistance to failure under shock loads. For this reason, aluminum
alloys are often used for cowlings, fuselage and wing skins, and formed or
extruded parts such as ribs, spars, and bulkheads.

Toughness
Toughness is a material's ability to resist tearing or breaking when it is bent or
stretched. Hammer faces and wrenches are examples of metal that must be
tough as well as hard to be useful.
Elasticity
Elasticity describes a metal's tendency toreturn to its original shape after

normal stretching and bend-ing. The flexibility of spring steel used for the
con-struction of landing gear is a good example ofelasticity. Another form of
elasticity is demonstrated when aircraft skins expand and contract when an
aircraft is pressurized.
Soft materials such as lead, copper, and pure aluminum have very low elastic
limits, while the elastic limit of hard spring steel is very high.


Conductivity
Conductivity is the property which enables a metal to carry heat or electricity.
The ability to carry heat is called thermal conductivity while the ability to carry
electrons is electrical conductivity. The best electrical conductors are gold,
silver, copper, and aluminum.
Expansion and Contraction
The property of a metal to expand when heated and shrink when cooled is
called thermal expansion. The amount of expansion or contraction is
pre-dictable at specific temperatures and is called itscoefficient of expansion.
All aircraft experience thermal expansion and contraction as the ambient
temperature changes.


Fusibility
The ability of metal to be joined by heating and melting is defined as fusibility.

To fuse metal means to melt two or more compatible pieces of metal into one
continuous part. The correct term is called fusion joining or welding.

Density
Density is a material's mass per unitvolume. The standard from which a metal's
density is determined is water with a density of 1g/cc.


METALWORKING PROCESSES
After metal alloys are produced, they must be formed into useful shapes.Wrought
objects are those formed by physically working the metal into shape, whereascast
items are formed by pouring molten metal into molds. When it comes to mechan-ically
working metal into a desired shape, there are three methods commonly used. They are
hot-work-ing, cold-working, and extruding.
Hot-Working
Hot-working is the process of forming metal at anelevated temperature when it is in its

annealed, or soft condition. Almost all steel is hot-worked from the ingot into a form
which is either hot- or cold-worked to a finishedshape.
Rolling – consists of forming hot metal ingots with rollers to form sheets, bars, and
beams.
Forging – is a process wherein a piece of metal is worked at temperatures above its
critical range.

Metalworking Processes
Rolling is a process of reduction of the cross-sectional

area or shaping a metal piece through the deformation
caused by a pair of rotating in opposite directions
metal rolls.
• Bloom – 6x6 .in or larger; approximately square

• Billet – less than 6x6 in; approximately square
• Slabs – rectangular sections in which the width is
greater than twice the thickness
Hammer forging (drop forging) is forming a preheated

workpiece by using impact energy of the falling
hammer forcing the metal to fill the space between
the punch (a part attached to the hammer) and
the forging die (a part attached to the anvil ).
The surplus metal which has been squeezed out into

the relieved section is called the fin or flash. This fin is
trimmed off the finished part.

• Pressing is used to form large and heavy parts. Since a press is slow acting, its force is
uniformly trans-mitted to the center of the material being pressed. This affects the interior
grain structure resulting in the best possible structure throughout.
• Drop forging is a hammering process whereby a hot ingot is placed between a pair of
formed dies in a machine called a drop hammer and a weight of sev-eral tons is dropped on
the upper die.
• Hammering (smith forging ) is a type of forging that is usually used onsmall parts because
it requires a metalworker to physically hammer a piece of metal into its finished shape. The
advantage of hammering is that the oper-ator has control over both the amount of pressure
applied and the finishing temperature.
• Upset forging is a forging operation which is employed for manufacturinghead of bolts,
valves, artillery shells and other parts where increase of cross section dimensions of the
workpiece is desired.
• Roll forging (Swaging) is a forging operation involvingreduction of the workpiece diameter
(with increase of its length) by rolling it between two grooved rolls rotating at the same
rotating direction.
•

Pressed Powdered Metal Parts
The process of pressing powdered-metal parts is a method by which

combinations of different metals, or of metals and non-metals, that
do not ordinarily alloy can be joined together.
Pressed powdered-metal parts are formed on a press by placing a
measured quantity of finely powdered metal in a die cavity and then
applying pressure through a plunger to form a compact mass. This
mass holds its shape when removed from the die by reason of the
interlocking of the finely-powdered particles.

Cold-Working
Cold-working is performed well below a metal's critical temperatureand ranges from

the manual bending of sheet metal for skin repairs to drawing seamless tubing and
wire.
Cold-rolling usually refers to the rolling of metal at room tem-perature to its
approximate size. Once this is done, the metal is pickled to remove any scale, and then
passed through chilled finishing rolls.
Cold-drawing is used in making seamless tubing, wire, streamlined tie rods, and other
forms of stock. Wire is made from hot-rolled rods of vari-ous
diameters.


Extrusion
Extrusion is the process of forcing metal through a die which imparts arequired cross-
section to the metal. Some metals such as lead, tin, and aluminum may be extruded
cold, however, most metals are heated. The principal advantage of the extrusion
process is its flexibility.

Casting
Casting are being more generally used in aircraft construction as a result of improved quality and
the development of high-strength heat treatment.Steel casting should not be used in place of
forgings unless a definite advantage is gained thereby. This advantage might be the avoidance of
excessive or difficult machining operations.
In general, forgings have better impact strength, fatigue resistance, and toughness.
• Static Casting – consists of the manufacture of pattern, pouring the metal into the mold, and
the removal and finishing of the casting after it has solidified in the mold.
• Centrifugal Casting – devised as a method for applying pressure to the molten metal during
the casting operation. Pressure is obtained by whirling the mold. Some advantages are
improved surface appearance, good directional solidification, and uniformly dense, fine-
grained structure.
 True centrifugal – only a external mold is used and is spun around its own axis
 Semicentrifugal – an inside core is used as well as external mold
 Centrifuge – work is rotated around an independent central axis about which the molds
are grouped radially.
• Precision Casting – “lost wax” process of casting is used for intricate parts that must be held
to high accuracy in size and shape at a reasonable cost.

NONFERROUS METALS
Much of the metal used on today's aircraft contains no iron. The term that describes
metals which have elements other than iron as their base is nonferrous. Aluminum,
copper, titanium, and magnesium are some of the more common nonferrous metals
used in aircraft construction and repair.
Aluminum and Its Alloys

Aluminum is found in most clays, soils and rocks, but the principal commercial source is
the ore bauxite. Bauxite is largely aluminum oxide mixed with impurities. These
impurities are removed by a chemical process leaving the pure aluminum oxide,
alumina. An electrolytic process is used to obtain aluminum from that oxide.
Pure aluminum lacks sufficient strength to be used for aircraft construction. However,
its strength increases considerably when it is alloyed, ormixed, with other compatible
metals. For example, when aluminum is mixedwith copper or zinc, the resul-tant alloy
is as strong as steel with only one third the weight. Furthermore, the corrosion
resistance possessed by the aluminum carries over to the newly formed alloy.

Nonferrous Metals
Basic Designation for Wrought and Cast Aluminum Alloys

(AA Numbering System)
Alloy Number Major Identifying Elements

Wrought Alloys Cast Alloys
1XXX Pure Aluminum Pure Aluminum
2XXX Copper Copper
3XXX Manganese Silicon with added copper and/or
magnesium
4XXX Silicon Silicon
5XXX Magnesium Magnesium
6XXX Magnesium and Silicon Unused series
7XXX Zinc Zinc
8XXX Other elements Tin
9XXX Unused series Other elements
* Pure Aluminum means 99.00% minimum aluminum

Nonferrous Metals
* For 1xxx series, the last two digits indicates hundredths above 1 percent of pure aluminum.
(1030 has 99.30% aluminum content)

Nonferrous Metals

Nonferrous Metals
Nomenclature
S – wrought alloys (2S,3S, 13S, 61S)
Without S – cast alloys (43, 142, 195)
R – wrought alloys produced by the Reynolds Metals Company (R301, R303, R353)
- In few cases, a letter precedes the alloy number (A17S has different chemical composition
from the normal 17S)
H – temper designation; strain hardened by cold work. H means hard (3S1/4H, 3SH)
T – hardened by heat treatment (14ST, 53ST)
- For modified heat treatment, T is followed by a number (53S-T5, 53S-T61)
O – heat treatable alloy in annealed, soft state (14SO, 17SO)
SRT – heat treated and strain hardened (17SRT, 24SRT)
W – intermediate heat treatment (25SW, 53SW)
clad, Alclad – coated with a thin layer of aluminum (14S clad,Alclad 17S, Clad 14S)

Nonferrous Metals
Aluminum Alloy Designation - Wrought

Nonferrous Metals
1xxx Series
The lxxx series of aluminum alloys represents commercially pure aluminum, of 99 percent or higher
purity. Pure aluminum offershigh corrosion resistance, excellent thermal and electrical proper-ties,
and is easily worked. However, pure aluminum is very low in strength.
2xxx Series
Alloys within the 2xxx series utilize copper as the principle alloying agent. When aluminum is mixed
with copper, certain metallic changes take place in the resultant alloy's grain structure. For the most
part, these changes are beneficial and produce greater strength.However, a major drawback to
alu-minum-copper alloys is their susceptibility tointer-granular corrosion when improperly heat-
treated. Most aluminum alloy used in aircraft structures is an aluminum-copper alloy. Two of the
most com-monly used in the construction of skins and rivets are 2017 and 2024 .
3xxx Series
The 3xxx series alloys have manganese as the prin-ciple alloying element, and are generally
considered non-heat treatable. The most common variation is 3003, which offersmoderate strength
and has good working characteristics.

Nonferrous Metals
4xxx Series
The 4xxx series aluminum is alloyed with sili-con, which lowers a metal's melting tempera-ture. This
results in an alloy that works well forwelding and brazing.
5xxx Series
Magnesium is used to produce the 5xxx series alloys. These alloys possessgood welding and
corrosion-resistance characteristics. However, if the metal is exposed to high temperatures or
excessive cold working, its susceptibility to cor-rosion increases.
6xxx Series
If silicon and magnesium are added to alu-minum, the resultant alloy carries a 6xxx series
designation. In these alloys, the silicon and mag-nesium form magnesium silicide which makes the
alloy heat-treatable. Furthermore, the 6xxx series hasmedium strength with good forming and
corrosion-resistance properties.
7xxx Series
When parts require more strength and little form-ing, harder aluminum alloys are employed. The
7xxx series aluminum alloys are made harder and stronger by the addition of zinc. Some widely
used forms of zinc-aluminum alloys are 7075 and 7178. The aluminum-zinc alloy 7075 has a tensile
strength of 77 KSI and a bearing strength of 139 KSI. However, the alloy is very hard and is diffi-cult
to bend. An even stronger zinc alloy is 7178 which has a tensile strength of 84 KSI and a bear-ing
strength of 151 KSI.

Nonferrous Metals
Aluminum Clad
Several aluminum alloys as for example 2024 and 7075 are very susceptible to corrosion. Sheets of such
material are clad with a thin layer of pure aluminum with 1 % zinc on both sides as a means of corrosion
protection. These layers are permanently welded to the base material in a rolling process at high
temperature. Other than electroplated stock, clad material can be formed. The thickness of the clad
layers is about 3 or 5 % of the material thickness. An ink print on US sheet metal that readsAlclad, Clad
or ALC indicates that such sheet isclad.
Alclad, a registered trademark, usually refers to the products of Aluminum Company of America.
Pureclad is the equivalent name for material manufactured by the Reynolds Metal Company.

Nonferrous Metals
Casting for Aluminum Alloys

3 Ways of Casting Aluminum Alloys
1. Sand Casting – is the most common and is used for complicated shapes or where only a few parts
are required.
2. Permanent-mold Casting – is similar to sand casting, but a metal mold is used which permits the
making of many parts with better accuracy than sand casting. Casting with complicated cores
cannot be manufactured in metal molds. Sometimes cores are fabricated of sand in the metal mold
and is called semipermanent-mold casting.
3. Die Casting – is used when small parts must be made and held to close tolerances. It works by
forcing metal into water cooled dies.

Nonferrous Metals
Temper Designation System

Basic Temper Designation
F – As fabricated
O – Annealed
H – Strain hardened (Non heat treatable products only)
W – Solution heat treated
T – Heat treated to produce stable tempers other than F, O, orH
Temper Designation for Non Heat TreatableAlloys

H1 – Strain hardened produced by cold working the metal to the desired dimension.
H2 – Strain hardened, then partially annealed to remove some of the hardness.
H3 – Strain hardened, then stabilized.
The degree of hardening is indicated by a second digit following one of the above designations:
2 - 1/4 hard
4 - 1/2 hard
6 - 3/4 hard
8 - full hard
9 - extra hard
A third digit may be used to indicate a variation of a two digit number.

Nonferrous Metals
Temper Designation for Heat Treatable Alloy

T1 – Cooled from an elevated temperature shaping process and naturally aged to a substantially stable
condition
T2 – Annealed
T3 – Solution heat treated and cold worked.
T4 – Solution heat treated and naturally aged.
T42 – Solution heat treated from 0 temper to demonstrate response to heat treatment by the user, and
naturally aged to a substantially stable condition
T5 – Cooled from an elevated temperature shaping process and artificially aged
T6 – Solution heat treated and artificially aged.
T62 – Solution heat treated from 0 F temper to demonstrate response to heat treatment by the user,
and artificially aged
T7 – Solution heat treated and stabilized
T8 – Solution heat treated, cold worked, and artificially aged
T9 – Solution heat treated, artificially aged, and cold worked
T10 – Cooled from an elevated temperature shaping process, cold worked, and artificially aged.

Nonferrous Metals
Heat Treatment
Heat treatment is a series of operations involving the heating and cooling of metals in their solid state.
Its purpose is to make the metal more useful, serviceable and safe for a definite purpose.
Some alloys, such as 2017 and 2024, develop their full properties as a result of solution heat treatment
followed by about 4 days of cooling, or aging, at room temperature. However, other alloys, such as 2014
and 7075, require both heat treatments.
Types of Heat Treatment

Solution Heat Treatment(Natural Aging)
It is the process of heating certain aluminum alloys toallow the alloying elements to mix with the
base metal. The alloy is allowed to cool at room temperature and can takeseveral hours or weeks.
Precipitation Heat Treatment (Artificial Aging)

Works by acceleratingthe aging process by cooling at an elevatedtemperature. This process
develops hard-ness, strength, and corrosion resistance by locking a metal's grain structure
together.

Nonferrous Metals
Heat Treatment for Aluminum Alloys

Nonferrous Metals
Methods of Heat Treatment
1. Solution Heat Treat
In this proce-dure, metal is heated in either a molten sodium or potassium nitrate bath or in a hot-air
furnace to a temperature just below its melting point. The tem-perature is then held to within about
plus or minus 10 degrees Fahrenheit of this temperature and the base metal issoaked until the alloying
element is uniform throughout.
2. Quenching
Once the metal has sufficiently soaked, it is removed from the furnace and cooled or quenched . It is
extremely important that no more than about ten seconds elapse between removal of an alloy from the
furnace and the quench. . The rea-son for this is that when metal leaves the furnace and starts to cool,
its alloying metals begin to pre-cipitate out of the base metal. If this process is not stopped, large grains
of alloy become suspended in the aluminum and weaken the alloy. Excessive pre-cipitation also
increases the likelihood of intergranular corrosion. After quenching the material initially is soft and
ductile.
3. Age Hardening
The aging process can be accelerated by reheating a metal and allowing it to soak for a specified period
of time.

Nonferrous Metals
Methods of Heat Treatment

Nonferrous Metals
Types of Heat Treatment

Annealing – is a form of heat treatment that softens steel and relieves internal stress. It is heated
about 50 degrees F above its critical temperature, soaked for specified time then cooled .
Normalizing – the process of forging, welding, or machining usually leave stresses to the steel
that could lead to failure. To normalize, it is heated about 100 degrees F above its critical
temperature and held there until the metal is uniformly heat soaked, then removed from the
furnace and allowed to cool in still air.
Tempering – Tempering reduces the brittleness imparted byhardening and produces definite
physical properties within thesteel. Tempering always follows, never precedes, thehardening
operation. In addition to reducing brittleness,tempering softens the steel. It is heated to a level
considerable below its critical temperature and held there until it becomes heat soaked, then
allowed to cool to room temperature in still air.

Nonferrous Metals
Non-Heat-Treatable Alloys
Commercially pure aluminum does not benefit from heat treatment since there are no alloying
materials in its structure. By the same token,3003 is an almost identical metal and, except for a
small amount of manganese, does not benefit from being heat treated. Both of these metals are
lightweight and somewhat corrosion resistant. However, neither has a great deal of strength and,
therefore, their use in aircraft is limited to nonstructural components such as fairings and
streamlined enclosures that carry little or noload.
Alloy 5052 is perhaps the most important of thenonheat-treatable aluminum alloys. It contains
about 2.5 percent magnesium and a small amount of chromium. It is used for welded parts such
as gaso-line or oil tanks, and for rigid fluid lines. Its strength is increased by cold working.

Nonferrous Metals
Reheat Treatment
Material which has been previously heat-treated can generally be reheat treated any number of
times. As an example, rivets made of 2017 or 2024 are extremely hard and typically receive
several reheat treatments to make them soft enough to drive.
As discussed earlier, the number of solution heat-treatments allowed for clad materials is limited
due to the increased diffusion of core material into the cladding. This diffusion results in
decreased corro-sion resistance.As a result, clad material is gener-ally limited to no more than
three reheat treatments.

Nonferrous Metals
Magnesium and Its Alloys
Magnesium alloys are used for castings and in its wrought form is available in sheets, bars, tubing, and
extrusions. Magnesium is one of the lightest metals having sufficient strength and suitable work-ing
characteristics for use in aircraft structures. It has a density of 1.74, compared with 2.69 for alu-minum.
In other words, it weighs only about 2/3 as much as aluminum.
Magnesium is obtained primarily from electrolysis of sea water or brine from deep wells, and lacks
sufficient strength in its pure state for use as a structural metal. However, when it is alloyed with zinc,
aluminum, thorium, zirconium, or man-ganese, it develops strength characteristics that make it quite
useful.
In addition to cracking and corroding easily, magne-sium burns readily in a dust or small particle form.
For this reason, caution must be exercised when grinding and machiningmagnesium

Nonferrous Metals
The American Society for Testing Materials (ASTM) has developed a classification system for magne-sium
alloys that consists of a series of lettersand numbers to indicate alloying agents and tempercondition.
Magnesium alloys use a different

designation system than aluminum.
For example, the designationAZ31A-
T4 identifies an alloy containing 3
percent aluminumand 1 percent zinc
that has been solution heat-treated

Nonferrous Metals
Titanium and Its Alloys
Titanium and its alloys are light weight metals with very high strength. Pure titanium weighs .163
pounds per cubic inch, which is about 50 percent lighter than stainless steel, yet it is approximately
equal in strength to iron. Furthermore, pure tita-nium is soft and ductile with a density between that of
aluminum and iron.
In addition to its light weight and high strength, tita-nium and its alloys have excellent corrosion
resis-tance characteristics, particularly to the corrosive effects of salt water. However, since the metal is
sen-sitive to both nitrogen and oxygen, it must be con-verted to titanium dioxide with chlorine gas and a
reducing agent before it can be used.
3 Basic Types of Crystals
• A (alpha) — all around performance; goodweldability; tough and strong both cold and hot, and
resistant to oxidation. (8Al-1Mo-1V-Ti or Ti-8-1-1). This series of numbers indicates that the alloying
elements and their per-centages are 8 percent aluminum, 1 percent molyb-denum, and 1 percent
vanadium.)
• B (beta) — bendability; excellent bend ductility; strong both cold and hot, but vulnerable to
contamination.
• C (combined alpha and beta for compromiseperformances)—strong when cold and warm, but
weak when hot; good bendability; moderatecontamination resistance; excellent forgeability.

Nonferrous Metals
This table illustrates the composition, tensile strength, and elongation of titanium alloys. The degree of strength is
denoted by the smaller hole elongation percentage shown in the last column. The titanium alloy most commonly
used by the aero-space industry is an alpha-beta heat-treated alloy called
6AI-4V. This alloy has a tensile strength of
180 KSI, or 180,000 pounds persquare inch. It is frequently used for special fasteners.
Because of its high strength-to-weight ratio, tita-

nium is now used extensively in the civilian
aerospace industry. Although once rare on commercial aircraft, modern jet transports now uti-
lize
alloys containing 10 to 15 percent titaniumin structural areas

Nonferrous Metals
Nickel and Its Alloys
Monel
Monel contains about 68 percent nickel and 29 percent copper, along with small amounts of iron and
manganese. It can be welded and has very good machining characteristics. Certain types ofmonel,
especially those containing small percentages ofaluminum (K-Monel), are heat-treatable, to tensile
strengths equivalent to steel.Monel works well in gears and parts that require high strength and
toughness, as well as for parts in exhaust sys-tems that require high strength and corrosion resistance at
elevated temperatures.
Inconel
The International Nickel Company, Inc., pro-duces a series of high strength, high temperature alloys
containing approximately80 percent nickel, 14 percent chromium, and small amounts of iron and
other elements. The alloys, commonly referred to asinconel, find frequent use in turbine engines
because of their ability to maintain their strength and corrosion resistance under extremely high
temperature conditions.
Inconel and stainless steel are similar in appearance and are frequently used in the same areas.
Therefore, it is often necessary to use a test to dif-ferentiate between unknown metal samples. A
com-mon test involves applying one drop of cupric chlo-ride and hydrochloric acid solution to the
unknown metal and allowing it to remain for two minutes. At the end of the dwell period, a shiny spot
indicates that the material isinconel, whereas a copper-col-ored spot identifies stainless steel.

Nonferrous Metals
Copper and Its Alloys
Neither copper nor its alloys find much use as structural materials in aircraft construction. However, due
to its excellent electrical and ther-mal conductivity
, copper is the primary metal used forelectrical wiring.
Brass
Brass is a copper alloy containing zinc and small amounts of aluminum, iron, lead, man-ganese,
magnesium, nickel, phosphorous, and tin. Brass with a zinc content of 30 to 35 percent is very ductile,
while brass containing 45 percent zinc has relatively highstrength
Bronze
Bronze is a copper alloy that containstin. A true bronze consists of up to 25 percent tin and, along with
brass, is used in bushings, bearings, fuel-metering valves, and valve seats. Bronzes with less than 11
percent tin are used in items such as tube fittings.
Beryllium
Beryllium copper is probably one of the most used copper alloys. It consists of approximately 97
per-cent copper, 2 percentberyllium, and sufficient nickel to increase its strength. Once heat treated,
beryllium copper achieves a tensile strength of 200,000 psi and 70,000 psi in its annealed state. This
makes beryllium extremely useful for diaphragms, precision bearings and bushings, ball cages, and
spring washers

FERROUS METALS
Any alloy containing iron as its chief constituent is called a ferrous metal. The most
common ferrous metal in aircraft structures is steel, an alloy of iron with a controlled
amount of carbon added.
Iron
Iron is a chemical element which is fairly soft, mal-leable, and ductile in its pure form. It
is silvery white in color and is quite heavy, having a density of 7.9 grams per cubic
centimeter. Iron combines readily with oxygen to form iron oxide, which is more
commonly known as rust.
Iron is produced by mixing iron ore with coke and limestone and submitting it to hot
air. The limestone reacts with impurities in the iron and coke to form a slag which floats
on top of the molten iron. The slag is removed and the refined metal is then poured
from the furnace. The resulting metal is known aspig iron and is typically remelted and
cast into cast-iron components, or converted into steel.

Ferrous Metals
Steel
To make steel, pig iron is re-melted in a special fur-nace. Pure oxygen is then forced
through the molten metal where it combines with carbon and burns. A controlled
amount of carbon is then put back into the molten metal along with other elements to
pro-duce the desiredcharacteristics
Much of the steel used in aircraft construction is made in electric furnaces, which allow
better con-trol of alloying agents than gas-fired furnaces. An electric furnace is loaded
with scrap steel, lime-stone, and flux
. . The intense heat from the arcs melts the steel
and the impurities mix with the flux. Once the impurities are removed, controlled
quantities of alloying agents are added, and the liquid metal is poured into molds.

Ferrous Metals
SAE Classifications of Steel
The Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE)has classified steel alloys with a four-digit
numerical index system. For example, one common steel alloy is identified by the designation
SAE 1030. The first digit identifies the principal alloying element in the steel, the second digit
denotes the percent of this alloying element, and the last two digits give the percentage in
hundredths of a percent of carbon in the steel.

Ferrous Metals
Alloying Agents in Steel
Carbon
Carbon is the most common alloying element found in steel. When mixed with iron,
compounds of iron carbides calledcementite form. It is the carbon in steel that allows the
steel to be heat-treated toobtain varying degrees of hardness, strength, and tough-ness. The
greater the carbon content, the more receptive steel is to heat treatment and, therefore, the
higher its tensile strength and hardness. However, higher carbon content decreases the
mal-leability andweldability of steel.
• Low-carbon steels contain between 0.10 and 0.30 percent carbon and are classified as
SAE 1010 to SAE 1030 steel. These steels are primarily used in safety wire, cable bushings,
and threaded rod ends. In sheet form, these steels are used for secondary structures
where loads are not high. Low-carbon steel is easily welded and machines readily, but
does not accept heat treatment well.

Ferrous Metals
• Medium-carbon steels contain between 0.30 and 0.50 percent carbon. The increased
carbon helps these steels accept heat treatment, while still retain-ing a reasonable degree
of ductility. This steel is especially adaptable for machining or forging and where surface
hardness is desirable.
• High-carbon steels contain between 0.50 and 1,05 percent carbon, and are very hard.
These steels are primarily used in springs, files, and some cutting tools.
Sulfur
Sulfur causes steel to be brittle when rolled or forged and, therefore, it must be removed in
the refining process. If all the sulfur cannot be removed its effects can be countered by adding
manganese. The manganese combines with the sulfur to form manganese sulfide, which
does not harm the fin-ished steel. In addition to eliminating sulfur and other oxides from
steel, manganese improves a metal's forging characteristics by making it less brit-tle at rolling
and forging temperatures.

Ferrous Metals
Silicon
When silicon is alloyed with steel it acts as a hard-ener. When used in small quantities, it also
improves ductility.
Phosphorus
Phosphorous raises the yield strength of steel and improves low carbon steel's resistance to
atmos-pheric corrosion. However, no more than 0.05 per-cent phosphorous is normally used
in steel, since higher amounts cause the alloy to become brittle when cold.
Nickel
Nickel adds strength and hardness to steel and increases its yield strength. It also slows the
rate of hardening when steel is heat-treated, which increases the depth of hardening and
produces a finer grain structure. The finer grain structure reduces steel's tendency to warp
and scale when heat-treated. SAE 2330 steel contains 3 percent nickel and 0.30 percent
carbon, and is used in pro-ducing aircraft hardware such as bolts, nuts, rod ends, and pins.

Ferrous Metals
Chromium
Chromium is alloyed with steel to increase strength and hardness as well as improve its wear
and corro-sion resistance. Because of its characteristics, chromium steel is used in balls and
rollers of antifriction bearings.
In addition to its use as an alloying element in steel, chromium iselectrolytically deposited on
cylinder walls and bearing journals to provide a hard,wear-resistant surface.
Nickel-Chromium Steel
Nickel toughens steel, and chromium hardens it. Therefore, when both ele-ments are alloyed
they give steel desirable charac-teristics for use in high-strength structural applica-tions.
Nickel-chrome steels such as SAE 3130, 3250, and 3435 are used for forged and machined
parts requiring high strength, ductility, shock resistance, and toughness.

Ferrous Metals
Stainless Steel (Corrosion Resistant Steel, CRES)
Stainless steel is a classification of corrosion-resis-tant steels that contain large amounts of
chromium and nickel. Their strength and resistance to corro-sion make them well suited for high-
temperature applications such as firewalls and exhaust system components.
The corrosion-resistant steel most often used in air-craft construction is known as 18-8 steel because
it contains 18 percent chromium and 8 percent nickel. One of the distinctive features of 18-8 steel is
that its strength may be increased by cold-working.
These steels can be divided into three general groups based on their chemical structure: austenitic,
ferritic, and martensitic.
• Austenitic steels, also referred to as 200 and300 series stainless steels, contain a large
percentage of chromium and nickel, and in the case of the 200 series, some manganese. When
these steels are heated to a temperature above their critical range and held there, a structure
known as austenite forms. Austenite is a solid solution ofpearlite, an alloy of iron and carbon,
and gamma iron, which is a nonmagnetic form of iron. Austenitic stainless steels can be
hardened only by coldworking while heat treatment serves only to anneal them.

Ferrous Metals
• Ferritic steels are primarily alloyed with chromium but many also contain small amounts of
aluminum. However, they contain no carbon and, therefore, do not respond to heat treatment .
• Martensitic steel is a 400 series of stainless steel.These steels are alloyed with chromium only
and therefore are magnetic. Martensitic steels become extremely hard if allowed to cool rapidly
by quenching from an elevated temperature.
Molybdenum
One of the most widely used alloying elements for air-craft structural steel is molybdenum. It
reduces the grain size of steel and increases both its impact strength and elastic limit. Molybdenum
steels are extremely wear resistant and possess a great deal of fatigue strength. This accounts for its
use in high-strength structural members and engine cylinder barrels.

Ferrous Metals
Chrome-Molybdenum
Chrome-molybdenum (chrome-moly)steel is the most commonly used alloy in aircraft. Its SAE
designation of 4130 denotes an alloy of approximately 1 percent molybdenum and 0.30 percent
carbon. It machines readily, is easily welded by either gas or electric arc, and responds well to heat
treatment. Heat-treated SAE 4130 steel has an ultimate tensile strength about four times that of SAE
1025 steel, making it an ideal choice for landing gear structures and engine mounts. Furthermore,
chrome-moly's toughness and wear resistance make it a good material for engine cylinders and
other highly stressed engine parts.
Vanadium
When combined with chromium, vanadium pro-duces a strong, tough, ductile steel alloy. Amounts
up to 0.20 percent improve grain structure and increase both ultimate tensile strength and
tough-ness. Most wrenches and ball bearings are made of chrome-vanadium steel .
Tungsten
Tungsten has an extremely high melting point and adds this characteristic to steel it is alloyed with.
Because tungsten steels retain their hardness at ele-vated operating temperatures, they are typically
used for breaker contacts in magnetos and forhigh-speedcutting tools.

Ferrous Metals
Heat Treatment of Steel
Critical Range
Materials are said to be allotropic when they possess the property that permits them to exist
in various forms without a change in chemical composition. Carbon which exists as diamond,
graphite and charcoal, is a common allotropic substance. Pure iron is also allotropic, existing
in three states, namely: alpha, beta, and gamma iron.
In this case each of these states is stable only between very definite temperature limits –
alpha iron up to 1400°F, beta ironfrom 1400°F to 1652°F, and gamma iron above the latter
temperature.

Ferrous Metals
Cooling Points:
Ar3 (upper critical pt) – gamma to beta
transformation
Ar2 (second critical pt) – beta to alpha
transformation
Ar1 (lowest critical pt or recalescent pt) – for
low-carbon steels only.; metal glows due to
intense evolution of heat
Heating Points
Ac3, Ac2 and Ac1 – occur at similar points for Ar3,
Ar2 and Ar1 (20°F higher)
• r for refroidissement meaning cooling

Critical Points of Steel • c for chauffage meaning heating
• Greater hardness is obtainable as the carbon

content increases and approaches 0.85%.
• The grain size of steel is smallest just above
the critical range.
• Smallest grain sizes will give the strongest and
best metal.

Ferrous Metals
Internal Structure of Steel
The internal structure of steel is almost wholly dependent upon the exact relationship ofiron and
carbon.
• Cementite (Iron Carbide, Fe3C) – combination of iron and carbon; very hard and brittle
• Ferrite – pure alpha iron; very ductile. It does not have any hardening properties.
• Pearlite – in steels containing 0.85% carbon, cementite forms a perfect mixture with ferrite. (6
parts ferrite, 1 part cementite). For tool steels which contain more than 0.85% carbon,
pearlite has excess cementite. Pearlite is relatively strong, hard, and ductile.
 Granular Pearlite – pearlite with granulated appearance
 Laminated Pearlite – very slow cooling through the critical range; most stable form
• Austenite – steel heated above the critical range (solid solution of cementite in gamma iron)
• Eutectic Alloy – refers to alloy of two substances which have the lowest fusing point.
• Eutectoid – steels containg 0.85 % carbon (lowest temp at upper crit.pt). Greatest hardness
from heat treatment is obtained in this composition.
• Hypo-eutectoid – steels with less than 0.85 % carbon
• Hyper-eutectoid – steels with more than 0.85 % carbon

Ferrous Metals
Theory of Heat Treatment
• Hardening – consists of heating the steel just above the critical range, holding the metal at
that temp. until thoroughly heated (soaking), and then rapidly cooling (quenching) by
immersing the hot steel in cold water or oil.
• Drawing or Tempering– consists of reheating the hardened steel to a temp. well below the
critical range, followed by soaking and quenching.
• Martensite – main constituent of hardened steel. It is an intermediate form of cementite in
alpha iron. Martensite is the hardest structure obtained in steel.
• Troostite – intermediate form, similar tomartensite. It is present in drawn steels whereas
martensite is not.
• Sorbite – third intermediate form between austenite and pearlite. It is the main constituent of
drawn steel that gives it maximum strength and ductility.
• Bainite – equivalent to tempered martensite; makes a hard but ductile, tough material
• Hardened Steel – consists almost entirely ofmartensite and some troosite.

Ferrous Metals
• Annealing – heating the metal to just above Ac3, soaking at that temp. for a definite time, and
cooling very slowly in the furnace itself. In the annealed state, steel has the lowest strength.
 Process Annealing – commonly used in sheets and wire industries to restore ductility
 Spheroidizing – applied particularly to high-carbon steels to improve their machinability.
 Shop Annealing – heating steel in a welding torch 900°F to 1000°F and dropping it into a
pail of ashes or lime to restrict the cooling rate.
• Normalizing – is a form of annealing which consist in heating the steel above Ac3 and then
cooling in still air. Due to rapid quenching obtained by air-cooling, the steel is harder and
stronger but less ductile than annealed material. Normalizing is required whenever it is
desired to obtain material of uniform physical characteristics.

Ferrous Metals
Interrupted Quenching
Interrupted quenching procedures has been made to attain special characteristics or economies
in the heat treating of steel.
• Cycle Annealing – a process in which austenite is transformed isothermally to pearlite at high
temperatures, and this latter structure is retained when the work is cooled to room
temperature. It gives better control of the final annealed structure and can be accomplished
in a fraction of a time required for full annealing andspheroidizing operations.
• Austempering – a process in which austenite is transformed isothermally tobainite at
moderate temperatures. It is limited to small sizes and deep hardening steels but greatly
increases the toughness and ductility of steels heat treated to high hardness.
• Martempering – a process in which austenite isuniformly transformed tomartensite at low
temperatures by continuous cooling. It is applicable only to relatively small sizes of deep-
hardening steels but minimizes distortion and cracking due to quenching, reduces internal
stresses, and gives good physical properties.

Ferrous Metals
Surface Hardening
For some design purposes, it is necessary to have a hard, wear-resisting surface and a strong tough
core. The hard case resist wear and abrasion, and the soft, tough core resist shock stresses.
Case Hardening
1. Carburizing – forms a thin layer of high carbon steel on the exterior of low carbon steel.
Pack Carburizing – is done by enclosing the metal in a fire-clay container and packing it with a
carbon-rich material such as charcoal. The container is then sealed, placed in furnace, and
heated.
Gas Carburizing – is similar to pack carburizing except the carbon monoxide gas combines
with gamma iron and forms a high-carbon surface.
Liquid Carburizing – produces a high-carbon surface when a part is heated in a molten salt
bath of sodium cyanide or barium cyanide.
2. Nitriding – hardening by heating the metal in contact with ammonia gas or other nitrogenous
material. A harder case is obtainable bynitriding than by carburizing.
3. Cyaniding – is a fast method of producing surface hardness on an iron-based alloy of low carbon
content. Hardening is obtained by heating it in contact with a cyanide salt, followed by quenching.

Ferrous Metals
Induction Hardening
Induction heating is the process of heating metallic substances by means of a powerful, rapidly
alternating magnetic field. It is a differential heating, that is, the surface of the work heats up first
very rapidly and then the core of the material.
Dielectric Heating
Dielectric heating is similar to induction heating but is only applicable tononconducting materials
(dielectrics) such as might be used for electrical insulations. Plastics and compressed woods are
typical applications.
Shot Peening (Shot Blasting)

Shot peening is a recent development that improves the fatigue and abrasion resistance of metal
parts. It is applicable on ferrous and nonferrous parts, but is mostly used on steel surfaces. This
process increases the life of parts subjected to repeated stresses from 3 to 13 times.

Ferrous Metals
Shot peening is a cold work process, in which the

metal part is struck by a stream of small hard
spheres (shot) creating numerous overlapped
dimples on the part surface.
The surface material resists to stretching induced
by the shots impacts resulting in a formation of a
compressively stressed skin of about 0.01” (0.25
mm) thickness.
Glass, steel or ceramic balls of a diameter from
the range 0.007-0.14” (0.18-0.36 mm) are used
as shot media.
The residual compressive stresses inhibit both
crack initiation and propagation. Therefore shot
peening is used mainly for increasing fatigue
strength.

Ferrous Metals
Burnishing
Burnishing is a cold working process in which the surface layer of a work piece is plastically
deformed by a hard tool: either roller or sliding ball. The combination of the improvedsurface
finish with the hardened skin provides a significant increase in the wear resistance of the
material.

RIVETS
While a number of methods are available for joining metal parts, few are ideal for joining aluminum
sheets. The most common technique of joining sheets of aluminum is riveting. A rivet is a metal pin
with a formed head on one end. A rivet is inserted into a drilled hole, and its shank is then deformed
by a hand or pneumatic tool. Rivets create a union at least as strong as the material being joined.
A well-designed rivet joint will subject the rivets toshear loads.
Specifications and Standards

AMS Aeronautical Material Specifications
AN Air Force-Navy
AND Air Force-Navy Design
AS Aeronautical Standard
ASA American Standards Association
ASTM American Society for Testing and Materials
MS Military Standard
NAF Naval Aircraft Factory
NAS National Aerospace Standard
SAE Society of Automotive Engineers

Rivets
Solid Shank Rivets
Solid shank rivets are generally used in repair work.They are identified by the kind of material of
which they are made, their head type, size of shank, and theirtemper condition. The temper
designation and strength are indicated byspecial markings on the head of the rivet.
Before a rivet is driven, it should extend beyond

the base material at least one and a half times
the rivet's diameter. Once driven, the rivet
shank expands to fill the hole and thebucktail
(shop head/upset head/formed head)expands
to one and a half times itsoriginal diameter.
Once the bucktail expands to the appro- priate
diameter it should extend beyond the base
material by at least one half the original rivet
diameter.

Rivets
Preparation
The aluminium pieces should be clean and held firmlytogether. A proper sized pilot hole should be
drilled.
Rivet
Best Common Hole
size drill drill size
3/32 #40 7/64 0.096
1/8 #30 9/64 0.128
5/32 #21 11/64 0.159
3/16 #11 13/64 0.191
7/32 #10 15/64 0.225
1/4 #F 17/64 0.257
5/16 #P 21/64 0.323
3/8 #W 25/64 0.386
7/16 29/64 29/64 0.453
1/2 33/64 33/64 0.516
Rivet Pilot Hole Drill Size
The hole does not need to be de-burred if the parts were held firmly together during the hole drilling
process and the hole has clean edges.

Rivets
Rivet Codes
Rivets are given part codes that indicate theirsize, head style, and alloy material. Two systems are in
use today, the Air Force - Navy, or AN system, and the Military Standards 20 system, or MS20. While
there are minor differences between the two sys-tems, both use the same method for describing
riv-ets.
• The first component of a rivet part number denotes

the numbering systemused.
• The second part of the code is a three-digit number
that describes the style of rivet head. The two most
common rivet head styles are the universal head,
which is represented by the code 470, and the
countersunk head, which is rep-resented by the code
426.
• Following the head desig-nation is a one or two-digit
letter code representing the alloy material used in
the rivet.
• After the alloy code, the shank diameter is indicated
in 1/32 inch increments and the length in incre-ments
of 1/16 inch. Complete Part Number: AN470AD4-5

Rivets
NAS 523 Rivet Codes
In certain aviation companies the use of the NAS523 rivet identification code is used on diagrams and
drawings. The code embodies a number of details about the rivets to be used in a single 4-cornered
symbol, with a "crosshair" at the center. Each quadrant is given a compass designation: NW for
northwest, NE for northeast, SW for southwest and SE for southeast. These compass designations are
not shown on the code, only the details.
In the symbol, the upper left NW corner contains the rivet part number
in either AN or MS part numbers, and a rivet material designation. For
example, the lettersBJ identify a standard MS20470AD rivet, which is
made from 2117 alloy.
The NE quadrant indicates rivet diameter, and the location of the
manufacturers head (Near or Far).
The SW quandrant indicates what special methods should be applied
to the fasteners, such as dimpling or countersinking. For example,
D
stands for Dimpling,D2 stands for Dimple both sheets, andD2C means
Dimple two top sheets and countersink the third.
The lower right corner specifies fastener length in 1/16" increments.
Example: a 3/8" rivet is shown as a -6.

Rivets
Which rivets should be selected to join two sheets of .032-inch aluminum?

1. MS20425D-4-3
2. MS20470AD-4-4
3. MS20455DD-5-3
The two pieces of material to be joined have a total thickness of 0.064 inch. The rivet
used with this metal should have a diameter of about three times the thickness of the
thickest sheet. This would cause us to choose a rivet with a diameter of 3 x 0.032 inch,
or 0.096 inch. The closest rivet to this is one with a diameter of 1/8 inch (0.125 inch).
A 1/8-inch rivet should extend through the material for 3/16 inch, or 0.1875 inch.The
total length of the rivet must be 0.064 + 0.1875, or 0.2515 inch.
We would choose an MS20470AD-4-4 rivet. This is a universal head rivet, 1/8 inch in
diameter and 1/4 inch long.

Rivets
Rivet Measurements
The length of a universal head (AN470) rivet is mea-sured from the bottom of the manufactured head
to the end of the shank. However, the length of a coun-tersunk rivet (AN426) is measured from the top
of the manufactured head to the end of the shank.
Universal and countersunk rivet diameters

are measured in the same way, but their
length measurements correspond to their
grip length.
As a rule of thumb, the diameter to be used

should be three times the thickness of the
thickest sheet.

Rivets
Head Design
• Protruding Head
The AN470 universal head rivet now replaces all previous protruding head styles such as AN430
round, AN442 flat, AN455 brazier, and AN456 modified brazier.
The AN470 rivet now replaces almost all

other protruding head designs. The round
head rivet (AN430) was used extensively on
aircraft built before 1955, while the flat head
rivet (AN442) was widely used on internal
structures. Flat head rivets are still used for
applications requiring higher head strength.

Rivets
2. Flush Head
AN426 countersunk (100°) rivets were developed to streamline airfoils and permit a smooth flow over
an aircraft's wings or control surfaces. However, before a countersunk rivet can be installed, the metal
must be countersunk or dimpled. Sheet thickness and rivet size determine which method is best
suited for a particular application.
Joints utilizing countersunk rivets generally lack the strength of protruding head rivet joints. One
reason is that a portion of the material being riveted is cut away to allow for the countersunkhead.
Rule of thumb: (For the sheet next to the manufactured heador the upper sheet)
.040 or thinner - dimple. Thicker than .040 - countersink.

Rivets
AN426 countersunk (100°) rivets were developed to streamline airfoils and permit a smooth flow over
an aircraft's wings or control surfaces. However, before a countersunk rivet can be installed, the metal
must be countersunk or dimpled. Sheet thickness and rivet size determine which method is best
suited for a particular application.
Joints utilizing countersunk rivets generally lack the strength of protruding head rivet joints. One
reason is that a portion of the material being riveted is cut away to allow for the countersunkhead.
Illustration 1: Rivet Length

Illustration 3: Grip Length
The grip length of a rivet is the total thickness

of the material held together by the rivet.
Illustration 1: 100° countersink

Rivets
• Countersinking
Countersinking is a process in which the metal in the top sheet is cut away in the shape of the rivet
head.
To ensure head-to-gunset contact, it is recom-mended that countersunk heads be installed with the
manufactured head protruding above the skin's surface about .005 to .007 of an inch
.
A micro-stop, or stop countersink, as it is sometimes called, uses a cage that can be adjusted to limit
the depth that the cutter penetrates into the sheet metal.
To provide a smooth finish after the rivet is driven, the protruding rivet head is removed using a
microshaver. This rotary cutter shaves the rivet head flush with the skin, leaving anaerodynamically
clean surface.
An alternative to leaving the rivet head sticking up slightly is to use the Alcoacrown flush rivet. These
rivets have a slightly crowned head to allow full contact with thegunset. This results in a fully
coldworked rivet that needs no microshaving.

Rivets
Correct Method for Countersinking

To use machine countersinking for installing a countersunk rivet, the thickness of the
material must be greater than the thickness of the rivet head. Countersinking must
not go through the first sheet.
A finished flush rivet head should not be above or below the sheet surface by more
than two-thousandths (±.002) of an inch (about the thickness of a sheet of typing
paper).
1 is preferred.
2 is acceptable.
3 is not acceptable.

Rivets
Countersinking Method

Rivets
A) If a countersunk rivet is set with the rivet The raised head of a crown flush rivet allows
head flush with the metal's surface, some of the greater contact area with a rivet set. This results
gunset's driving energy is lost. (B) However, if in a stronger countersunk joint.
the rivet head is allowed to protrude above the
metal all of the gunset's energy hits the head
resulting in a stronger joint

Rivets
b. Dimpling
Dimpling is a process that mechanically "dents" the sheets being joined to accommodate the rivet
head. Dimpled fastener joints can either be double dimpled (both sheets dimpled) or dimple-
countersunk (upper sheet dimple, lower sheet countersunk).
• Double Dimple Method
If the finish side sheet is .040 or thinner, the double dimple is the fastest method to prepare the
sheets.

Rivets
There are two methods of dimpling sheet metal: coin dimpling, which forges, or coins, the metal
into the dies, and radius dimpling, which folds the material down to form the dimple. Although
both techniques are commonly used, coin dimpling generally provides a slightly tighter fit but
tends to leave a sharper bend around the rivet head.
 Coin Dimpling
In coin dimpling, a male die fits through the rivet hole, and a coining ram in afemale die exerts
pres-sure on the underside of the hole.
 Radius Dimpling
Radius dimpling is a form of cold dimpling in thin sheet metal in which a cone-shaped male die is
forced into the recess of a female die, with either a hammer blow or a pneumatic rivet gun.
 Hot Dimpling
Magnesium and some of the harder aluminum alloys, such as 7075, cannot be successfully cold
dimpled, because the material is so brittle it will crack when the dimple is formed. To prevent
crack-ing, these materials are heated before dimpling is accomplished.

Rivets
Coin dimpling is performed by a special pneu-matic machine

or press, which has, in addition to the usual dies, a "coining
ram."
Radius dimpling does not allow the sheets to be nested unless the
bottom sheet is radius dimpled. Radius dimpling is done because its
equipment is smaller than that needed for coin dimpling, and can be
used in loca-tions where access with coin dimpling tools is not
practical.

Rivets
• Pre-Dimple Method
This method is used when the sheets are too heavy for the double-dimple process. The two sheets are
taken apart and then dimpled separately.

Rivets
• Dimple-Countersunk Method
This method is used when the top sheet is too thin to countersink and the bottom sheet is too thick to
dimple. The top sheet being under 0.40 in. will be dimpled and the bottom sheet being over 0.40 in.
will be countersunk.

Rivets
NACA Flush Riveting
To aid manufacturers in standardizing riveting techniques, theNational Advisory Committee for
Aeronautics, or NACA, established a set of standards for riveting aircraft and aerospace vehicles. When
riveting is conducted to these standards, the process is referred to as NACAriveting.
This method of riveting produces the smoothest surface possible.
A microshaver is used to smooth the upset ends of rivets driven using NACA techniques.

Rivets
Rivet Alloys
Most aircraft rivets are made of an aluminum alloy. The type of alloy is identified by a letter in the rivet code and by a
mark on the rivet head itself.
Rivets
• 1100 Aluminum (A)

Rivets made of pure aluminum have no identifying marks on their manufactured head, and are
desig-nated by the letter A in the rivet code. Since this type of rivet is made out of commercially pure
alu-minum, the rivet lacks sufficient strength for struc-tural applications. Instead, 1100 rivets are
restricted to nonstructural assemblies such as fairings, engine baffles, and furnishings. The 1100 rivet
is driven cold, and therefore, its shear strength increases slightly as a result of cold working.
• 2117 Aluminum Alloy (AD)
The rivet alloy 2117-T3 is the most widely used for manufacturing and maintenance of modern
aircraft. Rivets made of this alloy have a dimple in the cen-ter of the head and are represented by the
letters AD in rivet part codes. Because AD rivets are so com-mon and require no heat treatment, they
are often referred to as "field rivets.“
The main advantage for using 2117-T3 for rivets is its high strength and shock resistance
characteris-tics. The alloy 2117-T3 is classified as a heat-treated aluminum alloy, but does not require
re-heat-treat-ment before driving.

Rivets
• 5056 Aluminum Alloy (B)

Mag-nesiumstructures are riveted with 5056 rivets which contain about 5 percent magnesium.These
rivets are identified by a raised cross on their heads and the letter B in a rivet code. The maximum
shear strength of an installed 5056H32 rivet is 28,000 pounds per square inch.
• 2017 Aluminum Alloy (D)
D-rivets are identified by a raised dot in the center of their head and the letter D in rivet codes.
Because D-rivets are so hard they must be heat treated before they can be used .
Rivets made of 2017 can be kept inan annealed condition by removing them from a quench bath and
immedi-ately storing them in a freezer. Because of this, D-rivets are often referred to as
icebox rivets.
These rivets become hard when they warm up to room temperature, and may be reheat-treated as
many times as necessary without impairing their strength.
In response to higher demand for structural strength,the aluminum industry modified 2017 alloy to
produce a new ver-sion of 2017 aluminum, called thecrack free rivet alloy.

Rivets
• 2024 Aluminum Alloy (DD)

DD-rivets are identified by two raised dashes on their head. Like D-rivets, DD-rivets are also called
icebox rivets and must be stored at cool tempera-tures until they are ready to be driven. The length of
time the rivets remain soft enough to drive is deter-mined by the storage temperature.
Icebox rivets must be completely driven within 15 minutes after removal from the freezer or dry ice;
they are not to be returned to cold storage once they have been removed.
• 7050T73 Aluminum Alloy (E)
A new and stronger rivet alloy was developed in 1979 called 7050T73. The letter E is used to desig-nate
this alloy, and the rivet head is marked with a raised circle. 7050 alloy contains zinc as the major
alloying ingredient and is precipitation heat-treated. This alloy is used by the Boeing Airplane
Company as a replacement for 2024T31 rivets in the manufac-ture of the 767 widebody aircraft.

Rivets
• Corrosion-Resistant Steel (F)
Stainless steel rivets are used for fastening corro-sion-resistant steel sheets in applications such as
firewalls and exhaust shrouds. They have no mark-ing on their heads.
• Monel (M)
Monel rivets are identified with two recessed dim-ples in their heads. They are used in place of
corro-sion-resistant steel rivets when their somewhat lower shear strength is not a detriment
.
• Titanium (T)
Titanium rivets are identified by a raised “V” or “T” on their head and are used for fastening steel alloy
and titanium alloy.

Rivets
Blind Rivets
There are many places on an aircraft where access toboth sides of a riveted structure or structural
part is impossible, or where limited space will not permit theuse of a bucking bar. Also, in the
attachment of many nonstructural parts, such as aircraft interior furnishings,flooring, deicing boots,
and the like, the full strengthof solid shank rivets is not necessary.
For use in such places, special rivets have beendesigned which can be bucked from the front.
They are sometimes lighter than solid shank rivets, yetamply strong for their intended use.
• Pop Rivets
Pop rivets are frequently used for assembly and non-structural applications. They must not be used in
areas that are subject to moderate or heavy loads.
• Friction-Lock Rivets
A friction-lock rivet cannot replace a solid shank rivet, size for size. When a friction-lock is usedto
replace a solid shank rivet, it must beat least one size (1/32 inch) larger in diameter.This is because a
friction-lock rivet loses considerable strength if its center stem falls out due to damage orvibration.

Rivets
• Mechanical-Lock Rivets
Mechanical-lock rivets were designed to prevent the center stem of a rivet from falling out as a result of
the vibration encountered during aircraft operation. Unlike the center stem of a friction-lock rivet, a
mechanical-lock rivet permanently locks the stem into place and vibration cannot shake it loose .
 Huck-Loks rivets were the first mechanical-lock riv-ets and are used as structural replacements for
solid shank rivets. However, because of theexpensive tooling required for their installation, Huck-
Loks are generally limited to aircraft manufacturers and some large repair facilities.
 Cherrylocks™ often called the bulbed CherryLOCK, was developed shortly after the Huck-Lok. Like
the Huck-Lok, the CherryLOCK rivet is an improvement over the fric-tion-lock rivet because its
center stem is locked into place with a lock ring. This results inshear and bearing strengths that
are high enough to allow CherryLOCKS to be used as replacements for solid shankrivets.
 Olympic-loks blind fasteners are light weight, mechanically-locking spindle-type blind rivets.
Olympic-loks come with a lock ring stowed on the head. As an Olympic-lok is installed, the ring
slips down the stem and locks the center stem to the outer shell.These blind fasteners require a
specially designed set of installationtools.
 CherryMAX rivet is economical to use and strong enough to replace solid shank rivets, size for
size. The economic advantage of theCherryMAX system is that one size puller can be used for the
installation of all sizes of CherryMAX rivets.

Rivets
Pop rivets are frequently used for assembly and non-

structural applications. They must not be used in areas The friction-lock rivetassembly consists of a shell and
that are subject to moderate or heavy loads. mandrel or pulling stem. The stem is pulled until the header
forms a bucktail on the blind side of the shell. At this point, a
weak point built into the stem shears and the stem breaks
off. After the stem fractures, part of it projects upward. The
projecting stem is cut close to the rivet head and the small
residual portion is filed smooth.

Rivets
Unlike friction-lock rivets,Huck-Loks utilize a lock ring

that mechanically locks the center stem in place.
Cherrylock

Rivets
Olympic-Lok rivet

Rivets
CherryMAX

Rivets
• Hi-Shear Rivets
One of the first special fasteners used by the aero-space industry was the Hi-Shear rivet. Hi-Shear
rivets
were developed in the 1940s to meet the demand for fasteners that couldcarry greater shear loads.

Rivets
Rivet Selection
The following rules should govern your selection and use of rivets:
• Replacements must not be made with rivets of lower strength material unless they are larger than
those removed. For example, a rivet of 2024aluminum alloy should not be replaced by onemade
of 2017 aluminum alloy unless the 2017 rivet is asize larger. Similarly, when 2117 rivets are used
to replace 2017 rivets, the next larger size should be used.
2. When rivet holes become enlarged, deformed, or otherwise damaged, you should use
next larger size as replacement.
• Countersunk rivet heads should be replaced by rivets of the same type and degree of countersink.
• All protruding head rivet should be replaced with universal head rivets.
• Rivets less than 1/8” in diameter should not be used for structural applications.
• Minimum rivet diameter is equal to the thickness of the thickest sheet to be riveted.
• Maximum rivet diameter is equal to three times the thickness of the thickest sheet to beriveted.
• The proper rivet length should be the grip length plus 1 ½ times the rivet diameter.

Rivets
Joint Types
There are two basic types of axial rivetedjoint: the lap joint and the butt joint.

Rivets
Rivet Joint Failure

A rivet joint may fail as a result of one( or more) of a numbermechanisms.
• Shearing through one section of the rivet (single shear).
• Shearing through two sections of the rivet (doubleshear).
• Compressive bearing failure of the rivet.
• Shearing of the plate(s) being joined.
• Bearing failure of the plate(s) being joined.
• Tearing of the plates between the rivets.

Rivets
Rivet Layout Pattern
It is important when making a riveted repair that the rivets be installed in such a way that they will
develop the maximum strength from the sheet metal. To obtain this strength, not only the rivet and
sheet strength must be determined, but the rivet pat-tern is also a critical factor so the drilled holes do
not weaken the joint. This means the spacing between rivets and the distance they remain from the
edge of the material cannot be closer than mini-mum specifications.
• Edge Distance
It is important when installing rivets that they be placed a certain distance from the edge of the
mate-rial. If rivets are installed too close to the edge, the sheet metal will tear out instead of shearing
the rivet when extreme loads are encountered. Conversely, if the rivets are placed too far away from
the edge, the metal sheets can separate, allow-ing foreign contaminates to enter the joint, ulti-mately
causing corrosion.
• Pitch (Spacing)
The distance between adjacent rivets in a rowis called the pitch. To prevent the joint from being
weakened by too many holes in a row, the adjacent rivets should be no closer than three diameters to
one another. In contrast, to prevent the sheets from separating between rivets, the rivet holes should
be no further apart than ten to twelve times the rivet shankdiameter.

Rivets
Edge distance and rivet pitch are critical to obtaining

maximum strength from a riveted repair.

Rivets
• Rivet Gage (Transverse Pitch)
The distance between rows of rivets in a multi-row layout should be about 75% of the pitch, provided
that the rivets in adjacent rows are staggered. If the rivets are not staggered, then the pitch will bethe
same between rows as it is between rivets in a sin-gle row. For most layout patterns, it is most
practi-cal to stagger the placement of rivets to reduce the amount of sheet metal that has to be
overlapped.
When multiple rows of rivets are used in a lay-out, the

transverse pitch should be approximately 75% of the
rivet pitch, and the rivets should be staggered.

Rivets
Sample Layout Problem

How many MS20470 AD-4-6 rivets will be required to attach a 10 x 5 inch plate,
using a single row of rivets, minimum edge distance, and 4D spacing?
• 56
• 54
• 52
• 58

Rivets
The plate is 10 inches long and 5 inches wide. The rivets have a diameter of 1/8 inch and there
is an edge distance of two rivet diameters. This requires two rows of rivets 9-1/2 inches long
and two rows that are 4-1/2 inches long. The total length of the rivet seams is 28 inches.
If the rivets are spaced every 1/2 inch (4D spacing),56 rivets are needed.

Rivets
Rivet Installation
• Hand Riveting
Almost all rivets are driven with either a rivet gun or squeeze riveter, but there are times when
building small components, or when working in areas with-out air or electricity, that it is necessary to
drive a rivet by hand.
• Compression Riveting
When there are a large number of easily accessible rivets to be installed, a compression, or squeeze
riv-eter, can be used instead of hand or gun riveting. These riveting tools reduce the time required to
install the rivets and produce a far more uniform shape than can be driven by hand or with a rivet
gun.
• Gun Riveting
Hand riveting and compression riveting are used for special conditions, but a rivet gun drives most
riv-ets used in aircraft construction. These tools look and operate in a similar fashion to a reciprocating
air hammer, but the number of strokes and force of the impact are considerably different. As such,
only guns designed for riveting should be used on air-craft structures.

Rivets
Squeeze riveter jaws or yokes are

available in different lengths and
configurations.
Hand riveting is performed where it is

incon-venient to use conventional Different handle styles are available
riveting equipment. on rivet guns to fit various locations
and operator preferences.

Rivets
Bucking Bar
When a rivet is driven, the actual compression of the rivet is not performed by the action of the rivet
gun. Instead, the rivet is backed up by a metal bar that reciprocates in response to the beats of the
rivet gun. This reciprocating action causes the rivet to be compressed in successive actions. These
metal bars are referred to as bucking bars because of the method in which the bar bucks, or vibrates,
on the shank of the rivet.
Bucking bars are available in different weights and shapes to allow riveting of solid rivets in almost
any location.

Rivets
Evaluating Driven Rivets
A technician must be able to identify properly driven rivets. Until the technician has gained enough experience to
evaluate driven head dimensions, special gauges may be fabricated to check shop head shapes and sizes.

Rivets
Removal of Rivets
When removing a solid shank rivet from a piece of aircraft structure, drill to the base of the manufactured head
with a drill one size smaller than the rivet shank. Insert a pin punch into the hole and pry the head off, then use the
pin punch to drive the rivet shank from the skin.

NON-METALS

WOODS
Although wood was used for the first airplanes because of its favorable strength-to-weight
ratio, it is primarily the cost of the additional hand labor needed for wood construction and
maintenance that has caused wood aircraft to become almost entirely superseded by those of
all-metal construc-tion. However, there are still many home-built air-planes that feature wood
construction, and occa-sionally, commercial designs intended for low-vol-ume production
appear using some degree of wood in their structures.
Orville Wright's famous first airplane flight.

Woods
Quality of Materials
Sitka spruce is the reference wood used for aircraft structures because of its uniformity, strength,
and excellent shock-resistance qualities.
Wood Substitution
Other types of wood are also approved for use in air-craft structures. However, the wood species
used to repair a part should be the same as the original wood whenever possible. If using a wood
substitute, it is the responsibility of the person making the repair to ensure that the wood meets all
of the requirements for that repair.
AC 43.13-lB outlines information regarding accept-able wood species
substitutions.

Woods
Only certain species of wood are suitable for aircraft structures.

Woods
Wood Assessment
The cut of the wood, slope of the grain, and the number of growth rings are factors to examine when
determining quality. The way wood is cut affects its shrinkage characteristics and strength qualities.
The slope of the grain is another factor to consider when assessing wood.The maximum slope of the
grain for aviation-grade lumber is 1:15. The slope of the grain is the amount of grain rise over the
grain length. In other words, the grain may not rise more than one inch in a 15-inch section of wood.
According to FAA standards, a grain slope of 1:15 is the

maximum allowable slope allowed in aviation-grade
wood.

Woods
Following are several wood defects the technician must be
able to identify to properly assess wood quality .
• Checks - A lengthwise separation or crack of the wood
that extends along the woodgrain.
• Compression failure- Characterized by a buck-ling of
fibers that appear as streaks on the surface of the wood
that are at right angles to thegrain.
• Decay - The destruction and eventual reduction of wood
to its component sugars and base ele-ments through
attack by organisms such as fungi and certain insects
such as termites
• Dry rot - A term loosely applied to any dry, crumbly rot
but especially a wood easily crushed to dry powder in its
advanced stage.
• Heartwood - The inner core of a woody stem or log,
extending from the pith to the sap, which is usually
darker in color. This part of the wood contains dead
• Split - Longitudinal cracks produced by artifi-cially cells that no longer participate in the life processes of
induced stress. the tree.
• Shakes A separation or crack along the grain, • Knot - That portion of a branch or limb that is
• the greater part of which may occur at the com- embedded in the wood of a tree trunk, or that has been
• mon boundary of two rings or within growth surrounded by subsequent stem growth.
• rings.

Woods
Effect of Shrinkage
When the moisture content of a wooden part is lowered, the part shrinks. Since the shrinkage is not
equal in all directions, the mechanic should consider the effect that the repair may have on the
completed structure. The shrinkage isgreatest in a tangential direction (across the fibers and parallel
to the growth rings), somewhat less in a radial direction (across the fibers and perpendicular to the
growth rings), and is negligible in a longitudinal direction (parallel to the fibers).

Woods
Types of Adhesives
• Most older airplanes were glued with casein glue, which was a powdered glue made from milk.
Casein glue deteriorates over the years after it is exposed to moisture in the air and to wide
variations in tem-perature.
• Plastic resin glue is a urea-formaldehyde resin that is water-, insect-, and mold-proof.Plastic resin
glue rapidly deteriorates in hot, moist environments, and under cyclic stresses, making it obsolete
for all aircraft structuralrepairs
• Resorcinol glue is a two-part synthetic resin glue consisting of a resin and a hardener and is the
most water-resistant of the gluesused. Resorcinol adhesive meets the strength and durabil-ity
requirements of the FAA, making it one of the most common types of glue used in aircraft wood-
structure repair.
• Phenol-formaldehyde glue is most commonly used in the manufacturing of aircraft-grade
plywood. Phenol-formaldehyde glue requires high curing temperatures and pressures making it
impractical for use in the field.
• Epoxy resins are two-part synthetic resins that gen-erally consist of a resin and a hardener mixed
together in specific quantities. Epoxies have excel-lent working properties and usually require less
attention to joint quality or clamping pressures as compared to other aircraft adhesives

Woods
Bonding Process
Following are the three most important require-ments for a

strong and durable structural bond.
• Preparation of the wood surface prior to apply-
• ing the adhesive.
• Utilization of a good quality aircraft-standard
• adhesive that is properly prepared.
• Performing a good bonding technique consistent
• with the manufacturer's instructions.

Woods
Applying The Adhesive
It is important to observe the orientation of the wood grain to avoid applying glue to the end
grain. End grain is wood that is cut at a90° angle to the direction of the grain. An acceptable
cut of wood has been cut nearly parallel to the direction of grain.
Avoid end-grain joints when gluing wood scarf joints.

Make sure the wood is cut with the grain of both
pieces as close to parallel as possible. Using end-grain
joints increases the chance of future warping.

Woods
Almost all types of adhesives havefour time-peri-odsthat are critical to the bondingprocess.
• Pot life is the useable life of the glue from the time it is mixed until the time it must be
used. Discard the glue once the pot life hasexpired.
• The open-assembly time is the allowable time between the application of the glue and the
time the joint is assembled. If the open-assembly time is too long, the glue will begin to set
up on the joint sur-faces and the glue line willweaken.
• The closed-assembly time is the allowable length of time between the assembling of the
joint and the application of the clamping pressure. Closed-assem-bly time allows for the
movement of parts to place them in the properalignment.
• The pressing time is the period during which the parts are pressed or clamped together
and is essen-tially the adhesive curing period. Pressing time must be sufficient to ensure
that the joint is strong enough to withstand manipulation or the machin-ing process.

COMPOSITES
Composites are combinations of two or more materi-als that differ in composition or
form.
Advantages
• reduces weight, that means if weight can be saved, more cargo, fuel or passengers can
be carried
• high strength to weight ratio
• reducing of parts and fasteners
• reducing wear
• corrosion resistance
Disadvantages
• generally expensive
• not easy to repair; that means you need well trained staff, tools, equipment and
facilities to repair composite components

Composites
Abbreviations
• AFRP - Aramid Fiber Reinforced Plastic

• CFRP - Carbon Fiber Reinforced Plastic
• GFRP - Glass Fiber Reinforced Plastic
• HOBE - Honeycomb before Expansion
• MSDS - Material Safety Data Sheet
• NDT - Non Destructive Testing
• NTM - Non Destructive Testing Manual
• Pre-Peg - Pre impregnated Fabric

Composites
Elements of Composite Structure
In aircraft construction, most currently produced composites consist of a reinforcing material

to pro-vide the structural strength, joined with a matrix material to serve as the bonding
substance. The three main parts of a fiber-reinforced composite are the fiber, matrix, and
interface or boundary between the individual elements of the composite.
1. Reinforcing Fiber
Reinforcing fibers provide the primary structural strength to the composite structure when
combined with a matrix. Reinforcing fibers can be used in con-junction with one another
(hybrids), woven into specific patterns (fiber science), combinedwith other materials such
as rigid foams (sandwich struc-tures), or simply used in combination with various matrix
materials.

Composites
• Fiberglass (Glass Cloth)

Fiberglass is made from small strands of molten sil-ica glass that are spun together and woven into
cloth.
One of the disadvantages of fiberglass is that it weighs more and has less strength than most other
composite fibers. However, with newly developed matrix formulas, fiberglass is an excellent
reinforcing fiber currently used in advanced compositeapplications.
The two most common types of fiberglass are S-

glass and E-glass. E-glass, otherwise known as
"elec-tric glass" because of its high resistivity to
current flow, is produced from borosilicate glass
and is the most common type of fiberglass used
for reinforce-ment.S-glass is produced from
magnesia-alumina-silicate, and is used where a
very high tensile strength fiberglass is needed.

Composites
• Aramid
In the early 1970s, DuPont introduced aramid, an organic aromatic-polymide polymer,
commercially known as Kevlar. Aramid exhibits high tensile strength, exceptional flexibility, high
tensile stiff-ness, low compressive properties, and excellent toughness.
Aramid fibers are non-conduc-tive and produce no galvanic reaction with metals. Another
important advantage is its strength-to-weight ratio; it is very light compared to other com-posite
materials. Aramid-reinforced composites also demonstrate excellent vibration-damping
character-istics in addition to a high degree of shatter and fatigueresistance.

Composites
• Carbon/Graphite
Advantages to carbon/graphite materials are in their high compressive strength and degree of
stiff-ness. However, carbon fiber iscathodic while alu-minum and steel are anodic. Thus, carbon
pro-motes galvanic corrosion when bonded to alu-minum or steel, and special corrosion control
tech-niques are needed to prevent this occurrence. Carbon/graphite materials are kept separate
from aluminum components when sealants and corro-sion barriers, such as fiberglass, are placed
at the interfaces between composites and metals
Carbon/graphiteis a black fiber that is very strong, stiff,

and used primarily for its rigid strength characteristics.
Fiber composites are used to fab-ricate primary structural
components such as the ribs and skin surfaces of the
wings

Composites
• Boron
Boron fibers are made by depositing the element boron onto a thin filament of tungsten. The
resulting fiber is approximately .004 inch in diameter, has excellent compressive strength and
stiffness, and is extremely hard. However, boron is not commonly used in civil aviation because it
can be hazardous to work with, and is extremelyexpensive.
• Ceramic
Ceramic fibers are used where a high-temperature application is needed. This form of composite
will retain most of its strength and flexibility at temper-atures up to 2,200
°F. Tiles on the Space
Shuttle are made of a special ceramic composite that dissipates heat quickly. Some firewalls are
also made of ceramic-fiber composites.

Composites
2. Core Material
Core materials are the central members of an assembly and are used extensively in advanced
composite con-struction. When bonded between two thin face sheets, a component can be
made rigid and lightweight. Composite structures manufactured in this manner are sometimes
referred to as sandwich construction.
• Honeycomb Cores
Honeycomb core materials consist of the six-sided shape of a natural honeycomb, which
provides a core with a very high strength-to-weight ratio.
The ribbon direction of a honeycomb core is the direction in which the honeycomb can be
pulled apart. It is important to line up the ribbon direc-tion of the replacement honeycomb core
with that of the original when performing a repair honey-comb core repair to ensure consistent
structural strength along with uniform compressive strength

Composites
Honeycomb Sandwich Construction

Composites
• Foam Cores
Foam core materials offer different densities and temperature characteristics for high-heat
applications and fire resistance. When using foams in a repair operation, it is important to use
the proper type and density. Styrofoam, urethane foam, poly vinyl chloride (PVC), andstrux are
sev-eral common types of foam cores used in aircraft composite construction.
 Styrofoam (Polystyrene)is commonly used on home-built aircraft and should only be
used with an epoxy resin. Polyester resins dissolveStyrofoam. Styrofoam is comprised
of smaller cells, which pro-duce a much stronger core material.
 Urethane foam can be used with epoxy or polyester resins. However,urethane cannot
be cut with a hot wire. Subjecting urethane foam to high heat pro-duces a hazardous
gas.
 Other foam core materials includepoly vinyl chlo-ride (PVC),and strux (cellular,
cellulose acetate) foam. PVC foam can be used with either polyester or epoxy resins
and cut with a hot wire. Strux foam is commonly used to build up ribs or other
structural supports.

Composites
 Phenolic has very good fire resistant properties and can have very low density, but
relatively low mechanical properties.
 Polypropylene is used to make airfoil shapes; can be cut with a hot wire; compatible
with most adhesives and epoxy resins;not for use with polyester resins, dissolves in
fuels and solvents.
• Wood Cores
Balsa wood or laminations of hard wood which are bonded to laminates of high-strength
materials are occasionally used for other types of composite sand-wich construction. Wood
core materials provide high compressive strength to composite structures.

Composites
3. Matrix Material
The function of the matrix in a composite is to hold the reinforcing fibers in a desired position.
It also gives the composite strength and transfers external stresses to the fibers. The ability of
the matrix to transfer stress is the key to the strength of a com-posite structure.
Resin is an organic polymer used as a matrix to contain the rein-forcing fibers in a composite
material. Polyester resin, an example of an earlier matrix, used in con-junction with fiberglass
has been used in many non-structural applications such as fairings and spinners .
Resin matrix systems are a type of plastic and include two general categories: thermoplastic
and thermosetting. Thermoplastic and thermosetting resins by themselves do not have
sufficient strength for use in structural applications. However, plastic matrixes reinforced with
other materials form high-strength, lightweight structural composites.

Composites
• Thermosetting Resins
Thermosetting resins use heat to form and irre-versibly set the shape of the part. Thermosetting
plastics, once cured, cannot be reformed even if they are reheated. At this time, most
structural airframe applications are constructed with thermosetting resins.
 Polyester resin, an early thermosetting matrix for-mula, is mainly used with fiberglass
composites to create nonstructural applications such as fairings, spinners, and aircraft
trim.
 Epoxy resin matrices are two-part systems consisting of a resin and a catalyst. The
catalyst acts as a curing agent by initiating the chemical reaction of the hardening
epoxy. Epoxy resin systems are well known for their outstanding adhesion, strength,
and resistance to moisture and chemicals. They are also useful for bonding nonporous
and dis-similar materials, such as metal parts to compositecomponents.
 Vinyl Ester resin, the corrosion resistance andmechanical properties are much
improved over standard polyester resin composites.
 Phenolic (Phenol-formaldehyde) resinare used for interior components because of
their low smoke and flammability characteristics.
 Polyimide resins excel in high-temperature environmentswhere their thermal
resistance, oxidative stability, lowcoefficient of thermal expansion, and solvent
resistance benefit the design.

Composites
• Thermoplastic Resins
Thermoplastic resins use heat to form the part into the desired shape. However, this shape is
not neces-sarily permanent. If a thermoplastic resin is re-heated, it will soften and could easily
change shape.
Types of Thermoplastic Material used for Aircraft Windshield and Side Windows
:
1. Cellulose Acetate – transparent and lightweight. It has a tendency to shrink and turn yellow.
When applied with acetone it softens.
2. Acrylic – identified by trade names as Lucite or Plexiglas or in Britain Perspex. It is stiffer than
cellulose acetate. More transparent and for all purpose is colorless. It burns with a clear flame
and produces a fairly pleasant odor. If acetone is applied to acrylic it leaves a white residue but
remains hard.

Composites
Curing Stages of Resins

Thermosetting resins use a chemical reaction to cure.There are three curing stages, which are
called A, B, and C
• A stage: The components of the resin (base materialand hardener) have been mixed but
the chemical reaction has not started. The resin is in the A stageduring a wet layup procedure.
• B stage: The components of the resin have been mixedand the chemical reaction has
started. The material has thickened and is tacky. The resins of prepreg materials are in the B
stage. To prevent further curing the resinis placed in a freezer at 0 °F. In the frozen state, the
resin of the prepreg material stays in the B stage. Thecuring starts when the material is
removed from the freezer and warmed again.
• C stage: The resin is fully cured. Some resins cureat room temperature and others need
an elevated temperature cure cycle to fully cure.

Composites
Working with Resins and Catalyst

• pot life - is the amount of time a catalyzed resin remains in a workable state.
• shelf life - is the time that the product is still good in an unopened container.
• resin rich - if too much resin is applied to the part.
• resin starved - is one where not enough resin was applied, which weakens thepart.
• 60:40 fiber to resin ratio - for advanced composite lay-ups is generally consid-ered the best for
strength characteristics
•
The resin and catalyst are divided into

separate containers that are attached on one
end. When ready for use, the partition,
which separates the resin from the cata-lyst,
is broken to allow the two to mix

Composites
Fiber Science
The strength of a reinforcing material within a com-posite is dependent upon the weave of the
material, the wetting process (how the matrix is applied), fil-ament tensile strength, and the
design of the part.
The strength and stiffness of a composite buildup depends upon the orientation of the plies
relative to the load direction while a sheet metal component will have the same strength no
matter in which direction it istested.
Fabric Orientation
When working with composite fibers, it is impor-tant to understand the construction and
orientation of the fabric because all design, manufacturing, and repair work begins with the
orientation of the fabric.

Composites
• Warp
The warp of threads in a section of fabric run the length of the fabric as it comes off the roll or
bolt. Warp direction is designated as0°. There are typi-cally more threads woven into the warp
direction than the fill direction, making itstronger in the warp direction.

Composites
• Weft/Fill
Weft or fill threads of the fabric are those that run perpendicular 90°)
( to the warp fibers. The
weft threads interweave with the warp threads to create the reinforcing cloth.
• Selvage Edge
The selvage edge of the fabric is the tightly woven edge parallel to the warp direction, which
prevents edges from unraveling. The selvage edge is removed before the fabric isutilized.
• Bias
The bias is the fiber orientation that runs at a45° angle (diagonal) to the warp threads. The
bias allows for manipulation of the fabric to form con-toured shapes. Fabrics can often be
stretched along the bias but seldom along the warp or fill.

Composites
Fabric Style
Fabrics used in composite construction are manu-factured in several different styles: unidirectional, bi-
directional, multidirectional, and mat. Component designers can use any or all of these fab-ric styles,
depending on the strength and flexibility requirements of the component part.
• Unidirectional
Unidirectional fiber orientation is one in which all of the major fibers run in one direction, giving the
majority of its strength in a singledirection
• Bi-directional/Multi-directional
Bi-directional or multi-directional fabric orientation calls for the fibers to run in two or more directions. Bi-
directional fabrics are woven with the warp threads usually outnumbering the weft, so there is usually more
strength in the warp direction than the fill.
Another type of bi-directional material is theintraply hybrid fabric. which gives composites specific strength,
flexibility, and durability characteristics, depending on the combi-nation and proportion of the fibers woven
together.
• Mats
Mat fabrics consist of chopped fibers compressed together and typically used in combination with woven or
unidirectional fabrics. A mat is not as strong as a unidirectional or bi-directional fabric, and is therefore is not
commonly used alone in repair work.

Composites
Unidirectional fabrics are not woven together. Warp Fiberglass mat provides the high strength of glass to
fibers run parallel to each other and are kept in place by reinforce thermosetting resins without the expense of
small cross threads. woven cloth.

Composites
Pre-Impregnated Materials
Pre-impregnated fabrics, commonly known as "pre-pregs," are fabrics that have the resin system
already saturated into the fabric.
Fabrics are pre-impregnated with the proper amount and weight of a resin matrix to eliminate
the mixing and application details such as proper mix ratios and applicationprocedures.
Manufacturers often prepare these

fabrics by dipping the woven fabric
into a resin solution containing the
proper amount of resin and catalyst,
weighed and mixed together. A
catalyst is a substance that changes
the rate of a chemical reaction.

Composites
Fillers
Fillers, also known as thixotropic agents, are mate-rials added to resins to control viscosity and
weight, to increase pot life and cured strength, and to make the application of the resin easier.
Fillers increase the volume of the resin, making it less denseand less susceptible to cracking, as
well as lowering the weight of thematerial.
• Microballoons are small spheres manufactured from plastic or glass.Plastic microballoons
must be mixed with a compatible resin system that will not dissolve the plastic.Glass
microballoons, on the other hand, are not affected by resin mixtures, mak-ing them the
primary thixotropic agent used in com-posite construction.Microballoons reduces the overall
weight, and they provide lower stress concentrations throughout the structure butdo not
add strength to the composite structure.
• Chopped fibers are made from any type of fiber cut into certain lengths, commonly 1/4 to
1/2-inch lengths. Flox is the fuzzy fiber taken from the fabric strands. Both chopped fibers
and flox may be used when added strength is desired.

Composites
Adhesives
• Film Adhesives
Structural adhesives for aerospace applications aregenerally supplied as thin films supported
on a release paper and stored under refrigerated conditions (–18 °C, or 0 °F).
• Paste Adhesives
Paste adhesives are used as an alternative tofilm adhesive. These are often used to secondary
bond repair patches to damaged parts and also used in places where film adhesive is difficult to
apply. Paste adhesives for structural bondingare made mostly from epoxy.
• Foaming Adhesives
Foaming adhesives are used to splice pieces of honeycomb togetherin a sandwich construction
and to bond repair plugs to the existing core during a prepreg repair.

Composites
Upper Left: Film Adhesives

Upper Right: Paste Adhesives
Bottom: Foam Adhesives

Composites
Manufacturing Process
In general, most composite manufacturers augment the strength of the finished product by
applying heat and pressure to the matrix/fiber mix as it cures, which accomplishes several
things:
1. The heat and pressure facilitates thecomplete saturation of the fiber material.
2. The heat serves to accelerate the curingprocess of the matrix. In some instances, a high
tempera-tureis required to effect a proper cure ofthe matrix formula.
3. The pressure squeezes out excess resin andair pockets from the reinforcing fibers, which
helps to produce a more even blend of fiber and matrix.
• Compression Molding
Compression molding is a manufacturing process that uses a male and female mold to form the
part. It is normally used to man-ufacture a large number of precision-formed parts
.
• Vacuum Bagging
Vacuum bagging is the most commonly used method to apply pressure to composite repairs.
With this technique, the assembly is placed into a plastic bag and the air is then withdrawn by
the use of a vacuum source.

Composites
• Filament Winding
Another manufacturing method that produces incredibly strong structures is the filament
winding method. A continuous thread of reinforcing fiber is wound around a mandrel in the
same shape of the desired part.
• Wet Lay-up
This technique simply involves the mixing of the fiber reinforcement with the matrix, then laying
the wet fabric over a surface forcuring. Although this technique is less precise than other
manufacturing methods, it is the most flexible pro-cedure available.

Composites
Vacuum Bagging
Compression Molding
Wet Lay-up
Filament Winding

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AIRCRAFT MATERIALS

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Flexural Strength (Modulus of Rupture, Bend Strength, or Fracture Strength)

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FEATI UNIVERSITY – AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING REVIEW CENTER NMP

Poisson’s Ratio – is the ratio of lateral strain to axial strain

Moduli within the Proportional Limit (Elastic Range)

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Resilience – capacity of a material to absorb energy in the elastic range

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A metal's hardness refers to its ability to resist cut-ting, penetration,

Brittleness describes a material's tendency tobreak or shatter when

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A material's ability to be bent, formed, or shaped without cracking or breaking is

FEATI UNIVERSITY – AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING REVIEW CENTER NMP

Elasticity describes a metal's tendency toreturn to its original shape after

FEATI UNIVERSITY – AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING REVIEW CENTER NMP

Expansion and Contraction

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The ability of metal to be joined by heating and melting is defined as fusibility.

FEATI UNIVERSITY – AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING REVIEW CENTER NMP

Hot-working is the process of forming metal at anelevated temperature when it is in its

FEATI UNIVERSITY – AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING REVIEW CENTER NMP

Rolling is a process of reduction of the cross-sectional

• Bloom – 6x6 .in or larger; approximately square

Hammer forging (drop forging) is forming a preheated

The surplus metal which has been squeezed out into

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Pressed Powdered Metal Parts

The process of pressing powdered-metal parts is a method by which

FEATI UNIVERSITY – AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING REVIEW CENTER NMP

Cold-working is performed well below a metal's critical temperatureand ranges from

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FEATI UNIVERSITY – AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING REVIEW CENTER NMP

FEATI UNIVERSITY – AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING REVIEW CENTER NMP

Aluminum and Its Alloys

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Basic Designation for Wrought and Cast Aluminum Alloys

Alloy Number Major Identifying Elements

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Aluminum Alloy Designation - Wrought

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Casting for Aluminum Alloys

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Temper Designation System

Temper Designation for Non Heat TreatableAlloys

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Temper Designation for Heat Treatable Alloy

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Types of Heat Treatment

Precipitation Heat Treatment (Artificial Aging)

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Heat Treatment for Aluminum Alloys

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