Mandala Empire of FUNAN and The Rise of Jayavarman II

Dr Uday Dokras- Indo Nordic Author’s Collective
Mandala Empire of FUNAN and the rise of

Jayavarman II
INDO NORDIC AUTHOR’S COLLECTIVE
कौन है वो कौन है वो Who is he- Who is he?

कहां से वो आया
Where from has he come?
चारों दि ओं में
तेज सा वो छाया His aura spreads in all four
उसकी भुजाएं बदले कथाएं directions.
भागीरथी तेरी तरफ
शिवजी चले देख ज़रा His warrior arms- change
यह विचित्र माया
narratives
O disciple- SEE
It is Shiva (Vishnu) who
comes towards you
Such is his Power – O see
this miracle
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Jyavarman II anointing a Linga
Jayavarman II, posthumous name Paramesvara (literally, Supreme God not Lord),
(born c. 770—died 850, Hariharalaya, Cambodia), founder of the Khmer, or
Cambodian, empire and outstanding member of the series of rulers of
the Angkor period (802–1431). It is said that among Jayavarman II’s many
accomplishments were the deification of the Cambodian monarchy, the establishment
of the devarāja cult as the official state religion, and the reunification of the old
kingdom of Chenla, which he expanded and formed into the Khmer empire. 200 years
later, another king Suryavarman I, an innovative and demanding monarch,from the
blood line of the States of Thailand rose to power and conquered(subjugated) many
semi independent states and his reign is said to resemble that of Jayavarman II.
But who was he? Jayavarman II? Where did he come from? Like Shiva or
Vishnu he came and conquered. Mobilized massive armies. Fought great
battles. Conquered landmasses. His ambition was to become God himself. He
crowned himself as Devaraja. THE KING OF GODS- Vishnu !
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Jayavarman II
1A
Devarāja" is the cult of the "god-king" , or deified king in Southeast Asia. The
devarāja cult grew out of indigenous traditions. It taught that the king was a divine
universal ruler, a manifestation of the Hindu god, often attributed to Shiva or Vishnu.
Devarāja, in ancient Cambodia, the cult of the “god-king” established early in the 9th
century AD by Jayavarman II, founder of the Khmer empire of Angkor.
For centuries, the cult provided the religious basis of the royal authority of the Khmer
kings. The king was deified in an elaborate and mystical ceremony, requiring a high
priest, in which the divine essence of kingship was conferred on the ruler through the
agency of the linga. The safeguarding of the linga became bound up with the security
of the kingdom, and the great temple architecture of the Khmer period attests to the
importance attached to the belief.
Concept of Devaraja
The founder of the Khmer empire who implemented the idea of “deva-raja” in the 7th
century hit upon this idea as an original – there is very little or almost no precedent to
this concept in India regardless of what many researchers think.. Having lived in India
for 70 years nowhere have, I come across the idea that a King will become Shiva- the
king of all Gods, not only is the concept blasphemous but likelycto call for the wrath
of the Gods, if you really are a Hindu!
By equating himself to God Shiva( also called Vishnu) JayavarmanII obtained divine
authority over the sphere of influence he had and one separate and more powerful
than what a normal king would have- an Immortal who was consecrated by Bhahmins
in front of the people to add legitimacy to this “Divine” claim – a tool for political
persuasion. With this establishment, the Hindu-Buddhist concept of mandalas and
devarajas came into play in Southeast Asia. Being the center of this political mandala,
the king thus had the divine devotion of his people. This concept holds great
importance, as it is one, which laid the foundations for the miraculous project: Angkor
Wat. By associating himself [Jayavarman II] with Shiva and the royal mountain, the
king symbolized his ability to guarantee the flow of life-power from the spirit realm to
his subjects. His establishment of the devaraja cult also tied Jayavarman spiritually to
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his supporters.1
Many think that Devaraja means GOD KING that too by twisting the tongue but
actually it means KING OF ALL GODS and who was king of all Hindu Gods- It was
Shiva. In fact he has been called Chakravartin which in Pali chakkavatti, is the
ancient Indian conception of the world ruler, derived from the Sanskrit chakra,
“wheel,” and vartin, “one who turns.” Thus, a chakravartin may be understood as a
ruler “whose chariot wheels roll everywhere,” or “whose movements are unobstructed.”
In other words conquerer of the world. After his death he was called Parameshwara,
which means the tallest( or eternal) God and who would that be, if not Shiva.
Mandala empire of FUNAN

The rise and fall of great polities of the past came in different forms. For Southeast
Asia, the analogy is often one of dynamic “circles” of power that expand and contract.
These circles had a center or seed, be it a settlement or a royal palace, out of which
grew the loose Indic- influenced kingdoms, sometimes termed “mandalas.” In this
formative stage they carried pre-Indic indigenous names. These terms refer to the core
areas which gave rise to principalities, kingdoms, and empires and larger formations
became known by the Sanskrit term, mandala. But in terms of a regional
consciousness, of being part of a whole, the mandalic region’s adaptability meant that
it could adopt all that was originally ‘foreign’.” The same could be said of The
Khemers-having borrowed Hinduism from India, later on became a Buddhist country.
“The early states that inspired the title of this publication are misty entities about which,
to varying degrees, little is known beyond their names and what can be gleaned from a
scattering of early inscriptions and some field archaeology. Some bear Indic names,
such as Champa (Skt., Campā), Dvāravatī, Śrī Ksetra, and Śrīvijaya, while others, such
as Funan and Zhenla, are known by the names assigned to them in Chinese official
chronicles. The last two names are preserved only in Chinese sources and are assumed
to be phonetic renderings of unrecorded local names, although no evidence exists for this
idea; rather, they may simply have been names the Chinese historians assigned to
these distant and minor entities, with which they traded. Nonetheless, Chinese
commentators, uniquely for the period, did record precise geographic locations for the
polities, securing them in space and time. The premier names are Pyu, Dvāravatī,
Funan, Zhenla, Champa, and Śrīvijaya.”1B
The earliest forms of Hinduism, along with Buddhist influences, entered the Funan
kingdom with Hindu merchants. In later history, a second stream of Buddhism
entered Khmer culture during the Angkor empire when Cambodia absorbed the
various Buddhist traditions of the Mon kingdoms of Dvaravati and Haripunchai.
For the first thousand years of Khmer history, Cambodia was ruled by a series of
Hindu kings with an occasional Buddhist king, such as Jayavarman I of Funan, and
Suryvarman I. A variety of Buddhist traditions co-existed peacefully throughout
Cambodian lands, under the tolerant auspices of Hindu kings and the neighboring
Mon-Theravada kingdoms. Angkor Wat, a Hindu temple in Siem Reap, is the largest
temple complex in the world.
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However let us not forget that highland tribal groups, most with their own local
religious systems were the earliest religious people in Cambodia. Hinduism came to
Cambodia mainly during the reign of the Chola king Raja Raja Chola in the 10th
century. Even before that, Buddhism had arrived in Cambodia. The Khmer Loeu have
been loosely described as animists, but most indigenous ethnic groups have their own
pantheon of local spirits. In general they see their world filled with various invisible
spirits (often called yang), some benevolent, others malevolent. They associate spirits
with rice, soil, water, fire, stones, paths, and so forth. Shamans, sorcerers or
specialists in each village contact these spirits and prescribe ways to appease them.
The first wave of Indians gives birth to Funan, Angkor's Ancestor

1.The first wave of Indians has been said to have migrated into Cambodia about 2000
years ago – at the beginning of the Modern Era. This migration gave birth to the
Khmer race, as the Indian merchants married into the local population.
2.The second wave occurred a few centuries later and began the Indianization of this
region re-invigorating Hindu influences with a fresh influx of Brahman priests
accompanying the merchants. This merger of the indigenous and Indian cultures gave
birth to the unique Khmer culture, a Kingdoms with centralized power began to pop
up in areas that had previously consisted of smaller tribal units.
3.The first of these Indianized kingdoms of mainland Southeast Asia was called
Funan- between the first to the 6th century of the Modern Era. Funan is thought to be
a Chinese alliteration of a Sanskrit term meaning Mountain Kingdom. Although the
kingdom was located near the coast, this name was presumably chosen because the
Funanese rulers believed themselves descended from the gods, who lived in the
mountains.
Funan's original capital a port city located 120 miles from the mouth of the Mekong
Rivermcalled Vyadhapura, likely in what is now Ba Phnum District in the province
of Prey Veng, Cambodia. Chinese reports indicated that it was about 120 miles from
the sea. 1
ALTERNATE NARRATIVE
Once upon a time, thousands of years back, came a Brahmin called ‘Kaundinya’ to
this place from India. There he married a local Nag princess and ruled the territory.
The seed of Indian culture sowed on this ground turned into a tree laden with fruits
and flowers. This is the anecdote which marks the beginning of Cambodia the original
‘Kambhuj Desh’. The Indian influence was so powerful that generations of kings
across several dynasties called themselves with Sanskrit names such as Jayvarman,
Yashowarman, Baladitya and their capital cities were Vyadhpura, Aninditpur,
Shambhupura and so on. Indian literature including Ramayan and Mahabharat along
with several pauranik stories became so popular, that they were written back in local
Khmer languages and found place in several carvings, folk arts and importantly in
peoples’ minds. The gods worshipped were Shiv, Vishnu, Uma, Durga, Ganesh and
Gautam Buddha. If Indian mythology made Gautam Buddha as Vishnu’s tenth
incarnation, it’s south east Asian variant made him brother of Shiva. Several large
temples and schools were built for learning of Sanskrit and other faculties such as
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Nyaay, Mimansa, Kaavya. Several of the Cambodian kings were tutored in Indian
education system.
Their social rituals such as coronation, marriages etc were entirely based on our customs as written in
Smriti and Sutra literature. There are several inscriptions written in Sanksrit and that too as ‘VrittaBaddha
kavya’ – verses in metres. There was constant interaction with India, as scholars and merchants travelled
between the two lands. Present day Cambodia was the first Indian settlement dated around first century
AD. Funan, Chen-la and then Angkor were the prominent Khmer empires giving ‘them and us’ both, a
history to be proud of.
The success story of India Shining thus flourished around 2-3’rd century AD, came to an end around 14-
15’th century. The Buddhism took over more aggressively and the Chinese influence increased, shutting
the doors to Indian winds. Same time India was shackled by Mughal empire which also acted towards
neglect and dis-interest in keeping this south-east connection alive.
Vyadhapura
The Sanskrit for 'City of the Hunters' (Vyadh means one who lives by killing deer and
pura is city) Being at the center of land and sea routes that linked eastern India and
southern China to the islands of the South Seas. Vyadhapura was also conveniently
connected to the Gulf of Siam and inland cities by canals that utilized natural
channels. These canals were large enough for seagoing vessels contributing to the
origination of the Funan kingdom, whose prosperity was primarily based on trade.
They were the first Southeast Asian nation, but not the last, to be a commercial
empire. Funan was definitely the earliest phase of Khmer culture. The ethnic and
linguistic origins of the Funanese people have consequently been subject to scholarly
debate, and no firm conclusions can be drawn based on the evidence available. The
Funanese may have been Cham or from another Austronesian group, or they may
have been Khmer or from another Austroasiatic group. It is possible that they are the
ancestors of those indigenous people dwelling in the southern part of Vietnam today
who refer themselves as "Khmer" or "Khmer Krom." The Khmer term "krom" means
"below" or "lower part of" and is used to refer to territory that was later colonised by
Vietnamese immigrants and taken up into the modern state of Vietnam.[15]
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It is also possible that Funan was a multicultural society, including various ethnic and
linguistic groups. In the late 4th and 5th centuries, Indianization advanced more
rapidly, in part through renewed impulses from the south Indian Pallava dynasty and
the north Indian Gupta Empire.[16] The only extant local writings from the period of
Funan are paleographic Pallava Grantha inscriptions in Sanskrit of the Pallava
dynasty, a scholarly language used by learned and ruling elites throughout South and
Southeast Asia. These inscriptions give no information about the ethnicity or
vernacular tongue of the Funanese.
Suvarnabhumi : Funan could have been the Suvarnabhumi referred to in ancient

Indian texts. The core of Suvarnabhumi/Suvarnadvipa, which covered a vast extent of
Southeast Asia including present day Cambodia, southern Vietnam, Thailand, Laos,
Burma, Malaya, Sumatra and other parts of Indonesia. As per a Pre-Angkorian stone
inscription in dated to 633 CE -“The great King Isanavarman is full of glory and
bravery. He is the King of Kings, who rules over Suvarnabhumi until the sea, which is
the border, while the kings in the neighbouring states honour his order to their
heads”. This adds credence to the fact that Suvarnabhumi was the Khmer Empire. 2
Funan could even be considered a small empire- a classic mandala empire, no precise
boundaries, with influence and power spread by prestige and wealth rather than through
military strength. See my book MAZE OF THE MANDALA, Book V, Rajamandala, “ Circle of
Kings’ Indian Ocean Kingdoms and Diplomacy.”
The Influence of the Pallava Dynasty of Southern India
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It is also possible that Funan was a multicultural society, including various ethnic and
linguistic groups. In the late 4th and 5th centuries, Indianization advanced more
rapidly, in part through renewed impulses from the south Indian Pallava dynasty and
the north Indian Gupta Empire. The only extant local writings from the period of
Funan are paleographic Pallava Grantha inscriptions in Sanskrit of the Pallava
dynasty which, unfortunately, give no information about the ethnicity or vernacular
tongue of the Funanese As but one indication of this influence, the Cambodian kings
borrowed the honorific title ‘varman’ from the Pallavas to designate their king.
Bhadravarman, one of Funan’s early rulers, was the first Khmer king to add this suffix
to his name. Ruling in the 4th century, he was a contemporary of the Pallavas. He was
also a renowned scholar of the Vedas and authored several inscriptions in Sanskrit.
Significantly, he also invited some prominent Brahmins to live in his kingdom,
presumably to encourage the spread of Hinduism. He was not the last Khmer king to
extend this type of invitation.
The history of the Pallavas is very complex and covers about four centuries. The period
of Pallavas is significant as it completed the Aryanisation of southern India. The North
Indian Dharma Sastras gained full authority during the Pallavas’ reign. The University
of Kanchi was an important seat of education in the South. The Pallava dynasty was
an Indian dynasty that existed from 275 CE to 897 CE, ruling a portion of southern
India. They gained prominence after the eclipse of the Satavahana dynasty, whom the
Pallavas served as feudatories. They became a major power during the reign
of Mahendravarman I (571–630 CE) and Narasimhavarman I (630–668 CE) and
dominated the Southern parts of Telugu Region and northern parts of the Tamil region
for about 600 years until the end of the 9th century. Throughout their reign they were
in constant conflict with both Chalukyas of Badami in the north and the Tamil
kingdoms of Chola and Pandyas in the south. Pallavas were finally defeated by
the Chola ruler Aditya I in the 9th century CE.
Pallavas are most noted for their patronage of architecture, the finest example being
the Shore Temple, in Mamallapuram. The Pallava script gave rise to several other
southeast Asian scripts. Chinese traveller Xuanzang visited Kanchipuram during
Pallava rule and extolled their benign rule.
Khemer Script: As a further indication of the Pallava influence, the script that the
Khmer eventually adopted was derived from the ornate Grantha script of the Pallavas.
The cult of the 8-armed Vishnu also came from their kingdom. It is believed that
Angkor Wat was initially dedicated to this god. A freestanding larger than life size
statue of this god was originally housed in the uppermost tier of the temple. The
statue is now found at the entrance. Its stylistic features are nearly identical to its
South Indian counterpart. However, the interaction between the 2 cultures was not
one-sided. As evidence, some of the Pallava kings employed Khmer words in their
titles. Further, one of the Pallava kings actually lived for years in Funan before
ascending to the throne.
Coming back to how the Pallavas of South India and the royalty of the Khemer
area interacted, the story goes that in 731, the Pallava king Parameswaravarman-the
last ruler of the Simhavishnu line of Pallavas, died without any heir and hence the
Pallava Empire was without a king. To thwart their enemies from invading the
country, the military leaders, scholars and representatives of mercantile and
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peasantry formed an entourage and undertook a long journey to reach the kingdom
of– modern day Cambodia and Vietnam– ruled by a certain Kadavesa Hari Varma, who
stemmed from the Pallava lineage and was 6th descendant of Bhimavarman, the
brother of the great Simhavishnu.
The Cambodian king Kadavesa Hari Verma had four sons. The first three
(Kshatriyamalla, Sangramamalla and Rajamalla) declined the offer. The last one
Pallava Malla Parameswara also known as Nandivarman, who was then 14 years old,
accepted the request. Nandivarman was an intellectual with aptitude in many arts like
writing, poetry, music and philosophy. Like his predecessor Rajasimha, he is credited
with augmenting temple dramatized dance worship like Kutiyattam and chakyar
koothu with many plays of his own. He is known to have composed the same in Tamil,
also, as can be seen from the poem “Nandikkalambakam” that celebrates his erudition
in Tamil, while also hailing his great conquests. The poem Nandikkalambakam, which
informs us of his great servitor ship to saivite tradition, also says that “ships from far
off continents, loaded with great wealth, creaking to the point of breaking, sailed into
the kingdom regularly.”
ANGKOR WAT
Cambodian art and culture was prolific during the rule of Pallavas (3rd – 9th AD) and
Cholas (9-13th AD) in South India. Among the Pallava kings, it is very well known that
the title Varman was honorific and so was borrowed by the Cambodian kings. You will
find almost all of them having the suffix ‘Varman’ starting with Bhadravarman in 4th
AD. He happened to be a scholar and well versed in Vedas and author of several
inscriptions in Sanskrit.
The Grantha called Pallava Grantha script traveled to Cambodia from Pallava. Some of
the titles of Pallava kings including Mahendravarman I appear to be in the Khmer
language.An archaic and ornamental variety of Grantha is sometimes referred to as
Pallava Grantha. They were used by the Pallava in some inscriptions. Mamallapuram
Inscriptions, Tiruchirapalli Rock Cut Cave Inscriptions, Kailasantha Inscription come
under this type.The Pallavas also produced a distinctive script separate from the
Grantha family.
Ashtabhuja Vishnu
9
Pallavas contributed the persuasion of Ashtabhuja Vishnu (eight-armed Vishnu) to

Cambodia. This persuasion originated around Mathura region in North India, spread
to Nagarjunakonda (Andhra) and from there to south to Kanchipuram. You will find
this form of deity enshrined in many temples in and around Kanchi especially at
Ashtabhuja Perumal Temple. You will find a similar eight armed Vishnu huge
monolithic figure in Angkor Wat. After Buddhism was embraced this deity was moved
out to the entrance where it still stands. It is said that this statue is identical to the
one in Ashtabhuja Perumal temple of Kanchi.
8 armed VISHNU at Left and the one at Angkor Wat Temple
Another parallel is the ubiquitous presence of depiction of the Hindu mythology of

churning of cosmic ocean by the gods and demons. At Angkor you will find this
depiction everywhere including Bayon and Angkor Wat. You will see the entrance to
many temples having this. In India you will hardly see this mythology depicted in any
of the temples except at Virupaksha temple at Pattadakkal in Karnataka. One
uncommon feature is the depiction of an incident in Mahabharata war. The bas-relief
of this war shows Bishma lying on the bed of arrows. Such representation of Bishma
is uncommon in South Indian art.( BELOW)
ANGKOR WAT ARCHITECTURE

There are many features in the architecture of Angkor Wat that are common with
Pallava and Chola temples. Like the Vaikunta Perumal Temple (Kanchi) and the
Sundara Varada Perumal Temple (Uttaramerur) of Pallavas, the Angkor Wat consists
of three levels or tiers; each of the upper tiers slightly smaller than the one below it
giving the structure the look of a pyramid; like Chola Brhaidsvara temple of
Thanjavur, Angkor Wat too was conceived to represent the sacred mount Meru in the
Himalayas. Damodar Pandita, A Brahmin scholar from Madhyadesa (Karnataka-
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Orissa region) in India was the chief priest of Suryavarman II, the builder of the
Angkor Wat. It is said that the temple was built as per the guidelines provided by the
Indian priest.
The Kings of Funan and Chenla
One Funanese Prince may have migrated to South India but others ruled the land.
Funan’s most powerful king was Jayavarman. He ruled for 34 years from 480 CE ->
514 CE. ‘Jaya’ means victory in Sanskrit, while ‘varman’ signifies king. Hence,
Jayavarman means ‘victorious king’.He was the original Jayavarman. The second was
a Chenla king. The third founded the Angkor dynasty, which initiated the Khmer’s
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golden age. As a reminder, the Khmer belong to an unbroken tradition beginning with
Funan and continuing to modern times. This chain includes both the kingdoms of
Chenla and Angkor. The third Jayavarman even named himself after the others to
establish a correspondence and continuity with these more ancient kingdoms of
Funan and Chenla.
Funan’s Jayavarman sent a mission to China to ask for aid in his war with the Cham.
While they sent no actual aid, the Chinese conferred an imperial title, which gave
prestige to his mandala kingdom. It also brought the more important Chinese
business and corresponding wealth. The Chinese visitors write about cockfights and
pig fights. They say that the Funanese worshipped Shiva, Vishnu and Buddha, all of
which came from India.
Kailashnathar Temple,India Example of Pallave architecture
Sanskrit inscriptions have been found which indicate that Funan’s capital city was Oc
Eo. Satellite photos indicate that the city was rectangular, approximately 2 miles by 1
mile. Surrounded by moats and mounds, the city was subdivided by canals, with
houses built on the canals’ edge. The canals were primarily the work of Tamil’s Indian
culture. They were constructed in the same tradition as their ancestors, who had done
such great work in controlling the flood waters of the Indus Valley so many thousands
of years before.
Rudravarman, referred to as the last king of the race of Soma - referring to the Naga
Princess, who gave birth to the Khmer race- replaced Jayavarman I. He ruled for 25
years - from 514 -> 539 CE. He also sent many diplomatic missions to China during
his reign. He moved the capital to Angkor Borei, which was linked to Oc Eo by canal.
Moving the capital was a major tradition of the Khmer kings. It happened so many
times that some writers claim that it was necessary to revitalize the Empire.How that
woukd create revitalization kis a mystery.
Rudravarman. After his death the Funan royal family married into the Chenla family.
The Khmer refer to this as the merger of the Solar race of inland Chenla with the
Lunar race of coastal Funan. Practically speaking, it meant that the Khmer moved
their center of power inland from the coast.
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Bharavarman, the first king of Chenla, formed his new capital, Bhavapura, on the
northern shore of Tonle Sap Lake. Isanavarman, the next major king of Chenla, moved
his capital a short distance away to Isanapura in 611 CE. This was another
rectangular city. It was approximately 1 mile by 1 mile with double walls and a
reservoir - just like Oc Eo.
Either due to terrible floods or by a loss of prominence of its trading ports Funan
diminished in importance and the ingdom of Chenla ascended. The Srivijaya Empire
that controlled Indonesia had consolidated power by dominating sea lanes was
responsible for the gradual decline of Funan.( See my BookKINGDOM OF THE WINDS-
The Mysterious Srivijay Empire.) Thus while Funan was devastated by floods, it had
already been disappearing commercially, and hence politically.
China, Funan's best customer & historian
In contrast to the Chinese, the Khmer came to enjoy the permanence of stone.
Therefore, numerous Chinese records speak of Funan as a tribute paying nation.
During their early kingdoms, they were known for wood carving skills. In later times,
these sculptural talents were employed to create temples of stones profusely carved.
China’s written word from the same time continues to reveal much about the ancient
Funanese kingdom. Back at the Imperial court, the Chinese were amused by the
report of supernumerary gods - spirits of heaven and strange divinities with many
arms and heads, usually multiples of two – probably the Hindu influence. Maybe
Shiva, Vishnu or both merged with the local gods.
The Funanese believed their gods descended onto mountaintops to reside and
communicate with the mortal world. That’s why they themselves as the Mountain
Kingdom. Many Southeast Asian cultures, including the Khmer and the Javanese,
have the same belief.n Hence, it is not surprising that in later designs such as
Angkor, we find a temple type in which the sanctuary is built atop a stepped pyramid.
Archaeologists called these “temple- mountains.” Each important sovereign was
apparently obliged to build one in order to establish his power
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Mount Meru
The Empire at Angkor: Khmer’s Golden Age
Jayavarman II is traditionally regarded as the founder of the Khmer Empire, a

powerful state which ruled much of mainland Southeast Asia from the 9th century AD
until the 15th century AD. As we have seen, this Khmer Empire was preceded by the
Chenla Kingdom, and during Jayavarman’s time, was marked by constant infighting
between the various local rulers. By conquering the various lords, Jayavarman
succeeded in reunifying the Chenla Kingdom. Additionally, outward territorial
expansion was also carried out by this ambitious ruler, hence making the Khmer
Empire a formidable entity on the Southeast Asian mainland. To top it all off,
Jayavarman proclaimed himself as ‘deva-raja’, which means ‘god-king’, and is claimed
to have turned the cult of the ruler into the official state religion.
In another theorey, in 790 CE he is said to have returned from the Sailendra court in
Java with some big plans. He claimed heritage from the ancient royal family of Funan.
In 802 he founded a capital on a hill called Phnom Kulen, the first of many hill
capitols. He even built a brick pyramid to support a temple-shrine. He called in artists
from Champa and Java to give new impetus to local traditions. After the decline of the
Khmer empire/kingdoms centered around first Funan and then Chenla, an
invigorated king moved the capitol to Angkor. This move initiated the beginning of the
Khmer’s classical period. The classic period, when the Khmer's hill capitols were
centered around Angkor, near present day Siem Riep, is considered the Golden Age of
the Khmer. It lasted from 802 CE -> 1432 CE - over 600 years - nearly 3 times longer
than the USA has been around.
Jayavarman was followed by a series of strong rulers. Indravarman I (877-889) laid

the foundation of the temple complex known as Angkor. It is 1700 yards by 1500
yards. Its well thought out plan was based upon a rectangular grid of reservoirs,
canals, and irrigation channels to control flooding and provide water for the growing
empire. This well developed irrigation system was one of the foundations of the Khmer
empire.
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After dealing with the water for his new capital, Indravarman I built Bakong, a second
mountain top temple. The succeeding kings elaborated on this theme - further
enhancing the Angkor complex by building their own temple mountains in 893, 961,
1000, 1066 - each more elaborate and grandiose than the preceding. This temple
building spree culminated in 1100 with the construction of Angkor Wat by
Suryavarman II.
Following this efflorescence of art, the Khmer culture under Jayavarman VII suffered
an embarrassing loss to the Cham culture of South Vietnam. Marshaling his forces, he
eventually defeated them and extended the boundaries of the empire further than they
had ever been before - to Chang Mai in the north - to South Vietnam in the east - to
southern Thailand in the west.
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With this renewal of energy, he then supervised the construction of Angkor Thom in
1200 - perhaps the most ambitious of all the temples in size and scope. The temple
was notable for its four sided Buddha heads. These heads represented the all-seeing
power of the Buddhist Lokesvara - Lord of this world - and his representative - the
king.This was the last of the temple building. The high standards of Khmer
craftsmanship were maintained; but there were no more huge works of art. After
Jayavarman VII, the culture at Angkor lasted about 200 more years. At this time, the
Mongol invasions of China created huge population pressures that pushed the Thai
out of Southern China and the Cham out of North Vietnam. As a result, the Khmer
civilization was attacked by the Thai from the west and the Cham from the east. 3
GOD KING Or KING OF GODS?
Many think that Devaraja2 means GOD KING that too by twisting the tongue but
actually it means KING OF ALL GODS and who was king of all Hindu Gods- It was
Shiva. In fact he has been called Chakravartin which in Pali chakkavatti, is the
ancient Indian conception of the world ruler, derived from the Sanskrit chakra,
“wheel,” and vartin, “one who turns.” Thus, a chakravartin may be understood as a
ruler “whose chariot wheels roll everywhere,” or “whose movements are unobstructed.”
In other words conquerer of the world. After his death he was called Parameshwara,
which means the the tallest( or eternal) God and who would that be if not Shiva.See
my Paper on Honorific Epithet of SE Asian Kings.
There is another theorey that he was possibly of Khmer descent, and came from Java,
where he had been in captivity or exile, to succeed to the throne as Java’s vassal
around 800. He is said to have fought the Javanese and asserted Khmer independence
in 802, when he also was installed under Hindu rites as devarāja, or “god-king”. He
established a series of capitals, first at Indrapura, on the lower Mekong River east of
Kâmpóng (Kompong) Cham; then, moving northwards, at Hariharalaya, southeast of
present-day Siĕmréab (Siem Reap); and then at Mahendraparvata, in the region just
north of the Tonle Sap (Great Lake), not far from Angkor, the next seat of the Khmer
empire, which remained its capital for 600 years. He is credited with the reunification
of the old kingdom of Chenla, which he expanded and formed into the Khmer Empire.
Inscriptions of Jayavarman’s Life

There is little that we can be certain of regarding the life of Jayavarman. The
information that we have about this deva-raja is derived from inscriptions. Many of
these were made some centuries after Jayavarman’s death, and they sometimes
contradict each other.
For example, the Sdok Kak Thom inscription, written in 1052 AD is commonly
regarded as the ‘standard biography’ of Jayavarman’s life. Yet, the events of
Jayavarman’s life as narrated in this inscription are not found elsewhere. Moreover,
two inscriptions from the late 8th century AD are said to shed light on the
Jayavarman’s early activities as a ruler, prior to his founding of the Khmer Empire.
16
During his reign, Jayavarman II, built some monuments on Phnom Kulen: Prasat
Khting Slap dedicated to Siva; Prasat Bos Nek, Chrei, Nak Ta, and Anlong Tom, all
were dedicated to Vishnu; Prasat Kraham I, one of the best-known sanctuaries of
Phnom Kulen, dedicated to the linga. Jayavarman II died in 850 AD; he received a
posthumous name Paramesvara (Supreme GOD). He was succeeded by his son
Jayavarman III.
THE ANGKOR REGION IN THE EARLY 8TH CENTURY
Wendan must have encompassed parts of what would have been considered “Zhenla”
prior to the division of the kingdom. This period shows a lack of inscriptions and also
an dearth of Temples. There is reliable evidence of the presence of intense inter-
warlord aggression. Ramesh Chandra Majumdar the SE Asisn scholar of Kolkata
University in Kambuja Desa Or An Ancient Hindu Colony In Cambodia, (Madras,
1944 ) proposes that King Jayavarman II came to the throne in 802 CE. The
monuments on Phnom Kulen, which he built date about the time of his reign.Later
Cambodian inscriptions which may be mythical refer to a state called "Javā”, as a
place of origin for Jayavarman II (K. 956, K. 235, K. 1158) though it is not known to
what state Javā refers to either the the island of Java or the northern part of the
Malay peninsula, or Champa d), a principality far up the Mekong, or Wendan itself .
In Cham inscriptions the name Yavadvīpa (the island of Java) in Sanskrit date back to
799 There is also a theorey that the artisans who built the temples at Phnom Kulen
came from outside the Angkor region brought there by Jayavarman II from
southeastern Cambodia to the Angkor area (1998: 396). Thus giving impetus to the
555
idea that he was an immigrant but an Angkorean. However not much can be read
from all these art detective theories. The fact we must address is that there Is a void
in the knowledge we have about Jayavarman II as well as that area due to absence of
trend to carve inscriptions to tell current facts and all inscriptions pointing a finger
towards this are from a later date lacking credence and credibility.
17
In DVARAVATI, SI THEP, AND WENDAN, Hiram Woodward, Curator Emeritus, Asian Art,
Walters Art Museum; attempts to define the historical position of Wendan (Land Zhenla), an
8th -century kingdom known from Chinese sources, which had a capital in northeastern
Thailand. Evidence from the Delta region (“Water Zhenla”), finally, dating from the second half
of the 8th century, reveals contact with Si Thep in this period and also indicates that at least
some of the craftsmen who worked on Mt. Kulen (probably beginning prior to Jayavarman II’s
coronation in 802) were likely to have been brought from this region.
FILLING IN THE 8TH CENTURY
Presuming that the Jayavarman of the 770 and 781 inscriptions subsequently became
established on Mt. Kulen, the question of whether his origins lay in the Water Chenla
of the Delta is a matter of uncertainty - the 781 inscription (K. 134, st. 3) suggests
that Jayavarman was an heir to the Surya cult, for it provides a unique mention of an
5A
image, a Tigmāṅśu (―hot-rayed sun)
Java: In Sanskrit, yava means barley, a plant for which the island was
famous. "Yavadvipa" is mentioned in India's earliest epic, the Ramayana. Sugriva, the
chief of Rama's army dispatched his men to Yavadvipa, the island of Java, in search
of Sita.[ It was hence referred to in India by the Sanskrit name "yāvaka dvīpa" (dvīpa =
island). Java is mentioned in the ancient Tamil text Manimekalai by Chithalai
Chathanar which states that Java had a kingdom with a capital called Nagapuram.
Another source states that the word "Java" is derived from a Proto-Austronesian root
word, meaning "home".The great island of Iabadiu or Jabadiu was mentioned
in Ptolemy's Geographia composed around 150 CE in the Roman Empire. Iabadiu is
said to mean "barley island", to be rich in gold, and have a silver town called Argyra at
the west end. The name indicates Javaand seems to be derived from the Sanskrit
name Java-dvipa (Yavadvipa).
The Taruma and Sunda kingdoms of western Java appeared in the 4th and 7th
centuries respectively, while the Kalingga Kingdom sent embassies to China starting
in 640. However, the first major principality was the Medang Kingdom that was
founded in central Java at the beginning of the 8th c entury. Medang's religion
centered on the Hindu god Shiva, and the kingdom produced some of Java's earliest
Hindu temples on the Dieng Plateau. Around the 8th century, the Sailendra
dynasty rose in Kedu Plain and become the patron of Mahayana Buddhism. This
ancient kingdom built monuments such as the 9th
century Borobudur and Prambanan in central Java.
Around the 10th century, the center of power shifted from central to eastern
Java. The eastern Javanese kingdoms of Kediri, Singhasari and Majapahit were
mainly dependent on rice agriculture, yet also pursued trade within the Indonesian
archipelago, and with China and India. Majapahit was established by Wijaya, and by
the end of the reign of Hayam Wuruk (r. 1350–89) it claimed sovereignty over the
entire Indonesian archipelago, although control was likely limited to Java, Bali, and
Madura. Hayam Wuruk's prime minister, Gajah Mada, led many of the kingdom's
territorial conquests. Previous Javanese kingdoms had their power based on
agriculture, however, Majapahit took control of ports and shipping lanes and became
Java's first commercial empire. With the death of Hayam Wuruk and the coming of
Islam to Indonesia, Majapahit went into decline
18
Jayavarman II was the first ruler who after a century of non –Khemer overlordship
was consecrated ( by himself) on Mount Mahendra as a DEVRJA "to ensure that the
country of the Kambujas would no longer be dependent on Java and that there would
be no more than one sovereign who was cakravartin." Historians are today considering
his reign to be less significant than thought earlier.
Java: One of the most familiar narratives of ancient Southeast Asian history is the
account of how Cambodian king Jayavarman II liberated his country from Java, and
consequently declared himself emperor in the year 802 ce. These events and this year
are widely considered to represent the beginning of the Angkorian "empire". Recent
years have seen several new scholarly contributions questioning parts of this
narrative. One issue is the very historicity of the narrative elements about Jayavarman
II, another topic of debate is the identity of Java in the narratives related to
Jayavarman II, and, more generally, in the history of Southeast Asia. After revealing
the very weak foundations of certain recent attempts to argue that referencesto Java
in sources of the Southeast Asian mainland denoted a place on the continent or the
Malay peninsula, this paper argues that the Khmer inscriptions refer to the island of
Java when they use the term Java. The paper shows, furthermore, that narratives
involving Java do not exclusively concern Jayavarman II, but that a certain
Satyavarman is in some sources attributed a role very similar to that of the much
more famous king Jayavarman II. It is proposed that this Satyavarman may well have
been the king of that name who ruled in southern Campa around 800 ce, and hence
that the epigraphical record of Satyavarman in Campa is likely to hold important clues
not only for the history of Campa itself, but equally for international political relations
between the Khmer, Cam and Javanese polities in the late 8th and early 9th century
of our era.4
19
Maurice Fievet
The Lost City of Cambodia
Known as the template for Angkor Wat on a remote plateau, researchers reveal a royal
capital whose splendors prefigure the glories of the Angkor complex.
Phnom Kulen is only some 25 miles north of a metropolis that reached its zenith three
centuries later—the greatest city of the Khmer Empire, and possibly the most glorious
religious center in the history of mankind: Angkor, derived from the Sanskrit
word nagara, or holy city, site of the famed temple Angkor Wat. But first there arose
Phnom Kulen, the birthplace of the great Khmer civilization that dominated most of
Southeast Asia from the 9th to the 15th centuries. The Khmer Empire would find its
highest expression at Angkor. But the defining elements of Kulen—sacred temples,
reflecting the influence of Hinduism, decorated with images of regional deities and the
Hindu god Vishnu, and a brilliantly engineered water-supply system to support this
early Khmer capital—would later be mirrored and enlarged at Angkor. By the 12th
century, at Angkor, adherence to Buddhism would also put its own stamp on the
temples there.
Archeologists combing the jungles of Southeast Asia found an inscriptions on temple

doors and walls that mentioned a warrior-priest monarch, Jayavarman II, whose
Kingdom had a splendid hilltop capital called Mahendraparvata (the mountain of the
great Indra, king of the gods).This inscription ( K. 235) is a 340-line composition, in
both Sanskrit and ancient Khmer, carved on a gray sandstone stele 1.51 meters high
that stood in the northeast corner of the temple's court. Dating to 8 February 1053,
talks about a Brahmin Family whose family members served the Kings for over 250
years and were Head Priests to the King. In the form of poetry it says:
20
Northeastern library. Photo c. 1980
"Homage to Śiva whose essence is highly proclaimed without words by the subtle Śiva,
His form, who pervades (everything) from within and who activates the senses of living
beings." It provides an account of twelve Khmer kings who ruled over the course of the
two and a half centuries. The earliest king mentioned is Jayavarman II, The text
includes the oft-cited detail that he came from a country named Java which
meanwhile by most scholars, such as Charles Higham, was seen as a foreign people
living in the east whose name is derived probably from Sanskrit yavana (wise),
perhaps referring to the kingdom of Champa. The Khmer portion of the text goes on to
say: “A Brahman named Hiraṇyadāman, skilled in magic and science," was invited by
the king "to perform a ceremony that would make it impossible for this country of
the Kambuja to pay any allegiance to Java and that there should be, in this country,
5
one sole sovereign.”
Neither being (sat) nor non-being was as Sdok Kak Thom inscription, written in
yet. What was concealed? 1052.AD( PIc Below LEFT)
And where? And in whose protection?…
Who really knows? "Then a brahman named Hiranyadama,
Who can declare it? Whence was it born, skilled in magic science, came from
and whence came this creation? Janapada, because H. M. Paramesvara
The devas (gods) were born later than this (King Jayavarman II) had invited him to
world's creation, perform a ceremony that would make it
so who knows from where it came into impossible for this country of Kambuja to
existence? None can know from where pay any allegiance to Java and that there
creation has arisen, and whether he has should be, in this country, one sole
or has not produced it. sovereign, who should be cakravartin."
He who surveys it in the highest heavens,
He alone knows or perhaps He does not "Then H. M. Paramesvara came from Java
know." to be Kurung in the holy city of
— Rig Veda 10. 129 Indrapura. The steng an Sivakaivalya,
wise ancestor, was the guru, was the
rajapurohita of His Majesty Paramesvara"
"Then His Majesty was Kurung on the site

of the royal city of Hariharalaya. The
steng an Sivakaivalya resided also in this
city. As for his family, they were made
pages of the King"
21
The inscription documents nine generations of the temple's priestly family, starting
with Śivakaivalya, Jayavarman II's chaplain. However scholars have paid special
attention to the inscription's account of the cult of the devarāja, a key part of the
Khmer court's religious ritual. “Hiraṇyadāma(n), the best of brahmins, with superior
intelligence like Brahmā, came, moved with compassion.
To the king Jayavarman II he carefully revealed a magic which had not been obtained
by other people,” the text reads. The king was instructed in four holy treatises. “After
carefully extracting the quintessence of the treatises by his experience and
understanding of the mysteries, this brahmin contrived the magic rites bearing the
name of Devarāja, for increasing the prosperity of the world.”
Devaraja means "king of the gods," in the sense that one god, generally Śiva, was
recognized as higher than others in the Hindu pantheon and through his authority
brought order to heaven.Depending on their favourites many Kings made this God the
Head Honcho over that and so on. That is why Vaisnavism and Shaivism existed in
Hindu lands of India Court religious ritual, as described repeatedly in the inscription,
focused on maintaining a linga, or holy shaft, in which Śiva's essence was believed to
reside.
The inscription is also key to understanding important events in Khmer history, such
as the late 9th Century relocation of the capital from the area around the present-day
village of Roluos. “Again, the skillful Vāmaśiva was the preceptor of Śrī Yaśovardhana,
bearing as king the name Śrī Yaśovarman,” the Sanskrit text states. “Invited by the
king, he erected a liṅga Mount Yaśodhara, which was like the king of mountains
(Meru) in beauty.” French scholars initially believed that Śrī Yaśodharagiri was the
mountain-like Bayon temple. But it is now established that the Bayon was built
almost three centuries later than the event described in the inscription and that the
linga was in fact placed in the newly constructed Phnom Bakheng temple, which
stands about two kilometers south of the Bayon atop a hill.
TIME LINE
1. Jayavarman II’s capital was Mount Kulen in north-western Cambodia
2. soon after Jayavarman II’s death, the Cambodian capital shifted to the northern
shores of the Tonle Sap, near present-day Phumĭ Rôluŏs. Jayavarman II ’s son
was Jayavarman III
3. Jayavarman III succeeded by his cousin Indravarman .(877–c. 890) who
constructed Bakong—the first Cambodian temple to be built of stone rather than
brick.
4. Indravarman moved the capital to Yasodharapura
22
5. The architectural centerpiece of a the capital, Yasodharapura, that Yasovarman

was Phnom Bakheng around 200 years before Angkor Wat.
6. It was the principal temple of the Angkor region, It was when he moved the court
from the capital Hariharalaya in the Roluos area located to the southeast.
7. soon after Jayavarman II’s death, the Cambodian capital shifted to the northern
shores of the Tonle Sap, near present-day Phumĭ Rôluŏs.
8. Indravarman I (ruled 877–c. 890) constructed a large reservoir and several
temples there, including a pyramidical structure called the Bakong—the first
Cambodian temple to be built primarily of stone rather than brick.
9. The Nagarakretagama - an Old Javanese eulogy to Hayam Wuruk,
a Javanese king of the Majapahit Empire. It was written on lontar as
a kakawin by Mpu Prapanca in 1365 contains detailed descriptions of the
Majapahit Empire during its greatest extent. The poem affirms the importance
of Hindu–Buddhism in the Majapahit empire by describing temples and palaces
and several ceremonial observances.
10.Indravarman’s son and successor, Yaśovarman I (ruled c. 890–c. 910), moved the
capital again, now closer to Siĕmréab, to a location that subsequently
became Angkor.
11.Yaśovarman founded the city of Yaśodharapura, which remained Cambodia’s
capital till 16th century.
12.Phnom Bakheng Angkor, Cambodia, is a Hindu and Buddhist temple in the form
of a temple mountain dedicated to Shiva, was built by him at the end of the 9th
century atop a hill.
13.Rajendravarman II (ruled 944–968) restored the capital and set in motion a period
of peace and prosperity that lasted nearly a century.
14..Succeeded by Jayavarman V (968–c. 1000), the builder of Banteai Srei.
15. Jayavarman V also started work on temple mountain Ta Keo.
16. Suryavarman I (ruled c. 1004–c. 1050) completed this temple.
17. Suryavarman extended the Khmer empire westward into present-day Thailand,
where he constructed the large mountaintop temple known as Preah Vihear
The Nagas and their Princess
23
The legend says that the prince was a foreigner, exiled from his homeland, while the princess was a naga
princess. On their wedding day, the father of the princess swallowed a part of the ocean, which in turn
formed the land of Cambodia. This land, Cambodia, was said to be their wedding gift.
At the beginning of the Common Era (circa 0 CE), people from the subcontinent of
India began migrating into Southeast Asia. The first wave of Indian immigrants
intermarried with the local tribes. This gave birth to the Khmer race of the historical
era. The local population continued speaking the Khmer language, but now had mixed
genetics, Indian and the indigenous culture.
This genetic mixture of the indigenous population with the Indians is reflected in their
mythology. According to legend, the Khmer are offspring of Kaundinya, a Hindu
warrior-prince, and a Naga princess named Soma. The Hindu prince, a semi-historical
character, had a dream that he was supposed to leave India with a merchant ship and
his bow and arrow. When he arrived, he found Soma in charge. Rather than fight, he
married her and became king. The Khmer are their children. They are of mixed
parentage - the Indians who came to trade and the indigenous population. Neither one
nor the other - but both.
Naga sculptures in Thailand
24
There are many different attributes given to this legendary animal- NAGA or Snake.
Those creatures who look either humans, like giant snakes, or like a mix of both with
one, three, five, seven or more heads, are the nagas (Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2017,
Web). The king of the snakes, the god of the rain, of the rivers, of the rainbows. While
stories tend to all agree that the naga is associated with snake, water and is a divine
being, legends vary a lot concerning its shape, its deeds and its aspiration.
The word ‘naga’ is the Sanskrit word for cobra, and is etymologically connected to the
English word snake. One can hardly define when and where in India the first nagas
were imagined. They are already mentioned in the Indian epic tale of the Mahabharata
written more than 2500 years ago, but they could be way older. Present throughout
Hindu and Buddhist mythology, the legends of the Naga spread from India eastward
and soon became integrated in the culture of various civilizations across Asia.
Depiction of Naga are frequent in the 11th-12th century-built Baphuon, Angkor or
Bayon temples of the Khmer Empire), and in the old legends of Isan in Thailand.
To this day nagas are popular mythical creatures all across Southeast Asia. Their
representation and legends were made part of the traditional arts and folklore of each
country, associated and reinvented with local beliefs, to the point that not so many
people in Southeast Asia nowadays can tell that nagas originated from India. The naga
was completely adopted by the region. Contemporary Southeast Asian artists, artisans,
screenwriters and writers keep using the figure of the naga in their work as it is a
popular creature widely known and appreciated. In some works, naga are benevolent
creatures, in other they are evil, sometimes they help the gods and sometimes they
fight them. There are so many myths and variants of those myths that one could say
that the nagas mean something different for each person who knows about them. This
plurality of meanings makes the nagas fascinating and mysterious creatures as one
never knows when a naga appears if it is a good omen or not. Their appearance also
varies greatly from one country to another and through time. This myriad of meanings
and shapes regarding the nagas demonstrates that they are still alive in the cultures of
Southeast Asia. 6
A Naga princess named Soma? The mythical Naga serpent guards the Buddha at
Thailand's northern temples in Chiang Mai. Nine headed Nagas also guard the temples
of Angkor. Does the mythology suggest that Kaundinya, the Hindu prince, married a
snake to give birth to the Khmer race? If not, what is the connection?
Naga refers to ‘snake’ in Sanskrit while in Khmer it refers to ‘hill people’ - a seemingly
diverse set of references. Let’s look a little closer at the facts to gain some perspective.
According to historians, the kingdom of Burma had regular battles with the Nagas in
their hills. These battles did not occur in the distant past, but in the 19th century of
the modern era - just a few centuries ago.
This historical fact does not mean that the Nagas, the mythical serpents of the
Khmer, still live in the hills of Burma and stage regular uprisings that must be
suppressed. Instead, Naga is the name applied to at least 20 tribes living in the Naga
Hills, part of one the fingers of the Himalayas. Soaring to 12,500 feet, they form a
mountain barrier between India and Burma, present day Myanmar.
Although there are many individualized local traditions due to their isolation, Naga
refers to all the tribes in the area. Each tribe speaks a Tibeto-Burman dialect. Yet, the
dialects in each village are so different that they must communicate through English
25
or Hindi. After World War II they even petitioned to have their own country called
Nagaland. However, India persuaded them to become one of her states. Submitting to
political reality, the Nagas reluctantly agreed. Accordingly, Nagaland is a state in the
northeast corner of India that contains these Naga tribes.
Since time immemorial the Hill Tribe cultures have worshipped serpents. Militant
cultures conquered these indigenous tribes and called them Nagas, referring to their
snake worship. Eventually, the inhabitants of these tribes were turned into snakes in
their myths and legends. In other words, Naga refers simultaneously to the actual
people who were snake worshippers and to the mythological snakes that they
worshipped.
In the Hindu classic, Mahabharata, which we will examine in more detail later,
the Nagas are powerful supernatural characters that must be respected in order to
avoid curses. They have their own supernatural kingdom but are not treated as evil.
They are reminiscent of shamans who have somehow tapped the powers of the
Universe.
The legends refer to the father of the Khmer race as a Hindu prince and the mother
as a Naga princess. This marriage can be taken both symbolically and literally. The
culture of the Khmer kingdom/empire is based upon a merger of Indian and local
traditions. This merger is seen in the temples that have the Naga serpent guarding the
Buddha, the focal point of the shrine. The Naga is a friend and protector of the
Buddha - not his foe.
The Khmer civilization is an integration of cultures. Their rulers incorporated,
rather than rejected, the indigenous population’s Naga serpent. They merged the
indigenous religions of the Naga tribes with the Indian religions - incorporating both
the artistry of the tribal traditions with the civilizing influence of Indian culture.
The incorporation of the snake into Khmer mythology contrasts with the relationship that
the cultures have with the serpent. In each case, the ruling culture’s sky god dominates the
serpent. In the Vedic myths of India’s Aryan culture, their main war god, Indra, must defeat
Urta, the cosmic serpent or dragon, to turn the winds around so that rain will come and fertilize
the land for the farmers. Urta, the cosmic serpent must be thwarted, not incorporated.
In contrast, the serpent is often associated with the earth and fertility. Some writers have even
suggested that it symbolizes the mysterious creative impulse connected to art. Creativity is
further connected to our sometimes chaotic intuitions. The emphasis on fertility, creativity and
art is at odds with the destructive nature of war. Further Art intimidates Reason because he
can't understand her. Due to the military orientiation, the sky god's solution is to dominate or
conquer the serpent, rather than cultivate her talents. This mindset continues to be reflected in
government spending in the West. An unlimited amount of funds are allocated to military
spending and science, while the paltry amount allocated to the arts is continually threatened.
In contrast, the Khmer attempted to balance Art and Reason. This balance is seen in their
orderly yet artistic structures at Angkor. This balancing of opposites is further substantiated by
Harihara, the favorite god of Funan, the 1st Khmer kingdom. There are many marvelous high
quality free standing stone statues of this interesting god. He has two faces - one Vishnu, the
other Shiva. Vishnu is one of the main Aryan gods. In contrast, historians suspect that Shiva is a
remnant from the Harrapan civilization of Mohenjo Daro, the ancient civilization that was
26
brutally conquered by the invading Aryan military culture. Their obsession with Harihara
exhibits that Khmer culture is inclusive, rather than exclusive. Rather than attempting to
determine what's 'right' and 'wrong', they seemed to celebrate Life's diversity.
Khmer’s flooding problem
At the beginning of the modern era, our Mon-Khmer clan was dominant on Southeast
Asia's mainland. The Thai were still in Southern China, their ancestral home. And the
Burmese were still in Tibet. The Austronesian speakers had infiltrated the islands,
but, we, the Mon-Khmer, pretty much had the run of the mainland. No one to bother
us, except the Hill Tribes, who pretty much hung to themselves. We viewed them more
as part of the flora and fauna rather than as a competing human culture. There was
lots of land and plentiful resources - so it wasn’t necessary to fight over limited space
or food.
The main problem was terrible floods. As an example of the terrible intensity and
volume of this regular melting and subsequent onslaught of water, the powerful
Mekong River backed up in the springtime because the water could not flow out fast
enough. This backlog of spring melt caused the Mekong’s tributaries to actually flow
backwards. This flooding was the only flaw in our nearly perfect environment. Then
the Indian merchants came to Southeast Asia to trade. Besides bringing their religion
and culture, they also brought their water technology with them. They set up irrigation
ditches, canals and reservoirs.
Marriage of Indian Prince & Khmer Princess marks the End of Tribal Innocence
The influx of money from the Indian traders changed everything. One of their princes
married one of the Mon princesses. According to legend, this marriage marked the
beginning of the 1st Khmer kingdom. Prior to that there was no sense of national
identity. We were just a loose collection of tribes who traded together. Hinduism
bound them together as a political unit. Some scholars say that this marriage was
probably more symbolic than real. They postulate that it represented the humanizing
of a semi-primitive culture. There are certain accounts that our people didn’t even
wear clothes before the Indians came. The marriage represented the corruption of
tribal innocence.’
The native population were so impressed with the water technology of the Indians,
combined with the wealth and subsequent power that was coming their way that they
quickly abandoned their traditional ways to adopt the ‘civilized’ ways of Hinduism.
Khmer culture is a mixture of Indian and indigenous culture. This cultural mixture
began as the world entered the Common Era. Further, the intermarriage of the Indian
immigrants with the indigenous populations gave birth to the modern Khmer race.
Eventually this cultural blend of the Khmer race led to the magnificent flowering of the
Empire at Angkor.
Angkor Empire and the evolution of Chenla
Historical sources suggest that the Empire at Angkor evolved from the kingdom of
Chenla, which itself was derived from the kingdom of Funan. The Khmer race
27
populated each of these kingdoms. In other words, the Khmer belonged to a series of
kingdoms that existed in different locations. Rather than springing up on its own, the
empire at Angkor was preceded by Khmer kingdoms based first in Funan and then in
Chenla. The Khmer at Angkor were the most powerful dynasty in a thousand year old
tradition. The Khmer people populated and ruled the Funan kingdom, the Chenla
kingdom, and the Empire at Angkor. Further, each of these cultures had major
similarities.
Even more importantly, the Khmer of Angkor felt that they were continuing and
expanding upon a local tradition. They did not perceive themselves as invaders, who
were civilizing barbarians instead, they revived the ancient kingdom of Funan. The
founders of the Khmer Empire at Angkor consciously aligned themselves with the
prestige of the Golden Age of Funan.
This discussion has implied that the Khmer efflorescence in Cambodia was based
upon an unbroken chain of cultures from prehistoric times. First were the rice farmers
and bronze artisans of the early Neolithic. Then came the Megalithic stone cutting and
mountain building cultures that preceded the modern era. In turn, this prehistoric
culture was followed by the Khmer kingdoms of Funan, Chenla and Angkor. While this
is a convenient explanation, it is an oversimplification of a greater picture. Nothing
human - individual, tribal, or national, occurs in a vacuum. Because of the
interconnectedness of life, we are all subject to influences from everything that
surrounds us. The kingdoms of Southeast Asia are no exception to this rule.
The Indianized Kingdoms of the Khmer
When Indian traders arrived in the region of Southeast Asia that we currently call
Cambodia, they brought their political system. Prior to this point, individual tribes
populated the Cambodian territory. With the influx of Indian merchants, a kingdom
replaced this loose tribal structure. At the top of the political hierarchy was a king,
who ruled the local chieftains. The French and English might call them princes and
dukes. The Indians called them maharajas and rajahs.
While this type of hierarchical system tends to create privileged classes with a
philosophy of elitism, it is also a more fit political structure. Organization into larger
groups allows the smaller tribes to resist the predatory habits of other ‘kingdoms’ or
‘empires’. The hierarchy is inevitable as cultures attempt to protect themselves from
enslavement by other cultures. In the violent political world of humans, size is related
to strength. If enough people group together with common ends, they might be able to
protect themselves from other groups of people with hostile intent.
Hindu culture from India was the factor that transformed the decentralized tribes in
what is now Cambodia into a kingdom. There were so many regional differences
between the numerous small communities that they had no sense of unity. The sense
of national identity was found in Hinduism, especially its mythology - as we shall see.
The king propagates the feeling of a unified culture to inspire the population to join
together as one behind his leadership. Rather than using force to achieve this sense of
national identity the Khmer kings initiated collective art projects, which culminated in
Angkor. The Khmer seemed to be obsessed with creating art that would last forever. In
28
contrast, many countries in the west, including Germany, Britain and the US, created
fear and then a war to bind the nation together behind a common goal.
The Indianization of these kingdoms bonded the residents in a way that local
traditions couldn’t. However, tribal customs remained strong in those Southeast Asian
kingdoms that embraced Hinduism. In Thailand, Cambodia and Java, the Hindu
traditions were limited to the royal courts, but did not spread to the countryside. This
was probably due to the inherent elitism of Hinduism. Based as it was in the caste
system, it was primarily the religion of rulers and priests. In contrast, in the countries
that embraced Buddhism, such as Burma, even the local villagers were acquainted
with the Jataka (Buddha birth stories), which adorned local temples. Again this
probably had to do with the egalitarian nature of Buddhism, which stresses the
potential of enlightenment for everyone.
How Indian culture came to Southeast Asia

Hinduism was the glue that bonded the Khmer dynasties together as Indianized
kingdoms. But how did it get there?Already at the outset of the Common Era, there
was a commercial network stretching from the Roman Empire in the Mediterranean to
China. India and Southeast Asia were in the geographic middle of this trade network.
Southeast Asia includes both the mainland (Indo China) and the islands (the East
Indies).Initially the ruling classes of India - the warriors and the priests - didn’t
participate in trade. It was beneath their class. Warriors didn’t have to barter for what
they wanted; they just took it by force. Producing something useful and selling it was
considered a sign of weakness. This warrior mind-set of looking down on the merchant
class is still a major factor in global politics. This is evidenced by the Western
imperialism that continues to exploit native populations through military force rather
than negotiating in a congenial fashion. Hinduism, as the religion that rationalizes the
barbaric behavior of the military class, actually banned trade and travel for the ruling
caste.
Buddhism is the religion that emerged to address the needs of the merchant class in
the cities. With their growing prosperity, they surmounted the barrier of ethnic purity
and isolation erected by Hinduism. Buddhism taught that anyone could transcend
ignorance and reach truth through the 8-fold path. Truth was not the exclusive
privilege of the priestly class. Accordingly Buddhism, with its rejection of the caste
system, became very popular among traders. By deconstructing the walls of Hinduism,
Buddhism inspired Indian traders to travel to Southeast Asia to seek their material
fortunes. Ironically, Buddhism professes a belief in non-materialism.
As a result of this elimination of a cultural taboo combined with the potential for
great wealth from trade, waves of Indians migrated into Southeast Asia seeking their
fortune during the first 5 to 6 hundred years of the Common Era. Initially, they came
overland through Burma and Thailand. As the maritime technology improved, they
came as sea traders. The Indian merchants settled at their favorite spots along the
trade routes, which probably included the open-air marketplaces of native
populations. As trade increased, the population increased and cities were formed.
Indian influence spread in the wake of this trade. Part of this influence included
Buddhism, which stressed the importance of spreading light to those immersed in
darkness. This attitude resulted in missionary activity by monks. Because of the
29
geographical proximity with India, Burma became the main spreading center for
Buddhism on the mainland of Southeast Asia.
The egalitarian Burmese never accepted Hinduism and its caste system. They
rejected king worship and hereditary nobility. The Burmese influence spread into the
Mon kingdoms of Thailand to the west. Buddhist monasteries were set up with the
patronage of local kings. Eventually, the Burmese congealed into the Pyu kingdom of
the upper Irrawaddy River. Pagan, the capital of this Burmese kingdom, became an
international center of Theravada Buddhism. The Mon congealed into the Dvaravati
kingdom of Thailand and the lower Irrawaddy River. In these western kingdoms, the
king was considered to be the servant of Buddha, not his equal.
Hindu literature transforms Southeast Asian Culture

In contrast to the Buddhist influence in the western territories, the eastern
territories of Southeast Asia, which includes the present day territories of Cambodia
and Vietnam, embraced Hinduism. Why? No one really knows. We suggest two
plausible reasons: their books and their water technology. First we will explore the
influence of their books.
While one aspect of the Indianized state is political, i.e. the hierarchy of the
kingdom, the other aspect is religious. The migration of Indian traders with their two
books, the Ramayana and the Mahabharata, revolutionized religious practices in
Southeast Asia overall, but particularly in Cambodia.
Hydrolic Power: The transformative power of literature is well-documented.

Hydrologic knowledge in India has a historical footprint extending over several
millenniums through 12 the Harappan Civilisation (~ 3000 BC – 1500 BC) and the
Vedic period (~1500-500 BC. The hydrological, hydraulic and related engineering
knowledge that existed in ancient India, as discussed in contemporary literature and
in the recent explorations and findings. The Vedas, particularly, the Rigveda,
Yajurveda and Atharvaveda have many references to water cycle and associated
processes, including water quality, hydraulic machines and other structures and
nature-based solutions for water management. The Harappan Civilization epitomizes
the 20 level of development of water sciences in ancient India that includes
construction of sophisticated hydraulic structures, wastewater disposal systems
based on centralized and decentralized concepts as well as methods for wastewater
treatments.7
The Mauryan empire (~ 322 BC – 185 BC) is credited as the first “hydraulic
civilization” characterised by construction of dams with spillways, reservoirs,
channels equipped with spillways, pynes and Ahars, understanding of water balance,
development of water pricing systems, measurement of rainfall and knowledge of the
various hydrological processes. As we investigate deeper into hydrologic references in
ancient 26 literature, including the Indian mythology, many fascinating dimensions of
the early scientific endeavours of Indians emerge.
.Religious Novels, Ramayana and the Mahabharata, of Prime Importance
30
With the introduction of books into Southeast Asia, the chiefs and ruling classes were infected
with Hindu literature. One effect of this trend was the rise of kingdoms and the other was the
interest in Hinduism. While the philosophical books like the Vedas and Upanishads had limited
influence, the Indian religious novels, especially the Ramayana and the Mahabharata, had a
tremendous influence. The philosophical literature was accessible only to those who could read
- the spiritual elite or the highly motivated. The stories had a much broader appeal. Both novels
dealt with universal themes that anyone could relate to. Both novels presented plausible heroes
and villains that could be held up as models of virtue and vice. Because stories have an
emotional component, they are more easily assimilated into the individual’s psyche than are
dry ideas. As evidence, human memory tends to retain stories better than philosophy.
Practically speaking, these stories were told and retold in myriad variations and settings
with varying intent and emphasis. They were portrayed in drama, dance and the tangible arts.
This was not possible with Indian philosophy. These well written stories dealing with universal
themes were very inspirational to the Southeast Asian population. They were instrumental in
unifying and motivating the Khmer to create the wonderful temples at Angkor. The sculptures
that adorned the temples illustrate the characters and themes of the above novels .
Summarizing: during the initial centuries of the modern era, the Indianization of Southeast
Asia was well under way. Kingdoms with centralized power began to pop up in areas that had
previously been primarily based in smaller tribal units. Kingdoms with a larger cultural gravity
absorbed tribes into their sphere.
With the influx of Hindu businessmen and traders came the Brahmin priests as well as
minstrels to sing the Mahabharata and the Ramayana. These stories were quickly assimilated
and rewritten in the local vernacular. The traders dealt with prominent local chieftains and
eventually infected them with the hierarchy. Feverish with ambition, these chiefs formed
kingdoms of which they were the head.
The larger and more prestigious the kingdom, the greater the demands on the local
population. The agricultural peasantry were eventually persuaded or coerced to grow three
crops of rice a year to support the needs of the growing kingdoms. Previously, one crop a year
would suffice for their individual needs.
Southeast Asia: “Instead of being coerced, we prefer to think that our entire extended
community willingly devoted themselves to the greater good of our society, which included
feeding the artisans that were building our magnificent temples.
We are so grateful to Father India for bringing his wonderful books to our section of the
planet. The influence of his books on my people was considerable. As well as influencing the
Khmer kingdoms, India’s books also had a huge influence on my other children.
In fact, Indian culture transformed our entire clan of cultures. Father India and his brothers
married my Naga daughters to give birth to my Indianized races with their Indianized
kingdoms. In addition to the Khmer on the east of my mainland, this transformative process
also included the Mon, who inhabited the west, and the Austronesian speakers in the south,
who live on the islands of Sumatra, Java, and Bali, as well as the Malay Peninsula. The Indian
migrations in the 1st centuries of the modern era Indianized my entire world.
31
Because each of my Naga daughters is different, the cultures they spawned from their
merger with the Indian brothers were equally different. However because their parents
belonged to the same families, the Indianized kingdoms of my grandchildren had many
similarities. Although different in some ways, they all had elements in common. As we’ve
already discovered, one aspect of the Indianization of my many cultures was political - the
tribal merger into kingdoms. Another was technological, related to irrigation and agricultural
techniques. A third aspect was religious, the Hindu and Buddhist influence. This included
India’s marvelous literature. I can’t stress how grateful we are to Father India for his many
contributions to my peoples of Southeast Asia.
Waves of Indians migrated to my part of the world in the first centuries of the modern
era. Many were traders in search of fortune. They came, stayed and intermarried with
the indigenous population. On my mainland, this racial blending gave birth to the
modern race of the Khmer. The Indian immigrants also brought their kingdom-based
politics, their religions, their script and their literature. The sophistication of these
innovations blended with local traditions to create Khmer culture. However, in the
beginning at least, the Indian water technology was more important to the Khmer than
their culture.
Accompanying his traders were Indian craftsman and Brahmins, who brought India’s
traditions with them. This included the amazing script and literature of Sanskrit with
the accompanying Hindu mythology. Metaphysical ideologies integrated and
authenticated the lush mythology. Plus, India’s religion claimed to be a universal
cosmic frame of reference. As such, it also included our local religions rather than
excluding them. Further, India’s mythology was so rich that we could easily identify
Indian deities with our local spirits. Also the Hindu philosophy of statecraft contained
the conceptual system of kingship, which was used to unify our diverse tribes and
centralize our cities into countries and kingdoms.”
The more immediate and pressing need was for control of our devastating annual
floods. India’s people supplied a new technology of hydraulic engineering, which was
used for both flood control and irrigation. In many ways, this was more important
than all of the rest. In fact, this technological ability to control water lent so much
prestige to the Indian traders that we became more interested in the rest of their
culture. Impressed by the complexity of his technology. The Khemers accepted the
immigrant Tamilians.
The Importance of the Tamil culture to Southeast Asia
The people of Southern India were not a small isolated subset of Indians. There are
57 million of them India alone. At the bottom of the Indian peninsula, surrounded by
the Indian Ocean on three sides, they had long been prominent sea traders who
traversed the seas from Sri Lanka, to the Malay Peninsula, to East Africa, South
Africa, Fiji and the West Indies.
Tamils have played an important role in the transmission of Indian culture and
customs to that part of the world, as well as the rest of Southeast Asia. Thay have
been a spreading center for Buddhism and Jainism. Having a long history of cultural
achievement, including literature, art and architecture and knowledge of reservoirs,
water towers, and elaborate drainage systems- the Chola Empire, which spread all
over the islands of Southeast Asia, was also a Tamil dynasty. The Aryan culture of the
north has had much less influence on your people of Southeast Asia than have we
Tamils from the south.
32
Aryan invaders had pushed the Khemer tribes into the hills,calling them Nagas, after
the serpents that were part of our cult objects. This interaction was a big turning point
in our relationship. to his appeal, Tamil brought his political kingdoms, religions, and
literature-their marvelous attributes were essential ingredients of my magnificent
Empire at Angkor.
REFERENCES
1A. Lost Kingdoms: Hindu-Buddhist Sculpture of Early Southeast Asia, 5th to 8th
CenturyApril 14–July 27, 2014 , John Guy,
file:///C:/Users/UDAY/Downloads/Lost_Kingdoms_Hindu_Buddhist_Sculpture_of_E
arly_Southeast_Asia.pdfMetropolitan Museum of Art,New York
1B.. The Devarāja Cult and Khmer Kingship at Angkor,Nidhi Aeusrivongsepp. 107-
148 (42 pages), a Chapter from the book- Explorations in Early Southeast Asian
History: The Origins of Southeast Asian Statecraft, authorsKenneth R. Hall and John
K. Whitmore,University of Michigan Press, University of Michigan Center for
South East Asian Studies,/www.jstor.org/stable/10.3998/mpub.19404.10
1. Hall, D.G.E. (1981). A History of South-East Asia, Fourth Edition. Hong Kong:
Macmillan Education Ltd. p. 25. ISBN 0-333-24163-0. See also-Tarling, Nicholas
(1999). The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia Volume 1 Part 1 From early times to c.
1500. Cambridge, England, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press. pp. 184,
192. ISBN 0-521-66369-5.
2. Was Cambodia home to Asia’s ancient ‘Land of Gold, RINITH TAING, PHNOM PHEN
POST JANUARY 2018,https://www.phnompenhpost.com/national-post-depth-arts-
culture/was-cambodia-home-asias-ancient-land-gold?
amp;utm_campaign=df3646b64e-20180105&utm_medium=email&
3 Much of this part is based on what is written in

https://venkataramaniblog.wordpress.com/2016/09/16/the-intrigue-of-the-pallavas/
4.http://donlehmanjr.com/SEA/SEA5%20Chap/SEA5%20Ch6.htm
5A. https://www.persee.fr/doc/arch_0044-8613_2013_num_85_1_4384
5. (Chiara Goia) By Joshua Hammer; Photographs Chiara Goia,SMITHSONIAN

MAGAZINE 2016
6. https://amaelcognacq.medium.com/thai-and-khmer-nagas-33a170c2888a
33
7. Hydrology and water resources management in ancient India

Pushpendra Kumar Singh1, Pankaj Dey2, Sharad Kumar Jaina, and Pradeep P.
Mujumdar. https://hess.copernicus.org/articles/24/4691/2020/
34

Mandala Empire of FUNAN and The Rise of Jayavarman II

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Mandala Empire of FUNAN and The Rise of Jayavarman II

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Dr Uday Dokras- Indo Nordic Author’s Collective

Mandala Empire of FUNAN and the rise of

INDO NORDIC AUTHOR’S COLLECTIVE

कौन है वो कौन है वो Who is he- Who is he?

Jyavarman II anointing a Linga

Mandala empire of FUNAN

The first wave of Indians gives birth to Funan, Angkor's Ancestor

Suvarnabhumi : Funan could have been the Suvarnabhumi referred to in ancient

The Influence of the Pallava Dynasty of Southern India

Pallavas contributed the persuasion of Ashtabhuja Vishnu (eight-armed Vishnu) to

8 armed VISHNU at Left and the one at Angkor Wat Temple

Another parallel is the ubiquitous presence of depiction of the Hindu mythology of

ANGKOR WAT ARCHITECTURE

The Kings of Funan and Chenla

Kailashnathar Temple,India Example of Pallave architecture

China, Funan's best customer & historian

The Empire at Angkor: Khmer’s Golden Age

Jayavarman II is traditionally regarded as the founder of the Khmer Empire, a

Jayavarman was followed by a series of strong rulers. Indravarman I (877-889) laid

GOD KING Or KING OF GODS?

Inscriptions of Jayavarman’s Life

THE ANGKOR REGION IN THE EARLY 8TH CENTURY

FILLING IN THE 8TH CENTURY

Archeologists combing the jungles of Southeast Asia found an inscriptions on temple

Northeastern library. Photo c. 1980

"Then His Majesty was Kurung on the site

5. The architectural centerpiece of a the capital, Yasodharapura, that Yasovarman

The Nagas and their Princess

Naga sculptures in Thailand

Khmer’s flooding problem

Angkor Empire and the evolution of Chenla

The Indianized Kingdoms of the Khmer

How Indian culture came to Southeast Asia

Hindu literature transforms Southeast Asian Culture

Hydrolic Power: The transformative power of literature is well-documented.

.Religious Novels, Ramayana and the Mahabharata, of Prime Importance

3 Much of this part is based on what is written in

5. (Chiara Goia) By Joshua Hammer; Photographs Chiara Goia,SMITHSONIAN

7. Hydrology and water resources management in ancient India

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