My INTERPRETATION of the Prambanan Temple surroundings

Dr Uday Dokras

Prambanan Temple Compounds consist of Prambanan Temple (also called Loro Jonggrang),
Sewu Temple, Bubrah Temple and Lumbung Temple. Prambanan Temple itself is a complex
consisting of 240 temples. All the mentioned temples form the Prambanan Archaeological
Park and were built during the heyday of Sailendra’s powerful dynasty in Java in the 8th
century AD. These compounds are located on the border between the two provinces of
Yogyakarta and Central Java on Java Island.

While Loro Jonggrang, dating from the 9th century, is a brilliant example of Hindu religious
bas-reliefs, Sewu, with its four pairs of Dwarapala giant statues, is Indonesia’s largest
Buddhist complex including the temples of Lumbung, Bubrah and Asu (Gana temple). The
Hindu temples are decorated with reliefs illustrating the Indonesian version of the Ramayana
epic which are masterpieces of stone carvings. These are surrounded by hundreds of shrines
that have been arranged in three parts showing high levels of stone building technology and
architecture from the 8th century AD in Java. With over 500 temples, Prambanan Temple
Compounds represents not only an architectural and cultural treasure, but also a standing
proof of past religious peaceful cohabitation. Prambanan Temple Compounds comprises of
two groups of buildings which includes Loro Jonggrang, Sewu complexes, Lumbung, Bubrah
and Asu (Gana). The 508 stone temples of various shapes and sizes are either in a complete
and preserved condition or have been retained as ruins. This site includes all elements
necessary to express its exceptional significance and is well maintained. There are no threats
of development or neglect; however the area is prone to natural threats such as earthquakes
and volcanic eruptions.

Prambanan Temple Compounds contains the original structures that were built in the 9th
century AD. The temples collapsed due to earthquake, volcanic eruption and a shift of
political power in the early 11th century, and they were rediscovered in the 17th century.
These compounds have never been displaced or changed. Restoration works have been
conducted since 1918, both in original traditional method of interlocking stone and modern
methods using concrete to strengthen the temple structure. Even though extensive restoration
works have been done in the past and as recently as after the 2006 earthquake, great care has
been taken to retain the authenticity of the structures.

The architecture of the Prambanan temple follows the typical Hindu architecture traditions
based on Vastu Shastra. The temple design incorporated mandala temple plan arrangements
and also the typical high towering spires of Hindu temples. Prambanan was originally named
Shivagrha and dedicated to the god Shiva. Yet I have written several articles and 2 books on
the temple as a ode to Goddess DURGA in her “UGRA” Wrathful avatar- the
Mahishasuramardini. However if you ask me-What is the oldest temple in Java? The answer
is Kalasan Temple is believed as the oldest Buddhist temple in Central Java and Yogyakarta,

even predating the colossal Borobudur Temple.

Kalasan Temple, The Oldest Buddhist Temple that Predating The Great Borobudur- Kalasan
temple is located roughly about 13 Km east from Yogyakarta, about 100 meters south off the
main road of Yogyakarta-Solo in direction to Prambanan Temple Complex. From Yogyakarta
the trip will take approximately 25-35 minutes. If you want to take public transportation, you

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can catch the TransJogja Buses in many shelters in Yogyakarta with the direction to
Prambanan.. It is believed as the oldest Buddhist temple in Central Java and Yogyakarta,
even predating the colossal Borobudur Temple. It is located on the southern main road
between the cities of Yogyakarta and Solo, approximately 2 Km from the Prambanan
Temple compound. The temple stands on a 45x45 meters rectangular base.

Each of the four main cardinal points has stairs and gates adorned with Kala-Makara and also
rooms measuring 3.5 square meters. No statue is found in the smaller room facing north,
west, and south; but the lotus pedestals suggest that the rooms once must have contained
statues of bodhisattvas. The temple is richly decorated with Buddhist figures such as the
Bodhisattva and Gana.

The Kalasan inscription found near the temple indicates that it was completed in the Saka
year 700 Saka or 778 AD. Written in Sanskrit using Pranagari script. One notable feature of
the temple is its octagon-shaped roof, which features carved images of the
Tathagatas/Buddha facing the four cardinal points, each of which is flanked by a pair of
bodhisattvas in bas-relief.

Kalasan temple is located in the archaeologically rich Prambanan valley. Just a few hundred
meters north east of Kalasan one will find the Sari Temple (or Candi Sari) which was most
probably the monastery mentioned in the Kalasan inscription.

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 Geographical connect

 Bandung - 370 km / 230 miles (six hours and 30 minutes, north-west)

 Banyubiru - 53 km / 33 miles (one hour, north-east)
 Bruno - 35 km / 22 miles (45 minutes, west)
 Dlingo - 50 km / 31 miles (one hour, south-east)
 Jakarta - 523 km / 325 miles (eight hours, north-west)
 Jumo - 56 km / 35 miles (one hour and five minutes, north)
 Kandangan - 35 km / 22 miles (45 minutes, north)
 Kemalang - 33 km / 21 miles (45 minutes, east)
 Magelang - 18 km / 10 miles (25 minutes, north)
 Nanggulan - 26 km / 16 miles (35 minutes, south)
 Pajangan - 55 km / 34 miles (one hour and five minutes, south)

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 Pegandon - 110 km / 68 miles (two hours and ten minutes, north)
 Punggelan - 113 km / 70 miles (two hours and five minutes, north-west)
 Semarang - 94 km / 58 miles (one hour and 45 minutes, north)
 Solo (Surakarta) - 90 km / 56 miles (one hour and 45 minutes, east)
 Susukan - 80 km / 50 miles (one hour and 30 minutes, north-east)
 Windusari - 20 km / 12 miles (30 minutes, north)
 Wonosobo - 79 km / 49 miles (one hour and 30 minutes, north-west)
 Yogyakarta - 41 km / 25 miles (50 minutes, south-east)

Temples in Yogyakarta
Yogyakarta, the sacred city of Java island, is famous for its traditional culture and rich
heritage. This royal city is home for some of the best temples in Indonesia. Each of these
temples in Yogya Here is the list of 12 Temples in Yogyakarta

1. Borobudur - The World's Largest Buddhist Temple

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The Borobudur Temple complex is the largest Buddhist temple in the world and is a
UNESCO World Heritage Site. One of the most visited temples in Yogyakarta and in
Indonesia, it was built in the 8th-Century. A marvel of Buddhist architecture, with multiple
platforms stacked on each other, the temple is capped off with a magnificent dome peering
down on top of them.

2. Prambanan Temple, Yogyakarta - The Largest Hindu Temple in Southeast Asia

temple of the 10th century, the Prambanan Temple is the largest temple devoted to Lord
Shiva in Indonesia. The temple houses numerous portrayals of the Ramayana with
references to Shiva, Vishnu, and Brahma, the three great Hindu deities, along with three
temples devoted to the animals that were believed to serve them. This temple in
Yogyakarta is one of the largest Hindu temples in the world and is among the regions the
most visited attractions.
Read More

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3. Candi Ijo, Yogyakarta

Candi Ijo, or the Ijo Temple, occupies a spot roughly at a distance of four kilometres
from Ratu Boko. Established during the 10th and 11th centuries, the Candi Ijo is close to
Yogyakarta in Indonesia. The compound of the temple adorns the serene hamlet of
Groyokan, in the Sambirejo Village.

4. Sewu Temple, Yogyakarta

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The second-largest temple complex in Indonesia after the Borobudur Temple Complex,
The Sewu Temple Complex is built upon Buddhist principles and sensibilities. It is
located about 17km away from the main city of Yogyakarta and is among its foremost
structures alongwith the Prambanan and Borobudur temples. The construction of the
temple complex was started way back in the 8th- Century by the Matram Kings, although
it was discovered only in the 1960s.

5. Candi Gebang
Dating back from the 8th century, Candi Gebang is a Hindu temple built during the
Medang kingdom’s reign. Situated just outside the Wedomartani village, Candi Gebang
has displays that depict Ganesha and other Hindu depictions. The 7.5-metre high temple
was discovered in 1936 and rebuilt in 1938 after it was covered in ash after Mount
Merapi erupted.

6. Mendut Temple
Situated a short jaunt away from Borobudur, the Mendut temple is another 9th-century
Buddhist temple. Along with Borobudur and the Pawon temples, the Mendut temples are
all laid out in a straight line. It was designated as a World Heritage Site in 1991, the
Mendut temple comes alive especially during the time of the annual procession.

7. Sambisari Temple

Built during the 9th-century the Sambisari temple and was discovered in 1966 after being
excavated. The temple was blanketed under ash after Mount Merapi erupted during the
year 1987.
8. Plaosan Temple

Plaosan Temple or Plaosan Complex is situated less than a kilometre away from the
sprawling Hindu temple complex of Prambanan. Like most other temples in the area,
Plaosan temple was also constructed during the 9th-century. The Plaosan complex
comprises of two Buddhist temples but is not related to the Hindu temple complex.
9. Candi Lumbung
situated within the Prambanan Temple, Candi Lumbung is often compared to the nearby
Candi Sewu, albeit smaller in stature. In fact, the Candi Lumbung Temple is actually
older than Prambanan temple itself. The temple is located in the Kewu Plain, an area
littered with 9th century Buddhist and Hindu temple compounds. The temple compounds
were erected in the 8th century and offers people the up

10. Candi Kedulan

Candi Kedulan is located within close proximity of Sambis

i Temple and is also situated in the Sleman regency of Yogyakarta. As a result of the
Merapi eruptions, significant portions of the temple was buried under the rubble that the
still-active volcano threw into the air.

11. Vihara Buddha Prabha

Cutting a memorably distinctive silhouette against the landscape that is populated mostly
by 8th and 9th century Hindu and Buddhist temples, the Vihara Buddha Prabha temple's
bright red and golden decor is a welcome departure from the grey of the other ancient

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temples. The temple was also built in 1900, and its modern sensibilities and architectural
styles are a nod to its relative contemporariness.

12. Barong Temple

The Barong Temple is a 9th-century temple located in the Slemen regency in

Yogyakarta. Unlike most other Hindu or Buddhist temples in the area, the Barong
temple's style of architecture comprises of a three-tier terraced roof.

Notice the close proximity of most of these temples to the ancient city of Yogyakarta.
Further, 3 of the temples are bunched around Borobudur to the northwest of the city, while 6
are located just to the east. The citizens of the Sailendra dynasty were the primary builders of
the westward temples, while the Sanjaya dynasty constructed the eastward temples. This
exquisie architecture was constructed many centuries before both Angkor Wat and the great
cathedrals of Europe. This accomplishment is even more amazing considering the brevity of
the time in which they were built. One other item of note: the triangles indicate the many
volcanos in the region. This geological feature was to exert a profound effect upon the vitality
of the Sanjaya dynasty and, by extension, the creative energy of the Central Javanese
population.

While the Sailendra Dynasty (785 CE -> 850 CE) lasted less than a century, their creative
energy for construction was so great that they also built other religious monuments besides
Borobudur on Central Java’s fertile plain. The most notable are Tjandi Ngawen and Tjandi
Mendut. These two stone temples are in the same style as Borobudur, although not so grand.
As an indication of their connection, the locations of the 3 temples form a straight line,
although no one knows what this means.

The Sanjaya Dynasty continues the Temple-building Frenzy

The Sailendra Dynasty was not the only kingdom to build exquisite temples in Central Java at
this time. Possibly a vassal state of the Sumatran based Srivijaya Empire, the Sailendra
Dynasty were peaceful invaders. The Sanjaya family, who they replaced, was not destroyed.
They simply moved to the sidelines. With the ascendancy of the Sailendra Dynasty, the
Sanjaya family bowed out to become a vassal state on their perimeter. With the decline of the
Sumatran dynasty in the middle of the 9th century, the Sanjaya family reasserted control over
the valley and the Sailendra court moved to Sumatra.

Legend has it that a Sanjaya prince married a Sailendra princess to become king. Because of
the paucity of historical information, it is not clear if this was a military takeover or if he was
merely stepping in to fill a power vacuum. Religious construction normally comes to a halt
during times of military stress. However, the temple building frenzy continued unabated
under this renewed Hindu kingdom of Mataram for another 30 years. As such, we prefer the
second, more peaceful, explanation.

Although the Sailendra dynasty embraced Mahayana Buddhism, the Hindu worship of Shiva
and Vishnu was not eliminated or even suppressed during their reign. Similarly, the other
way around. Showing typical Javanese tolerance, the Sanjaya dynasty created more Buddhist
temples, Candi Sari and Candi Plaoson. Close by on the same plateau they also went on to
build more Hindu temples called the Prambanan complex. These temples were dedicated to
Shiva, Hindu literature and aesthetics. There was no decline in quality. They continued to

8
create the first class art of Java. Over 10 of these magnificent temples were created on Java’s
central plain during this century.

Following is a map of the temples (red dots) that were created in Central Java during the last
centuries of the first millenium.

Sanjay and Shailedra Dynasties’ motherland “Vande Mataram” (Hail to

our mother)
The historical context surrounding the Mataram culture and civilization of the Mataram
Kingdom is not only interesting but a little confusing. The Trimurthi temple of Prambanan or
Rara Jonggrang is the largest Hindu temple of ancient Java, 9th from century. Built by Rakai
Pikatan to establish power of Sanjay dynasty and dedicated to Trimūrti-Brahma Vishnu
Mahesh, it is an UNESCO World Heritage Site; 2nd largest Hindu temple in Southeast Asia.

Prambanan temple complex at night

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Sanjaya (732-760) and Panangkaran (760-780)-shailendra dynasty confusion is still there?
both are related? few say Sanjay as Shaiv & Shailendra kings as Buddhist? both faiths
interlinked and overlapping too, in my opinion

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 Vande Mataram
The Mataram Kingdom, also called the Medang Kingdom, was a Javanese Hindu-Buddhist
kingdom. It was based in central and east Java and flourished between the 8th and 11th
centuries. It was ruled by the Shailendra dynasty and was established by King Sanjaya.

Vajrasattva. Eastern Java, Kediri period, 10th–11th century CE, bronze, 19.5 x 11.5 cm

Origins of the Mataram ingdom

Mataram means mother in Sanskrit and this mother Kingdom named itself so to give an ode
to the motherland. The first major kingdom of central Java was the Medang or Mataram
Kingdom, founded at the beginning of the 8th century. The earliest accounts of the Mataram
Kingdom are in the Canggal inscription, which dates back to 732.
The inscription gives an account of the erection of “Linga” (symbol of Lord Shiva) in the
Kunjarakunja area, which is located on the island of Yawadwipa (Java). This Linga was
raised under the rule of King Sanjaya, the lord of Mataram.
According to the inscription, the kingdom was first ruled by King Sanna, who was known for
his wisdom and knowledge. After his demise, there was a period of disunity, until Sanjaya,
the nephew of king Sanna, ascended the throne. During his reign, there was peace and
prosperity for all his subjects.
However, a Sundanese book called Carita Parahyangan gives a slightly different account of
the same story. In this book, Sanjaya is the son of Sanna. It also states that Sanna was
overthrown by the king of Galuh and was forced to retreat to Mount Merapi. His son,
Sanjaya, later avenged his father and defeated the King of Galuh. The kingdom was finally
restored to the rightful heir, and Sanjaya ruled West Java, East Java, Central Java, and Bali.
It is believed that King Sanjaya was the one who left the written records of these events on
the Canggal inscription, though it’s impossible to know for sure.

Religion in the Mataram Kingdom

It played much the same role throughout much of recorded history, giving rise to early

11
kingdoms such as Mataram. As the population of Java continues to increase and becomes
more modern and urban, the Indonesia of today still holds strong to its cultural and historical
roots.The Mataram society was polytheistic and combined the religious beliefs of Hinduism
and Buddhism, along with native shamanism and pre-Dharmic beliefs. Under the rule of King
Sanjaya, the Mataram Kingdom favored and worshipped Lord Shiva and gave much
importance to his symbol, the Linga. The Mataram Kingdom flourished between 712 and 938
in Central Java, an island of Indonesia and lies southeast of Malaysia and west of Bali. It is
also noted to be the world’s most populous island in the world today.
Also interesting is the role later palyed by the Kediri Kings, from 1042 Jan 1 – 1222

In 11th-century, Srivijayan hegemony in Indonesian archipelago began to decline, marked by

Rajendra Chola invasion to Malay Peninsula and Sumatra. The Chola king of Coromandel
conquered Kedah from Srivijaya. The weakening of Srivijayan hegemony has enabled the
formation of regional kingdoms, like Kediri, based on agriculture rather than trade. Later
Kediri managed to control the spice trade routes to Maluku.
The Kingdom of Kediri was a Hindu-Buddhist Javanese Kingdom based in East Java from
1042 to around 1222. Kediri is the successor of Airlangga's Kahuripan kingdom, and thought
as the continuation of Isyana Dynasty in Java. In 1042, Airlangga divided his kingdom of
Kahuripan into two, Janggala and Panjalu (Kadiri), and abdicated in favour of his sons to live
as an ascetic.

This kingdom existed alongside the Srivijaya empire based in Sumatra throughout 11th to
12th-century, and seems to have maintained trade relations with China and to some extent
India. Chinese account identify this kingdom as Tsao-wa or Chao-wa (Java), numbers of
Chinese records signify that Chinese explorers and traders frequented this kingdom. Relations
with India were cultural one, as numbers of Javanese rakawi (poet or scholar) wrote
literatures that been inspired by Hindu mythology, beliefs and epics such as Mahabharata and
Ramayana.

Mataram Kingdom Name Origins

Initially, the kingdom was called “Yawadvipa,” another name for the island of Java.
Indonesian archaeologists such as Prof.Soekmono of Indonesia identify the kingdom as
Mataram, based on a geographical location called Mataram in central Java. Additionally, king
Sanjaya’s full name was “Rakai Mataram Sang Ratu Sanjaya,” which may have been another
reason for the name of the kingdom. The etymology of the name “Mataram” is derived from
the Sanskrit term for “mother.”

The name Medang was found in East Javanese inscriptions. Some historians believe that the
Central Java period (732-929) was referred to as Mataram, and the later Eastern Java period
(929-1006) was identified as Medang.
However, it is also believed that the kingdom was called Medang, and the capital was
Mataram, based on some phrases found in the inscriptions. Etymologically, the name Medang
is an ancient Javanese term that means “to gracefully appear.”

Culture and Beliefs of the Mataram Kingdom and Mataram Social Structure
The Javanese had a complex social structure and also recognized the Hindu caste system. The
ancient Javanese society was divided into four classes:
 The royal family

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 The religious authorities
 The commoners
Historians have discovered that the different classes had a dress code that they strictly
adhered to. The royal family and their servants could be identified by their luxurious clothing
and intricate golden jewelry. All the priests wore robes or cloaks called “sinhels.” The
commoners, who were also described as villagers, wore very simple clothing and rarely
adorned any jewelry or ornaments.

Religion in the Mataram Kingdom

The society was polytheistic and combined the religious beliefs of Hinduism and Buddhism,
along with native shamanism and pre-Dharmic beliefs. Under the rule of King Sanjaya, the
Mataram Kingdom favored and worshipped Lord Shiva and gave much importance to his
symbol, the Linga.
However, during the reign of Panangkaran, Mahayana Buddhism gained popularity. Many
temples were built to pay homage to Buddhist beliefs.
The kingdom gave importance to the priest class in both religions. The Brahmins and the
Sangha Buddhists represented their respective religions and conducted the state’s religious
ceremonies together in the temples.
There were many ardent temple construction projects in the kingdom which were possibly
motivated by the combined religious zeal of both religions.
In the 16th century, Islam became a major religion as the island of Java became a Muslim
sultanate.

Art in the Mataram Kingdom

The importance of art in the kingdom depicted through the various carvings found on the
temple walls during this era. These carvings gave rich portrayals of life during the ninth
century.
The architecture was another form of art that flourished during this period, and can still be
seen in their magnificent temples that exist even today.
There was a cultural mingling in the south-western part of Java, where the Javanese and
Sundanese cultures combined to create the Banyusaman culture. In addition to this, the most
famous Javanese arts were gamelan music and wayang puppet shows, which became
traditional arts.

History of the Mataram Kingdom and flip flop betweem the Hindus and the

Buyddhists:
Historians believe that there were two prevailing dynasties that ruled Central Java together;
the Buddhist Sailendra and Shivanist Sanjaya dynasties. This period of the dual dynasty
was characterized by peaceful co-operation. However, in the middle of the ninth century, the
relationship between the dynasties deteriorated. The Sailendra managed to gain full control of
Central Java and became the overlords of the Sanjayas.

There is not much information regarding the Sailendra rule, but it signified a cultural
renaissance in the region. The kingdom saw rapid growth during the 9th century.
However, the Sailendra rule was short-lived. In 852, the Sanjaya ruler, Pikatan, defeated the
Sailendra ruler’s offspring and ended their rule in Java. The Sanjaya rule lasted until the end

13
of the Medang Kingdom. During his reign, King Pikatan built the royal Hindu Trimurti
temple known today as Candi Prambanan.
Mataram emerged in the highlands and fertile plains of Central Java, where productivity in
rice cultivation was aided by the advent of the island’s iconic rice terraces. These high yields
created the stable food source necessary for high population growth and an organized state
society, led by those who were in control of the upland water sources.
This societal organization would later go on to become proficient builders on not only the
public infrastructure needed for water management, but the monumental Hindu-Buddhist
religious architecture that still dots much of Java, including the renowned Borobudur and
Prambanan temples.

Mataram in Eastern Java

Central Java was always the center of the Mataram Kingdom. But in 929, the center was
shifted to East Java. Historians are uncertain about the exact cause for this sudden shift, but
believe it may have been because of a natural calamity or epidemic outbreak.
They also believe that the Merapi volcano may have erupted and destroyed the Kingdom’s
capital in Mataram. This expansion took place under the rule of the last king of the Sanjaya
dynasty, Mpu Sindok.

What Happened to the Mataram Kingdom?

Mataram flouruished between the Era: 712 – 938 CE and was located in Central Java,
Indonesia. Its Capital was Yogyakarta. However there was an ongoing rivalry between the
Sumatran Srivijaya and Javanese Medang kingdoms, which became more hostile.
This rivalry may have been caused by the Srivijayan attempt to seize the Sailendra lands in
Java. This is because the Srivijaya maharajas, Balaputra and his son, belonged to the
Sailendra dynasty. The collapse of the kingdom occurred in the tenth century.

In 1006, Srivijaya attacked and destroyed the Medang palace, killing most of the royal
family. With the death of king Dharmawangsa and the fall of the capital, the kingdom finally
collapsed.
However, a nephew of king Dharmawangsa had escaped capture and had remained in exile.
Later on, he reunited the fallen kingdom and re-established the kingdom (including Bali)
under the name of the kingdom of Kahuripan. After many years, the kingdom was renamed
as Kediri.
Mataram Kingdom was an early Indianized kingdom emerging from native Javanese
population. Its languages wer: Old Javanese, Sanskrit; religion: Buddhism (Mahayana),
Hinduism

Decline: Fell to Srivijaya, later reemerging as the Kediri Kingdom.

Today Indonesia is administered so that at first level subdivisions of Indonesia is Province. A
province is headed by a governor (Gubernur). Each province has its own regional assembly,
called Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat Daerah (DPRD, literally "Regional People's Representative
Council"). Governors and representative members are elected by popular vote for five-year
terms. Provinces was formerly also known as Daerah Tingkat I (Level I Region).

14
 State emblem of Indonesia is called Garuda
Pancasila. The main part of the coat of arms is the
golden mythical bird Garuda with a shield on its
chest and a scroll gripped by its leg bears the
national motto: "Bhinneka Tunggal Ika", roughly
means "Unity in Diversity".

The shield's five emblems represent Pancasila, the

five principles of Indonesia's national philosophy.
The numbers of feathers was meant to symbolize the
date of Indonesian Proclamation of Independence;
17 feathers on each wings, 8 tail feathers, 19 upper
tail feathers (under the shield, above the tail), and 45
neck feathers; all symbolize 17-8-1945; 17th August
1945. Adopted as national coat of arms on February
11, 1950.

The Bi-Polar Kingdom of Kediri

By the beginning of the 13 th Century, according to a Chinese source in the book of Chu-fan-
chi written around 1225, the Southeast Asian archipelago had two powerful and rich
kingdoms: Srivijaya and Java (Kediri). In Java he found that people adhere two
religions: Buddhism and the religion of Brahmin (Hinduism). The book of Chu-fan-
chi mentioned that Java (Kediri) was ruled by a maharaja, who ruled several colonies.
Regarding Srivijaya, Chou-Ju-Kua reported that Kien-pi (Kampe, in northern Sumatra) with
armed forced rebellion had liberated themselves from Srivijaya, and crowned their own king.
The same fate befell some of Srivijaya's colonies on the Malay Peninsula that liberated
themselves from Srivijaya domination. However Srivijaya was still the mightiest and
wealthiest state in the western part of the archipelago. According to this source, in the early
13th century Srivijaya still ruled Sumatra, the Malay peninsula, and western Java (Sunda).

Regarding Sunda, the book details that the port of Sunda (Sunda Kelapa) was excellent and
strategically located, and that the pepper from Sunda was among the best quality. The people
worked in agriculture; their houses were built on wooden piles (rumah panggung). However
the country was infested with robbers and thieves.

The Kingdom of Kediri is the successor of Airlangga's Kahuripan kingdom, and thought as
the continuation of Isyana Dynasty in Java. In 1042, Airlangga divided his kingdom of
Kahuripan into two, Janggala and Panjalu (Kadiri), and abdicated in favour of his sons to live
as an ascetic. He died seven years later.It existed alongside the Srivijaya empire based in
Sumatra throughout 11th to 12th-century, and seems to have maintained trade relations with
China and to some extent India. Chinese account identify this kingdom as Tsao-wa or Chao-
wa (Java), numbers of Chinese records signify that Chinese explorers and traders frequented
this kingdom. Relations with India were cultural one, as numbers of Javanese rakawi (poet or
scholar) wrote literatures that been inspired by Hindu mythology, beliefs and epics such as
Mahabharata and Ramayana.

In 11th-century, Srivijayan hegemony in Indonesian archipelago began to decline, marked

by Rajendra Chola invasion to Malay Peninsula and Sumatra. The Chola king
of Coromandel conquered Kedah from Srivijaya. The weakening of Srivijayan hegemony has

15
enabled the formation of regional kingdoms, like Kediri, based on agriculture rather than
trade. Later Kediri managed to control the spice trade routes to Maluku.

Airlangga's embodiment statue as Lord Vishnu riding Garuda, found in Belahan, collection of Trowulan
Museum, East Java.//// Statue of Vishnu. Kediri, East Java, circa 12th–13th century

Era of twin kingdoms

Perio
d of King/Maharaja Inscriptions and events
reign

Çri Samaravijaya Mentioned in inscription of Pucangan (1041).

1042- Dharmasuparnawahana Teguh Is the king of the Kediri kingdom after the
1051 Uttunggadewa event of the division of the kingdom by
(Çri Samaravijaya) king Airlangga to his two sons.

Çri Jitendrakara Wuryyawïryya

1051- Mentioned in inscription of Mataji inscription
Parakrama Bhakta
1112 (1051).
(Çri Jitendrakara)

Çri Maharaja Rake sirikan çri

Mentioned in inscription of Padlegan I,
Paramecwara Sakalabhuwana
Panumbangan inscription, Tangkilan
1112- Tustikaranani waryyawïryya
inscription, Besole inscription, Bameswara
1135 Parakrama
inscription, Karanggayam inscription, Geneng
Digjayottunggadewa
inscription, Pagiliran inscription.
(Çri Bamesvara)

1135- Çri Maharaja Sang Mapanji Mentioned in inscription of Hantang (1135),

1159 Jayabhaya çri Dharmmeçwara Jepun inscription (1144) and Talan inscription

16
Perio
d of King/Maharaja Inscriptions and events
reign

Madhusudanawataranindita
Suhrtsingha Parakrama
(1058).
Digjayottunggadewa
(Jayabaya)

Çri Maharaja Rakai Sirikan çri

Sarwweçwara
Janardanawatara Wijaya
1159- Mentioned in inscription of Kahyunan and
Agrajasama Singhadani
1171 Padlegan II inscription (1159).
Waryawirya Parakrama
Digjayottunggadewa
(Çri Sarvesvara)

Çri maharaja rakai hino çri

Aryyeçwara Madhusudand
1171- watdrdrijalyamukha Mentioned in inscription of Waleri and Angin
1181 Sakalabhuwana ritiniwiryya inscription (1171).
Parakramottunggadewa
(Çri Aryesvara)

Çri maharaja çri Kroncarryadipa

Handabhuwanapalaka
1181- Parakramanindita
Mentioned in inscription of Jaring inscription.
1182 Digjayottunggadewanama çri
Gandra
(Çri Gandra)

Çri Maharaja Rake Sirikan çri

Kameçvara
1182- Sakalabhuvanatustikarana Mentioned in inscription of Semanding (1182)
1194 Sarvanivaryyaviryya Parakrama and Ceker inscription (1185).
Digjayottunggadeva
(Kameçvara)

Çri maharaja çri Sarwweçwara

Mentioned in inscription of Sapu Angin
Triwikramawataranindita
inscription, Galunggung inscription, Kamulan
1194- Çrngga lancana
inscription, Palah inscription, Biri inscription,
1222 Digwijayottunggadewa
Lawadan inscription, Nagarakretagama), fall
in 1144 Shaka (1222).
(Kertajaya)

Jayakatwang's rebellion from Gelang-gelang or Gegelang which revived the short-lived

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 Perio
d of King/Maharaja Inscriptions and events
reign

second dynasty of Kadiri.

1292- Çri Jayakatwang Mentioned in inscription

1293 (Jayakatwang) of Nagarakretagama (1365).

The first king of Kediri to leave historical records was Maharaja Çri Samaravijaya. His royal
seal was Garudmukhalancana or Garudmukha, the same as Airlangga's. he reigned
from 1042-1051 and succeeded by Çri Jitendrakara Parakrama Bakta in 1051-1112.
It is not known exactly when Çri Bamesvara ascended the throne of the Kediri Kingdom.
The Lanchana (royal seal) of his reign was a skull with a crescent moon
called chandrakapala, the symbol of Shiva. During the reign of Maharaja Çri
Bamesvara himself, there were at least ten inscriptions containing the development of Java in
the eastern part around 1112-1135.
Jayabhaya (reigned 1135-1157) succeeded Bamesvara. His formal stylised name was Çri
Maharaja çri Dharmmeçwara Madhusudanawataranindita Suhrtsingha Parakrama
Digjayottunggadewa. The Lanchana (royal seal) of his reign was Narasinghavatara depicts
one of the avatars of Lord Vishnu, namely Narasinghavatara. His form is described as a
human with a lion's head tearing the stomach of Hiranyakasipu (King of the Giants). The
name Jayabhaya was immortalised in Sedah's Kakawin Bharatayuddha, a Javanese version of
the Mahabharata, written in 1135. This Kakawin was perfected by his brother, Mpu Panuluh.
Mpu Panuluh wrote Hariwangsa and Gatotkacasraya. Jayabhaya's reign was considered the
golden age of Old Javanese literature. The Prelambang Joyoboyo, a prophetic book ascribed
to Jayabhaya, is well known among Javanese. It predicted that the archipelago would be ruled
by a white race for a long time, then a yellow race for a short time, then be glorious again.
The Jayabhaya prophecies mention Ratu Adil, the Just Prince, a recurring popular figure in
Javanese folklore. During the reign, Ternate was a vassal state of Kediri.

Jayabhaya's successor was Sarwweçwara/Sarvesvara (reigned from 1159 to 1171) the royal
symbol is named Sarwwecwaralancana, wing-shaped numbering nine and at the end there is
a crested circle. Where everything is surrounded by three striped circles.
followed by Aryyeçwara/Aryesvara (reigned 1171-1181), who uses Ganesha the elephant-
headed god as Lanchana of his kingdom. and became the (royal seal) of his reign and the
Kingdom of Kadiri as stated in the inscription.

The next monarch was king Gandra his formal stylised name was Çri maharaja çri
Kroncarryadipa Handabhuwanapalaka Parakramanindita Digjayottunggadewanama çri
Gandra. An inscription (dated 1181) from his reign documents the beginning of the adoption
of animal names for important officials, such as Kbo Salawah, Menjangan Puguh, Lembu
Agra, Gajah Kuning, and Macan Putih. Among these highly ranked officials mentioned in
the inscription, there is a title Senapati Sarwwajala, or laksmana, a title reserved for navy
generals, which means that Kediri had a navy during his reign.

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The eighth king was Kameçvara. His formal stylised name was Çri Maharaja Rake Sirikan
çri Kameçvara Sakalabhuwanatustikarana Sarwaniwaryyawiryya Parakrama
Digjayottunggadewa. He uses the (winged shell) as his royal seal under the
name Kamecwaralancana. During his reign, Mpu Dharmaja wrote Smaradhana, in which the
king was adored as the incarnation of Kamajaya, the god of love, and his capital city Dahana
was admired throughout the known world. Kameçvara's wife, Çri Kirana, was celebrated as
the incarnation of Kamaratih, goddess of love and passion. The tales of this story, known
as Panji cycle, spread throughout Southeast Asia as far as Siam.

The last king of Kediri was Kritajaya/Kertajaya (1194–1222), King Çrngga or Kritajaya
ruled Kediri, with the official name Çri maharaja çri Sarwweçwara
Triwikramawataranindita Çrngga lancana Digwijayottunggadewa. He used a Crnggalancana
picture of (Cangkha) flanked by two horns and continued with the words "Krtajaya" above.
The presence of a dominant horns makes this badge called Crnggalancana or horned badge.
In 1222 he was forced to surrender his throne to Ken Arok and so lost the sovereignty of his
kingdom to the new kingdom of Singhasari. This was the result of his defeat at the battle of
Ganter. This event marked the end of Kediri era, and the beginning of the Singhasari era.

Srivijaya and Kediri around 12th to early 13th century AD According to a Chinese source in
the book of Chu-f
Agastya
The Canggal inscription is a Sanskrit inscription dated to 732, discovered in the Gunung
Wukir temple complex in Kadiluwih village, Salam, Magelang Regency, Central

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Java, Indonesia. The inscription is written in the Pallava alphabet. The inscription documents
an edict of Sanjaya, in which he declared himself the universal ruler of Mataram Kingdom.

The inscription describes the erection of a lingam (the symbol of Shiva) on the country of
Kunjarakunja, by Sanjaya's order. The lingam is sited on the noble island of Yava (Java),
which the inscription describes as "rich in grain and gold mines".Yawadwipa ("Java island"),
and had long been under the rule of the wise and virtuous king Sanna, but fell into disunity
after his death. Amid a period of confusion Sanjaya, son of Sannaha (the sister of Sanna)
ascended to the throne. Sanjaya mastered holy scriptures, martial arts, and displayed military
prowess. After the conquest of neighboring areas his reign was peaceful and prosperous.
The inscription makes reference to Kunjarakunja-desa, perhaps meaning "the hermitage land
of Kunjara", which has been identified as the hermitage of Rishi Agastya, a Hindu Maharishi
revered in Southern India. The Ramayana contains a reference to a visit to Agastya hermitage
on Kunjara by Rama, Sita, and Lakshmana.
The name Sanjaya, Sanna and Sannaha curiously was also mentioned in Carita Parahyangan,
a book from later period composed around 16th century which suggested refer to same
historical person.

The main temple of the Penataran complex took the form of a stepped pyramid.
Penataran or Panataran (Indonesian: Candi Penataran) is one of the largest Hindu
temple ruins complex in East Java, Indonesia. It is located in Penataran, Blitar Regency,
roughly 12 km northeast of Blitar, with the closest airport being farther away at Malang.
Believed to have been constructed between the 12th century to the 15th century, the temple
played a significant role in the Majapahit Kingdom, especially under King Hayam Wuruk. He

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considered his favorite sanctuary. Penataran dates from the Kediri era. This temple was
identified in Nagarakretagama as Palah temple and reported being visited by King Hayam
Wuruk during his royal tour across East Java. The site is being considered to be put on
the World Heritage list of sites that have "outstanding universal value" to the world.
However, on 2015, the site was pulled out from the tentative list along with 11 other sites.
Candi Panataran is a Shiva (Siwa) temple. It is notable for including one of the largest
Indonesian collection of reliefs showing life stories of Hindu god Vishnu in different avatar.
In particular, the temple site include the Rama story in the Javanese version of the
epic Ramayana, as well Krishna story as depicted Triguna's Krishnayana epic poem.
Comparative studies of reliefs related to Hindu epics at Penataran and Prambanan temple
(Yogyakarta) complexes have attracted the attention of archaeologists.[

The dated temple in the Penataran complex. The Penataran Temple is a temple that is four centuries old
because it was built and developed by several kingdoms at once, from the Kingdom of Kediri to Majapahit.

Candi Penataran, the Largest Ancient Hindu Temple Compound in East Java
Swirling tongues of fire welcomed erstwhile royal families and priests who ascended the
stairs of Palah, a late 12th-century Hindu temple located on the southwestern slopes of Mount
Kelud. The volcano was so active and unpredictable that a temple was deemed necessary to
appease Acalapati, the mountain god, so he would spare the surrounding settlements from his
erratic wrath. Inspired by Krishnayana (Krishna’s life told in an epic poem), the upper walls
of the temple were encrusted with bas-reliefs depicting scenes from the epic. One panel
portrayed Krishna’s escape from Kalayawana (Kalayavana), a ruthless king who was killed
by Muchukunda through his burning gaze (another version of the story refers to
Wiswamitra/Vishvamitra as the killer of Kalayavana). The flames were indeed a metaphor
for Kelud’s volcanic eruptions.

More than eight centuries later, I find myself looking at the same weathered relief, carved on
andesite rock on the second level of the stone platform. The motif itself is not instantly
recognizable, but on a closer inspection the outline of the flames is clearly the centerpiece of

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the ornately-carved panel. Penataran, as Palah is known today, was commissioned by the king
of Kediri, a kingdom that emerged as a prominent power in eastern Java during the mid-11th
century.

Two centuries before the construction of Penataran, Java was already home to great Hindu
and Buddhist temples, including Borobudur and Prambanan, both built by the Central
Javanese rulers of the Medang kingdom. As the center of power on the island gradually
shifted to the east in the decades that followed, new temples were commissioned around the
new capital. However, unlike most Central Javanese temples which followed a concentric
layout (also known as mandala, representing the Hindu-Buddhist universe) with the most
important structure located at the center of the temple compound, Penataran – the largest
Hindu temple in East Java – was constructed in a linear layout where the sanctum is situated
at the back of the compound. This centuries-old layout is in fact still used in Bali to build
Balinese Hindu temples known as pura.
For three centuries since its completion, new structures were added to Penataran temple
complex by different rulers of East Java. Candi Naga, ‘dragon temple’, was commissioned in
the 13th century when this part of Java was controlled by the kingdom of Singhasari. Named
after its distinctive serpentine carvings, held by nine figures clad in opulent costumes, the
temple is believed to have functioned as a reliquary for sacred weapons. In front of Candi
Naga lies Candi Candra Sengkala, a 14th-century tall and slender addition to the temple
compound. Constructed in a typical East Javanese architectural style, the temple was built
under the rule of Hayam Wuruk, the greatest of all Majapahit kings. Majapahit itself was the
last great Hindu kingdom to ever rule much of Java.

Candi Naga, Named after the Mythical Serpent Carved around the Structure’s Walls//
The Story of Sri Tanjung, Popular in the 13th-Century East Java

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The Slender and Distinctively East Javanese Candi Candra Sengkala

Ever-Menacing Kala above Candi Candra Sengkala’s Doorway//Candi Naga, South Side

Candi Naga, North Side// Candi Penataran, the Main Structure in the Compound

Following the decline of Majapahit as more and more people on the island converted to
Islam, Penataran’s importance gradually diminished until it was completely abandoned. In
the span of centuries, neglect and natural disasters caused heavy damage to the formerly
imposing temple. The rediscovery of Penataran is credited to Thomas Stamford Raffles, a

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British colonial governor at a time when Java was briefly occupied by the British. The ruins
of the temple were first mentioned in a 1815 account, although reconstruction work did not
begin in earnest until many years later.

Further studies revealed that the lower walls of the three-tiered main temple were adorned
with stories from the Ramayana, one of the greatest and most well-known Hindu epics
alongside the Mahabharata. The Ramayana had inspired ancient Javanese sculptors to
immortalize figures, animals, plants and other motifs from the epic on andesite rock – widely
available in volcanic Java – which were then used to decorate a plethora of Hindu temples on
the island. However, Penataran’s medallions – depicting real and mythical animals – are
unique to the temple as they aren’t found on any Central Javanese temple.

In front of Candi Candra Sengkala is Batur Pendapa, where it is believed that devotees once
placed offerings in religious ceremonies. Modern-day visitors would likely notice the strange
look of the main sanctum, Batur Pendapa, as well as Bale Agung – also located at the front
part of the compound – for they all seem to have lost their upper structures. Believed to be
made from perishable materials – possibly wood and ijuk (palm fiber) – these structures have
long succumbed to the power of nature. Fortunately some relief panels at the lower part of the
main temple suggest how the whole structure used to look, which unsurprisingly reminds me
of some Hindu temples in Bali given the fact that many Javanese royals fled to the
neighboring island following the decline of Hinduism in Java.

Candi Penataran’s Unique Medallions and Relief Panels/A Scene from the Ramayana

Each Panel Has Its Own Style

A Centuries-Old Masterpiece// Straight Lines and Curves

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Ancient Javanese Architecture

Apart from the architecture, what stays the same is the activity of Mount Kelud itself. Unlike
most accounts about volcanic eruptions across the archipelago which were exclusively
written by the Europeans during the colonial period, Kelud’s eruption was mentioned in a
14th-century epic Javanese poem. The volcano erupted in the same year when Hayam Wuruk
was born, perceived by the locals as a divine sign of great things the baby would accomplish
in his life – Majapahit was in fact at its peak during Hayam Wuruk’s rule. Interestingly,
centuries after the island’s conversion to Islam and the arrival of Christianity from Europe,
the Javanese reverence toward volcanoes has barely changed.

In 1901, Kelud erupted again with a mighty explosion (heard hundreds of kilometers away)
and an ash cloud that reached as far as West Java. Two weeks later, a baby boy was born, and
as goes with tradition, the locals saw this as an omen of something great about to happen to
him. Less than five decades later, the same boy had grown up to become none other than the
first president of Indonesia. Even in the 21st century, volcanic eruptions are often interpreted
as a prelude to major political events. But when no such thing occurs following an eruption,
the locals will still tell you stories about Mount Kelud with a sense of veneration, pride and
astonishment.

“When Kelud erupted in 2014, Yogyakarta was covered in thick ash,” a local tells me in
reference to Kelud’s latest major eruption which paralyzed the city, more than 200 km away
to the west of the volcano. The ash forced the closure of major airports across Java, causing
weeks-long travel disruptions. “But strangely, Blitar was safe,” he adds, referring to the
nearest city to the volcano. As tempting it is to explain the phenomenon from a scientific
perspective, to him and many other people Penataran seems to serve its purpose after all. It
has been protecting the surrounding areas from the wrath of the mountain god, more than
eight centuries since its completion.

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A Metaphorical Depiction of Mount Kelud///A Small Asian Elephant along with Foreign-
Looking Soldiers

Winged Lions and Serpents//An Artistic Creation during the Peak of Hinduism in East Java

A Fierce-Looking Winged Snake//A Guardian of Batur Pendapa

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An Intricately-Decorated Pond at the Back of the Main Temple

Penataran is still not very well known among Indonesians – As for the why Penataran is not
that well-known even among Indonesians, I think it’s because of its location which is not
as easily accessible from big cities as Borobudur or Prambanan

Central Java’s Temple Park

Javanese architects, builders and sculptors created an enormous temple park in the
decades following the completion of Borobudur. Within less than the circumference of one
kilometer (8 tenths of a mile), there are not one, but 2 major temple complexes and 2 smaller
temple complexes. One of the major complexes is Hindu and the other is Buddhist. They are
located at opposite ends of the small park. Each of the 4 complexes has a large temple/shrine
in the center. Organized in a rectangular pattern, innumerable smaller shrines surround the
main shrine.
A unified park with pathways surrounds the many temples. Further it is comfortable walking
distance between the shrines. There is even a deer park on the perimeter that symbolizes the
place that Buddha gave his first lecture after attaining enlightenment (possibly a modern
addition). Due to these factors, the visitor gets the distinct impression that those who
designed the park meant to draw pilgrims of either Buddhist or Hindu persuasion. Because of
the proximity, the traveler might even experience or worship at both temples. As such, the
temple park is a testament to the inclusive belief system of the Javanese. Not Buddhist or
Hindu, but both.

These temple shrines are very different than Buddhist stupas. Stupas are meant to house the
remains of Buddha for Theravadists, Buddhist sutras for Mahayanists, or emptiness for the
Tantrists of Borobudur. Stupas probably derived from monuments that held the bones of
ancestors. In contrast, shrines are meant to honor a god. As contrasted with Buddhist stupas,
many shrines have interior space that includes sculpture in the round of the temple deity. This
is true of both the Buddhist and Hindu temple complexes at the park.

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The Prambanan Temple Complex & Lara Janggrang

Based upon a rich and complex mythology, the Hindu temples soar skyward. In contrast, the
relatively squat profile of Borobudur symbolizes the moral didacticism of Buddhism. The
vegetal style of the temple shrines is similar to those at Angkor. The most impressive of the
temple complexes is called Prambanan. Let’s take a brief tour of this Hindu masterpiece. The
visitor to Prambanan is greeted with the sight of not a single monument, but of multiple
spires shooting up into the sky. Instead of only one temple, there are 3 main structures
surrounded by a multitude of stone shrines in various states of restoration.

Located dead center, the tallest temple/shrine is devoted to Shiva. Because of its prominence,
many call this the Shiva Temple Complex. The large shrine on the left is devoted to Vishnu,
and the one on the right to Brahma. Along with Shiva, these 3 Hindu Gods are called the
Trimurti as a group. The 3 gods represent different aspects of the one reality. According to
traditional Hindu mythology, they are respectively the Destroyer, Preserver, and Creator
Gods. Due to its enormity and intricacy, the center shrine is the most striking of the
individual tjandis. It even has its own name – Lara Janggrang. Built about 900 CE, it is a
colossal work meant to represent mythological Mount Meru, the cosmic mountain of
Hinduism. Shown below, the architecture is reminiscent of the temples of Angkor with its
vegetal lotus structure.

To give you some size perspective here is someone at one of the entryways.

Moving closer, we appreciate the vegetal look of the shrines. The tjandis almost look
porous, especially compared with Borobudur, which seemed to be a solid block of stone. We
notice the immense amount of rubble scattered everywhere, presumably remnants of over 100
smaller shrines that have yet to be reconstructed.

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 The main temple to Shiva is so tall (47 meters, over 140 feet) that visitors must wear hard
hats to protect them from the potential of falling debris. Notice the makara railings to the
right of the person in the photograph.

As at Borobudur, a balustrade on the lower level creates a corridor with walls containing
panels on both sides. In contrast to Borobudur, the walls are not tall enough to prevent one
from seeing out. Plus there is only one level that contains the bas-reliefs as compared with
Borobudur's five. The Prambanan temple complex invests more artistic energy in the height
and number of temples and less in the number of friezes.

The many panels include sculptural representations in stone of many Hindu stories.
Including guess what? You guessed it - the Ramayana. Cambodia, Thailand, Burma and
Java. This traditional Hindu novel permeates and continues to permeate the cultures of

29
Southeast Asia. This timeless story was the primary vehicle by which Hindu religious
philosophy was communicated to the Southeast Asian populace.
As another indication of its importance, the complete tale of the Ramayana is etched into
the high bas-relief along the rectangular balustrades – not just scattered scenes, but the entire
narrative. The panels are engraved with successive stone friezes including Rama, Sita,
Hanuman the monkey king, and Ravana the demon king.

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 In the center of each tower there is a greater than life size (9 feet tall) sculpture of the
deity to whom the particular tjandi is devoted. Here is Shiva as the mahaguru, the great guru.

31
 The Shiva shrine also includes a separate room in the back to house a sculpture of his
consort, Durga. It is of equal magnificence. The mythological scene shows Durga drawing a
demon from a cow that she has conquered. This narrative is not from Hindu mythology, but is
instead a Javanese story. This is yet another indication of how the Javanese didn't slavishly
copy the Hindu religion , but made it their own. This focus on the goddess is an indication of
the influence of Tantra.

Besides the friezes and the internal statuary of the gods, there are many mythological
scenes and creatures that adorn the temple.

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 These representations include the ubiquitous Kala/Makara representations that is seen at
both Borobudur and the Dieng Plateau. Recall that it symbolizes the fact that time swallows
everything, even as we cultivate vitality. This is a powerful symbol indeed.
Kala represents Time and is frequently shown with jaws wide atop entryways.

Here it is shown vomiting scrolls.

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 Evidently, in the original shrines, there were fountains spouting water from the mouths of
the makaras, again emphasizing fecundity as a symbolic feature of the half animal-half fish
like creature.

There are multiple temple spires of lesser, but still grand, size surrounding the big three.
One of these presumably houses the cremated remains of the raja/king who created the
masterpiece. In similar fashion to the Dieng Plateau, the symbolism presumably equates the
king and his dynasty with the gods.

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The Sewu Buddhist Temple Complex
The enormous Sewu Buddhist complex is a brief walk from Prambanan. It was created
during the same time period. In-between there is a Buddhist shrine still under reconstruction.
Scholars think it was devoted to Tara, the tantric goddess of Buddhism. Gigantic statues
guard the Sewu temple complex.

The Buddhist temple complex is similar in design to the previous Hindu temple complex.
A primary shrine is surrounded by multiple smaller shrines, all in various stages of
reconstruction. Note that the spires have the shape of a Buddhist stupa, solid and gradually
moving towards a peak. In contrast, the towers on the Hindu shrines are bulbous, vegetal, and
somewhat diaphanous.

35
 Instead of Hindu gods, the shrine presumably housed Buddhas, all of which have been
stolen or removed. On the way back, there is a Buddhist deer park – a simulation of the
location where the Buddha gave his first lecture after becoming enlightened.
An abrupt end due to volcanic eruptions?
This efflorescence of temple building in Java came to an abrupt halt in about 930 CE.
Although there are no written accounts, most historians believe that the cessation was due to
the eruption of some local volcanoes. In support of this theory, one of the temples was
covered with 3 feet of ash and was well preserved - showing no signs of decay or looting.
The shrine seems to have been suddenly abandoned, like the buildings of Pompeii. Other
evidence suggests that the population suddenly dropped, probably moving to the coast. From
732 CE to 930 CE, nearly 200 years, this culture on Java’s central plain created multiple
architectural religious masterpieces and then suddenly disappeared from history.
The Khmer temples of Angkor belonged to the same architectural tradition as these Hindu
temples, rather than the Buddhist stupas of Borobudur. The Khmer and Javanese kingdoms
were contemporary with each other. They probably even shared some of the same craftsman,
especially after the fall of these Javanese kingdoms in the early 900s due to volcanic activity.
Like the Khmer of Angkor, the Javanese must have thought that their kingdom was
destined to last forever - aligned as they were with the gods. Unfortunately for them, the
Universe had other plans. As always, life is much more transitory than we anticipate.
A Khmer Prince returns from his education in Java
In the brief 100 years of the Sailendra dynasty of the Srivijaya Empire,
the devarajas/kings created a series of monuments on Java’s central plain. During this period
a young Khmer prince had been sent to Java either as a royal hostage to guarantee
cooperation or for upbringing and education abroad. Either is likely as the Khmer tradition
acknowledges Javanese overlordship in the later part of the 8th century.
There had already been a long history of connection between Cambodia and Java. The
Javanese even considered themselves descendants of the Funanese of Cambodia. As a casual
indication of their relationship, Sailendra means ‘Lord of the Mountain’ and Funan means

36
‘Mountain Kingdom’. Even though both kingdoms are located in the valley, there titles
suggest their affinity with the mountains – the abode of the gods.
This Cambodian prince was exposed to the Javanese concept of the devaraja, which was
associated with pyramid building, such as Borobudur. These god kings created their own
Mount Meru. Inspired by the great Javanese culture, this young Cambodian prince escaped or
just returned home to Cambodia with grandiose ideas. This was in 790 CE, when Borobudur
was only midway through its 50 years of construction. Jayavarman II was the name of this
Java educated Khmer Prince who returned to Cambodia and founded the Khmer Empire that
eventually created Angkor Wat.
Let’s reflect on what we’ve uncovered.
The Khmer of Cambodia founded an Indianized kingdom. This kingdom was a blend of
Hindu culture with an indigenous stone cutting culture, which had already been around for
thousands of years. However, the Khmer were part of the greater Southeast Asian cultural
web. As such, the Sailendra dynasty of the Java-based Srivijaya Empire exerted a significant
influenced upon them. Strangely enough, this dynasty traced its roots to the first Khmer
kingdom of Funan - from which Angkor is derived. In other words, the Javanese temple
complexes and the Khmer temple complexes, rather than isolated occurrences, are intimately
linked.

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