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Disusun oleh
Daffa Dhiya Ulhaq (41032122191054)
Tarisa Ayu Lestari (41032122191055)
Fakultas Keguruan Dan Ilmu Pendidikan
Jurusan Pendidikan Bahasa Inggris
Universitas Islam Nusantara
 Preface

Praise be to thank alhamdulillah the author extends to the presence of God

Almighty, for bestowing His grace in the form of opportunities and knowledge so that
this paper can be completed on time.

Thanks to Mr Dr. M. Andriana Gaffar, M.M.Pd. who has given this task to us so
that we can increase our understanding of the Research and Educational Methodology
courses, especially in the material on Analyzing and Interpreting Qualitative Data.

We are grateful to our friends who are outside a university who have been
willing to help writers to provide ideas, directions and directions in a paper to make it
more structured.

We hope that this paper can increase the readers' knowledge. But apart from
that, We understand that this paper is far from perfect.

We also apologize to readers for providing criticism and direction so that we

can be more motivated.

Finally, we hope that readers can provide benefits and further knowledge about
Analyzing and Interpreting Qualitative Data as a means of learning or research.

Bandung, 25 Maret 2021

Author
 Purpose and Benefit

1. Identifying the steps in the process of analyzing and interpreting qualitative

data.

2. able to organize the data to be analyzed.

3. can validating a data.

4. Understanding Concepts and Evaluating Research Studies.

Table of Content
 CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

1.1. Background of The Paper

Analyzing qualitative data requires understanding how to make sense of text and images so that
you can form answers to your research questions. In this chapter, you will learn about the six
steps involved in analyzing and interpreting qualitative data: preparing and organizing the data,
exploring and coding the database, describing findings and forming themes, representing and
reporting findings, interpreting the meaning of the findings, and validating the accuracy of the
findings.

1.2. Purpose of The Paper

1. Identify the six steps in the process of analyzing and interpreting qualitative data.
2. Describe how to prepare and organize the data for analysis.
3. Describe how to explore and code the data.
4. Use codes to build description and themes.
5. Construct a representation and reporting of qualitative findings.
6. Make an interpretation of the qualitative findings.
7. Advance validation for the accuracy of your findings.

1.3. Problem Formulation

1. How to identify the six steps in the process of analyzing and interpreting qualitative data?
2. What about describing how to prepare and organize the data for analysis?
3. What about describing how to explore and code the data?
4. How to use codes to build descriptions and themes?
5. How to construct a representation and report of qualitative findings?
6. How to make an interpretation of the qualitative findings?
7. How to advance validation for the accuracy of your findings?
 CHAPTER II

THEORY and DISCUSS

1. Six Steps Process of Analyzing and Interpreting Qualitative Data.

As shown in the figure, qualitative researchers fi rst collect data and then prepare it for data
analysis. This analysis initially consists of developing a general sense of the data, and then coding
description and themes about the central phenomenon. Let’s look at some of the features of this
process in more detail.
 ◆ It is inductive in form, going from the particular or the detailed data (e.g., transcriptions or
typed notes from interviews) to the general codes and themes. Keeping this in mind helps you
understand how qualitative researchers produce broad themes or categories from diverse detailed
databases. Although the initial analysis consists of subdividing the data (later we will discuss coding
the data), the fi nal goal is to generate a larger, consolidated picture (Tesch, 1990).

◆ It involves a simultaneous process of analyzing while you are also collecting data. In
qualitative research, the data collection and analysis (and perhaps the report writing) are
simultaneous activities. When you are collecting data, you may also be analyzing other information
previously collected, looking for major ideas. This procedure differs from traditional approaches in
quantitative research, in which data collection occurs fi rst, followed by data analysis.

◆ The phases are also iterative, meaning you cycle back and forth between data collection
and analysis. In qualitative research, you might collect stories from individuals and return for more
information to fi ll in gaps in their stories as your analysis of their stories proceeds.

◆ Qualitative researchers analyze their data by reading it several times and conducting an
analysis each time. Each time you read your database, you develop a deeper understanding about the
information supplied by your participants.

◆ There is no single, accepted approach to analyzing qualitative data, although several

guidelines exist for this process (see Dey, 1993; Miles & Huberman, 1994). It is an eclectic process.

◆ Qualitative research is “interpretive” research, in which you make a personal assessment

as to a description that fi ts the situation or themes that capture the major categories of information.
The interpretation that you make of a transcript, for example, differs from the interpretation that
someone else makes. This does not mean that your interpretation is better or more accurate; it simply
means that you bring your own perspective to your interpretation.

2. how to prepare and organize the data for analysis.

Organize Data

At an early stage in qualitative analysis, you organize data into fi le folders or computer fi
les. Organization of data is critical in qualitative research because of the large amount of information
gathered during a study. The extensive data that an interview yields often surprises new researchers.
For example, a 30-minute interview will often result in about 20 pages of single-spaced transcription.
With this sizable amount of data, the transcribing and organizing of information requires a system of
organization, which could take several forms, such as:

◆ Developing a matrix or a table of sources that can be used to help organize the material

◆ Organizing the materials by type: all interviews, all observations, all documents, and all
photographs or other visual materials; as an alternative, you might consider organizing the materials
by participant, site, location, or some combination of these approaches

◆ Keeping duplicate copies of all forms of data

Transcribe Data

During qualitative data collection, you will collect text or words through interviewing
participants or by writing fi eldnotes during observations. This necessitates a need to convert these
words to a computer document for analysis. Alternatively, you might listen to the tapes or read your
fi eldnotes to begin the process of analysis. When time is short or funds are scarce, you may be able
to have only a few interviews or a few observational notes transcribed. The most complete
procedure, however, is to have all interviews and all observational notes transcribed. As a general
rule of thumb, it takes approximately 4 hours to transcribe 1 hour of tape (Dana Miller, personal
communication, April 11, 2000). Hence, the process of transcription is labor intensive and you will
need to allow adequate time for it.

Transcription is the process of converting audiotape recordings or fi eldnotes into text data.
You may use a transcriptionist to type your text files or you can transcribe the information yourself.
In either case, for interview data, transcriptionists need special equipment to help create the
transcript. This equipment consists of a machine that enables the transcriber to start and stop tape
recordings or to play them at a speed so that the transcriber can easily follow them. Here are a few
more guidelines to facilitate transcription:

◆ Create 2-inch margins on each side of the text document so that you can jot down notes in
the margins during data analysis.

◆ Leave extra space on the page between the interviewer’s comments and the interviewee’s
comments. This enables you to distinguish clearly between speakers during data analysis.
 ◆ Highlight or mark in some way the questions asked by the interviewer. You will not
analyze your questions, but identifying them clearly indicates where one question ends and another
begins. Often, you will analyze all answers to a single question.

◆ Use complete, detailed headers that contain information about the interview or
observational session. Examine interview and observational protocols to see the type of content to be
included in a transcription.

◆ Transcribe all words, and type the word “[ pause]” to indicate when interviewees take a
lengthy break in their comments. These pauses may provide useful information about times when
interviewees cannot or will not respond to a question. You can also record other actions occurring
during an interview. For example, type “[laughter ]” when the interviewee laughs, “[ telephone
rings]” to indicate a phone call that interrupts the interview, or “[ inaudible]” to mark when the
transcriptionist cannot determine what is being said. As a general approach, transcribing all words
will provide data that captures the details of an interview.

Analyze by Hand or Computer

With the popularity of computers, researchers have a choice about whether to hand analyze
data or to use a computer. The hand analysis of qualitative data means that researchers read the
data, mark it by hand, and divide it into parts. Traditionally, analyzing text data involves using color
coding to mark parts of the text or cutting and pasting text sentences onto cards. Some qualitative
researchers like to hand analyze all of their data. A hand analysis may be preferred when you:

◆ Are analyzing a small database (e.g., fewer than 500 pages of transcripts or fi eldnotes)
and can easily keep track of fi les and locate text passages

◆ Are not comfortable using computers or have not learned a qualitative computer software
program

◆ Want to be close to the data and have a hands-on feel for it without the intrusion of a
machine

◆ Have time to commit to a hand analysis, since it is a labor-intensive activity to manually

sort, organize, and locate words in a text database

For others with a greater interest in technology and with the time to learn a computer
program, a computer analysis is ideal. A computer analysis of qualitative data means that researchers
use a qualitative computer program to facilitate the process of storing, analyzing, sorting, and
representing or visualizing the data. With the development of these computer programs, you have a
choice as to whether to use hand coding or a computer analysis. You might base your decision on
several factors. Use a computer program when you:

◆ Are analyzing a large database (e.g., more than 500 pages of transcripts or fi eldnotes) and
need to organize and keep track of extensive information

◆ Are adequately trained in using the program and are comfortable using computers

◆ Have resources to purchase a program or can locate one to use

◆ Need a close inspection of every word and sentence to capture specifi c quotes or
meanings of passages.

Use of Qualitative Computer Programs

Qualitative computer programs do not analyze the data for you. However, they do provide
several convenient features that facilitate your data analysis. A qualitative data analysis computer
program is a program that stores data, organizes your data, enables you to assign labels or codes to
your data, and facilitates searching through your data and locating specifi c text or words.

Procedures for Using Software Programs

The general procedures for using a software program are as follows:

1. Convert a word processing fi le into a text fi le or import the word processing fi le directly
into the computer program. The word processing file will be a transcribed interview, a set of fi
eldnotes, or other text, such as a scanned document.

2. Select a computer program to use. This program should have the features of storing data,
organizing data, assigning labels or codes, and searching the data.

3. Enter a fi le into the program and give it a name.

4. Go through the fi le and mark sentences or paragraphs of ideas that pertain to what the
participant is saying in the text.

5. Provide a code label for the blocked text. Continue this process of marking text and
providing code labels for the entire text file.
 6. After blocking and assigning labels to text, search for all text matching each code, and
print out a fi le of these text passages.

7. Collapse these code labels into a few broad themes, or categories, and include evidence for
each category.

3. how to explore and code the data

Explore the General Sense of the Data

The first step in data analysis is to explore the data. A preliminary exploratory analysis in
qualitative research consists of exploring the data to obtain a general sense of the data,
memoing ideas, thinking about the organization of the data, and considering whether you
need more data. For example, Agar (1980) suggested you “. . . read the transcripts in their
entirety several times. Immerse yourself in the details, trying to get a sense of the interview as
a whole before breaking it into parts” (p. 103). Writing memos in the margins of field notes
or transcripts, or under photographs, helps in this initial process of exploring the data. These
memos are short phrases, ideas, concepts, or hunches that occur to you.

Code the Data

The further process of analyzing text (or images) in qualitative research begins when you code the
data. Coding is the process of segmenting and labeling text to form descriptions and broad themes in
the data. Although there are no set guidelines for coding data, some general procedures exist (see
Creswell, 2007; Tesch, 1990).
Using a visual model like the one in Figure 8.4 will help you learn this procedure. The object of the
coding process is to make sense out of text data, divide it into text or image segments, label the
segments with codes, examine codes for overlap and redundancy, and collapse these codes into
broad themes. Thus, this is an inductive process of narrowing data into a few themes ( J. David
Creswell, personal communication, January 1, 2001). Also, in this process you will select specific data
to use and disregard other data that do not specifically provide evidence for your themes.
Several steps are involved in coding data. Although there is no definite procedure, Tesch (1990) and
Creswell (2007) recommend the following steps:
1. Get a sense of the whole. Read all of the transcriptions carefully. Jot down in the margins some
ideas as they come to mind.
2. Pick one document (e.g., one interview, one fieldnote). Choose the most interesting, the shortest,
or the one on the top of the pile. Go through it, asking the question “What is this person talking
about?” Consider the underlying meaning and write it down in the margin in two or three words,
drawing a box around it.
3. Begin the process of coding the document. This process involves identifying text segments, placing
a bracket around them, and assigning a code word or phrase that accurately describes the meaning
of the text segment. Sentences or paragraphs that all relate to a single code are called a text
segment. Codes are labels used to describe a segment of text or an image. Codes can address many
different topics, such as those listed here (see also Bogdan & Biklen, 1998):
• Setting and context (e.g., classroom)
• Perspectives held by participants (poor learners)
• Participants’ ways of thinking about people and objects (problem children)
• Processes (disruptions during the class)
• Activities (student sitting quietly)
• Strategies (teacher giving time-out)
• Relationship and social structure (students talking to each other) As seen in these examples, you
can state codes in the participant’s actual words (i.e., a student’s perspective about other students,
such as “poor learners”), which are called in vivo codes. They can also be phrased in standard
educational terms (a researcher referring to “a classroom”) or expressed in your own language (a
statement about “students talking to each other”). You do not need to code each sentence or
provide multiple codes for each sentence. Instead, use the idea of lean coding, in which, the first
time through a manuscript, you assign only a few codes. For example, for a 20-page manuscript, you
might insert only 10 to 15 codes the first time you analyze it. In this way, you can reduce a smaller
number of codes to broad themes rather than work with an unwieldy set of codes. 4. After coding an
entire text, make a list of all code words. Group similar codes and look for redundant codes. Your
objective is to reduce a list of codes to a smaller, more manageable number, such as 25 to 30. It is
best not to overcode the data because, in the end, you will need to reduce the codes to a small
number of themes.
5. Take this list and go back to the data. Try out this preliminary organizing scheme to see whether
new codes emerge. Circle specific quotes from participants that support the codes.
6. Reduce the list of codes to get five to seven themes or descriptions of the setting or participants.
Themes (also called categories) are similar codes aggregated together to form a major idea in the
database. Identify the five to seven themes by examining codes that the participants discuss most
frequently, are unique or surprising, have the most evidence to support them, or are those you
might expect to find when studying the phenomenon. The reason for the small number of themes is
that it is best to write a qualitative report providing detailed information about a few themes rather
than general information about many themes. A description is a detailed rendering of people,
places, or events in a setting in qualitative research. You might use codes such as “seating
arrangements,” “teaching approach,” or “physical layout of the room” to describe a classroom
where instruction takes place.

4. Use codes to build description and themes