Cultural Dynamics in a Globalized World – Budianta et al.

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Forms and types of Borobudur’s stupas

A. Revianur
Department of Archaeology, Faculty of Humanities, Universitas Indonesia, Depok, Indonesia

ABSTRACT: Candi Borobudur (Borobudur Temple) is the world’s largest Mahayana-

Vajrayana Buddhist temple, which is located in Magelang, Central Java, Indonesia. It was
built by the Sailendra dynasty between the 8th and 9th centuries A.D. The temple was built
with 10-step pyramid terraces, which are decorated with 2,672 relief panels, 504 Buddha
stat- ues, and 1,537 stupas. In this study, we aim to examine the forms and types of the
stupas of Borobudur, which are composed of 1,536 secondary stupas and 1 primary stupa
compared to those of other stupas found in Java and Bali islands. The stupas at Borobudur
located from the second to ninth terraces are called the secondary stupas, whereas the one
located on the tenth terrace is called the primary stupa. They are symbolic stupas, which
consist of a base (Prasadha), a bell-shaped body (anda), a top support (harmika), and a top
(yashti). The stupas are divided into four types, namely plain stupas, hollow space-square
stupas, hollow space-diamond stupas containing the Dhyani Buddha Vairocana that
represents the turn- ing wheel of the dharma and the single main stupa that becomes the
centre of Borobudur Temple reflecting Sailedra art-style. Here, we use a qualitative method,
which is based on field observation and historical sources. The objective of this study is to
provide a comprehensive description of the stupas in Borobudur from the perspective of
historical archaeology.

1 INTRODUCTION

Candi Borobudur (Borobudur Temple) is known as a Mahayana-Vajrayana Buddhist

archae- ological site located in Magelang, Central Java, Indonesia. Borobudur was built
between the 8th and 9th centuries by the Sailendra dynasty and was re-discovered by Sir
Thomas Stamford Raffles in 1814 (Soekmono, 1976). Opinions of historians and
archaeologists on the real name of Borobudur differ greatly. Raffles (1830) named it Boro
Bodo, which means ‘the name of the district’ (Boro) and ‘ancient’ (Bodo). Thus, Boro Bodo
can be interpreted as the ancient Boro (Raffles, 1830). The manuscript Negarakrtagama
canto 77 (LXXVII) written by Mpu Pra- panca in the 14th century mentions the domain of a
Vajradhara or Vajrayana-Buddhism sect named Kabajradaran Akrama in Budur. This
place is most likely the present-day Borobudur (Pigeaud, 1962; Soekmono, 1976). De
Casparis (1950), on the basis of Dasabhumika Sutra, argued that Borobudur was built with
10 stages or dasa bhumi, and is named in relation to Kamulan i Bhumisambharabhudhara,
which is mentioned in the inscriptions of Sri Kahulunan, dating back to the mid-8th century.
Kamulan is a Sanskrit word, which means a root, origin, sacred place or shrine to worship
ancestors. Bhumisambhara is interpreted as a barrow, hill or the level of the building that is
identified with the temple called Borobudur. On the basis of the statements of de Casparis,
Kamulan i Bhumisambharabhudhara can be interpreted as the temple of the Sailendra
dynasty people located in Borobudur, which was built with 10 stages. Nevertheless, the
original name of Borobudur is still under debate among scholars.
Borobudur Temple was built on a hill surrounded by several mountains, such as the
Menoreh, Sumbing, Sindoro and Merbabu Mountains and Mount Merapi, and bordered by
the Progo and Elo rivers. Borobudur could be linked to Kunjarakunjadesa in South India.
Sands and andesite fractions lay the foundation of the hill where the Borobudur Temple is
1
located (Moertjipto and Prasetyo, 1993). The temple was built as a stepped pyramid or
punden berudak structure with six-square terraces and topped with three circular courtyards
(Chihara, 1996).

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 The structure and function of Bodobudur Temple have been described in the lit-
erature. Borobudur could be regarded as a Vajradhatu–mandala and is, in turn, related to
Mendut Temple, which is identified as a Garbhadhatu-mandala. The pair of mandalas is
called Dharmadhatu-mandala (Chihara, 1996, Prajudi, 2009). According to a study
conducted by Hoenig (as cited in Coomaraswamy, 1965), Borobudur was built as a temple.
It was built with a nine-stepped structure, which served as a place of worship. Parmentier
(1924) proposed that Borobudur was built as a monument crowned with a great stupa.
However, because the large stupa structure could not withstand the huge weight, it was
disassembled to attain the present-day structure of Borobudur (Chihara, 1996). Soekmono
(1979) explained that Borobudur probably was not built as a temple, but as a place of
pilgrimage where ancient Javanese Buddhists could gain knowledge. Magetsari (1997)
argued that Borobudur was not established for the commoners, but only for a Yogin.
Borobudur has a special place in the southwest area for the commoners and priests to
accumulate a virtue. It could be seen that the spirit of the Monastic movement in India was
materialised in this structure, which is influenced from the eastern school of India and the
architecture of Bengal. Furthermore, Borobudur represents not only the creativity of
Javanese geniuses but also one of the world’s greatest constructional and artistic
masterpieces (Brown, 1959).
Borobudur Temple has three levels representing the three worlds in the universe, namely
kamadhatu or the world of desire, rupadhatu or the world of appearance and arupadhatu or
the world without visual existence. At the level of rupadhatu, a man has left his desires but
still has ego and resemblance. Arupadhatu is a world where ego and resemblance no longer
exist. At this level, a man has been released from samsara and decided to break his
affiliation with the mortal world. At Borobudur, kamadhatu is found at the foot of the
structure, the five steps above it are described as rupadhatu and the third round terraces are
described as arupadhatu (Stutterheim, 1956; Soekmono, 1974).
Similar to the Mahayana and the Tantric Buddhism, Vajrayana was practiced in
Borobudur during ancient times, whose evidence could be found in the statues of
Pancatathagata at Borobudur Temple, and it is related to Guhyasamaja-tantra. Another
evidence is the teaching of Paramita, which is embodied in the relief of Lalitavistara,
Avadana and Jataka. The imple- mentation of Yogācāra and Pramitayana with Tantric
philosophy is depicted by the relief of Gandavyuha and Bhadracari. The ability to integrate
the philosophy of Tantric or Vajrayana and Mahayana through reliefs and sculptures in the
temple indicates the high intelligence of Borobudur’s architect. This is a unique feature of
Borobudur (Magetsari, 1997).
The main component of a Buddhist temple, including Borobudur, is the stupa. The stupa,
in the period before Buddha, would have served as a tomb and later became the symbol of
Bud- dha’s life. It was originally built to bury the relics of Buddha shortly after his body was
cremated. In its further development, a stupa was used to store not only the relics of
Buddhist monks but also Buddhist objects (Coomaraswamy, 1965; Soekmono, 1974). A
stupa, which describes the concept of Buddhism, has several sections, namely the basis of
the stupa (Prasadha), the parts of the ball (dagob) or bell (genta) and the top or crown
(yashti) (Dehejia, 1972; Moertjipto and Prasetyo, 1993). The stupa was also decorated with
parasols (chattra) at the top of the yashti (Fogelin, 2015). Kempers (as cited in Mentari,
2012) showed that Borobudur Temple is covered by stupas on its terraces. The stupas in
Borobudur have a form different from that of other stupas in Indonesia. Borobudur, as the
legacy of the Sailendra dynasty, has 1,537 stupas, which could be subdivided into 1,536
buffer stupas and 1 main stupa.
Many research studies on the stupas of Candi Borobudur have been carried out by
various scholars. Academic discussions on the meaning of the stupas at Borobudur are
integrated by Magetsari (1997), who stated that the stupas of Candi Borobudur represent the
Parinir- vana and emphasise the philosophy of Vajrayana and Mahayana Buddhism. The
mini-thesis research conducted by Mentari (2012) describes the classification of the forms
and types of Borobudur stupas. It intends to complement the research on the stupas of
Borobudur by expanding it with historical archaeology studies as the framework. The stupas

3
of Borobudur are compared to those of other Buddhist temples such as Mendut, Pawon,
Ngawen, Kalasan, Sari, Lumbung and Sewu Temples as well as the Ratu Boko
archaeological site and Pura Pegulingan in Bali.

4
Figure 1. Stages of research on the stupas of Borobudur.

2 METHOD

In this study, we focus on the stupas at Borobudur Temple and their comparison with stupas
in other archaeological sites such as Mendut, Pawon, Ngawen, Kalasan, Sari, Lumbung and
Sewu Temples as well as Ratu Baka archaeological site and Pura Pegulingan in Bali. We
use a qualitative method, which is based on archaeological research such as the stages of
data gathering, data processing, analysis and interpretation (Ashmore & Sharer, 2010).
The data were gathered from the sites in Borobudur, Mendut, Pawon, Ngawen, Kalasan,
Sari, Lumbung and Sewu Temples; the Ratu Boko archaeological site and Pura Pegulingan;
furthermore, and an archaeological survey approach was applied. This stage was followed
by data processing. In this stage, the stupas were observed, described, classified and
assessed by comparing them with others. The classification of stupas in Borobudur is based
on the research conducted by Mentari. In the third stage, the meaning and function of stupa
were analysed. In the final stage, the stupas at Borobudur Temple and in other
archaeological sites were interpreted on the basis of the comparison of each stupa.

3 DISCUSSION AND DATA ANALYSIS OF BOROBUDUR’S STUPAS

Borobudur has 1,537 stupas located from the second-level terrace to the tenth-level terrace.
The number of stupas on each terrace varies, as shown in Table 1.
Table 1 shows that the number of stupas on each Borobudur terrace is different. The third
terrace has the most number of stupas (416). On the basis of this evidence, it can be con-
cluded that the number of stupas on each terrace is the multiples of 8, except on the second,
fifth and tenth terraces. The perforated stupas are erected from the seventh to the ninth ter-
race (Balai Konservasi Peninggalan Borobudur, 2004).
Mentari (2012) classified the stupas of Borobudur into four types. The author
suggests that there are two forms and four types of stupas in Borobudur. The forms are
plain and per- forated. The plain stupas can be found from the second to the sixth terrace
and in the tenth terrace, where the great stupa is located. The number of plain stupas is

5
1,465, whereas the

6
 Table 1. Stupas of Borobudur on each terrace.

No. Terrace level Number of stupas

1 Second terrace 116

2 Third terrace 416
3 Fourth terrace 352
4 Fifth terrace 316
5 Sixth terrace 264
6 Seventh terrace 32
7 Eighth terrace 24
8 Ninth terrace 16
9 Tenth terrace 1
Total number of stupas 1,537

Source: Center for Borobudur Archaeology Conservation (2004).

number of perforated stupas is 72. The stupas of Borobudur can be classified into four
types, namely type A, type B, type C and type D. These four types are the plain stupas (type
A), the hollow space-diamond stupas containing the Dhyani Buddha Vairocana that
symbolises the turning wheel of dharma (type B), the hollow space-square stupas (type C)
and the single main stupa that becomes the centre of the Borobudur Temple (type D).
Mentari (2012) described that the plain stupas or type A have a Prasadha with ornate
lotus seams (dalla) and a semi-circle (kumuda), solid Anda, rectangular harmika and basic
circle- shaped yashti. This type of stupa is the smallest in Borobudur. There are 1,464
stupas of this type, which are located from the second to the sixth terrace on the ledges,
niches and roofed- gates or paduraksa. The hollow space-diamond stupas or type B stupas
are characterised by a Prasadha with a flat seam (patta), lotus (gentha-side), ornate lotus
(dalla) and semi-circle (kumuda), and the hollow space-diamond stupas are characterised by
an Anda, a rectangular harmika and a basic circle-shaped yashti. There are 56 stupas of this
type, which are located on the seventh and eighth terraces. The type B stupas contain a
statue of Dhyani Buddha Vairocana with the mudra or hand gesture of Dharma Chakra
Parvatana. The hollow space- square stupas or type C stupas are characterised by a
Prasadha with a flat seam (patta), lotus (gentha-side), ornate lotus (dalla) and semi-circle
(kumuda), and the hollow space-square Anda, by an octagonal harmika and basic octagonal-
shaped yashti. There are 16 stupas of this type, which are located on the ninth terrace. This
type of stupas contains no statues. The main stupa or type D is characterised by a Prasadha
with a flat seam (patta), a lotus (gentha- side), an ornate lotus (dalla) and a semi-circle
(kumuda). The Anda is a solid, rectangular and octagonal harmika, with basic octagonal-
shaped yashti.
The Yashti on the main stupa has not been fully restored since the discovery of the
temple. The reconstruction of the yashti was carried out on the basis of a picture
showing that it previously contained three parasols (Chatra). However, the reconstruction
was disassembled because there were many wrong interpretations, and the original stone of
the Chatra was not suitable for reconstruction (Soekmono, 1976). There is a main stupa,
with a belt adorned with vines, which is located on the tenth terrace. It has been
suggested that the main stupa should be stylised with a parasol. The types of stupas and
their position on each terrace are described in Table 2.
It has been found that the plain stupas (type A) are located from the second to the sixth
terrace. In the author’s opinion, the plain stupas on these terraces are probably used as the
boundary between the ledge (Vedika) and the floor (pradaksinapatha). The hollow space-
diamond stupas are located on the seventh and eighth terraces, and a statue of Vairocana
inside them holds a religious meaning. According to the text of the Vairocanabhisambodhi
Sutra (2005), Vairocana is placed in the centre of the mandala. It is suggested that the
circular structure of Borobudur, which contains Vairocana statues, is part of the centre of
mandala. Magetsari (1997) explained that Vairocana with Dharmacakra-mudra hand

7
gesture medi- tates in the Mayotama-samadhi position. It is suggested that Vairocana has
reached Buddha.

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Table 2. Forms and types of stupas and their position on each terrace.

No. Terrace level Stupa form Number of stupas Stupa type

1 Second terrace Plain stupas 116 Plain stupas

2 Third terrace Plain stupas 416 Plain stupas
3 Fourth terrace Plain stupas 352 Plain stupas
4 Fifth terrace Plain stupas 316 Plain stupas
5 Sixth terrace Plain stupas 264 Plain stupas
6 Seventh terrace Perforated stupas 32 Hollow space-diamond stupas
7 Eighth terrace Perforated stupas 24 Hollow space-diamond stupas
8 Ninth terrace Perforated stupas 16 Hollow space-square stupas
9 Tenth terrace Plain stupas 1 Main stupa
Number of plain stupas 1,465
Number of perforated 72
stupas
Total number of stupas 1,537

Figure 2. Images of the four types of Borobudur’s stupas.

(Source: Aditya Revianur (2016)).

Thus, Buddha has carried out his activities through his body as an intermediary. This argu-
ment is visualised in the temple in the form of type C stupas or the hollow space-diamond
stupas. The Dhyani-Buddha Vairocana statues placed in this position show the ambiguity
between the being and nothingness or maya. Buddha was visualised in the arupadhatu
stages, but he is still able to carry out his activities. The activities presented in arupadhatu,
which teaches Dharma, finalise and liberate all beings. They are manifested from the
seventh to the ninth terraces. The Vairocana Buddha statue is placed in this stupa in order to
demonstrate his activity; Buddha teaches all beings and to all directions.
The hollow space-square stupas, which do not contain a Buddha statue, hold a higher
position than the hollow space-diamond stupas. They have become a symbol of the last
level arupadhatu, eventually reaching a Parinirvana stage, which is symbolised by the main
stupa. According to Parinirvana Sutra (as cited in Magetsari, 1997), Buddha of Kamadhatu
went to the top, and after passing through various levels in arupadhatu, he entered the level
of arupadhatu to eventually reach the level where feelings no longer exist. Then, Buddha
went down from the top to the lowest level of rupadhatu. Then, he again reached the
highest level of rupadhatu to finally enter Parinirvana.

3.1 Comparison between the stupas of Borobudur and other temples

Stupas are also found in other Mahayana-Vajrayana Buddhist temples, such as Mendut,
Pawon, Ngawen, Kalasan, Sari, Lumbung and Sewu Temples, as well as the Ratu Boko
archaeological sites and Pura Pegulingan. The form of plain stupas found in all of these
sites is similar to that of Borobudur. Meanwhile, the form of perforated stupas can only be
found
9
in Borobudur. Table 3 shows a comparison of the form of plain stupas in Borobudur and in
other temples and sites.
Table 3 shows that plain stupas can be found in Mendut, Pawon, Ngawen, Kalasan, Sari,
Lumbung and Sewu Temples. It has been found that the plain stupas in Sewu Temple are
sim- ilar to those of Borobudur, which are placed on the ledge. They reinforce the opinion
about their function at Borobudur as a boundary between the ledge (Vedika) and floor
(pradak- sinapatha). The Sewu Temple was built in the late 8th century having Vajradhatu-
mandala structure, with a great number of Dhyani Buddha figures (Suleiman, 1981,
Chihara, 1996). However, there was limited information on the essence of Boddhisattva
who was worshipped in the temple because the inscription of Kelurak, which was found at
Sewu Temple, provided information only about a temple named Manjusri-grha or the house
of Manjusri, and it could be built to worship Manjusri (Magetsari, 1981). On the basis of
the similarities found, it can be suggested that Borobudur and Sewu Temples are most
probably correlated and were erected at the same time. Both temples also represent
Sailendra art and Mahayana and Vajrayana sects, such as stupas on the ledge and
Vajradhatu-mandala structure.
The author found the main stupas or type A stupa at Pawon, Kalasan, Sari, Lumbung and
Sewu Temples, as well as at the Ratu Baka archaeological site and Pura Pegulingan. The
main stupas at Mendut and Ngawen Temples were built during the ancient times. The main
stupas in both temples have collapsed or been damaged and cannot be reconstructed, as
well as the

Figure 3. Vairocana statues inside a hollow space-diamond stupa.

(Source: Aditya Revianur (2016)).

Table 3. Stupa forms of Borobudur and other Buddhist temples.

Stupa forms of Borobudur
and other Buddhist temples

No. Temples/sites Plain stupas Main stupa

1. Mendut Temple 
2. Pawon Temple  
3. Ngawen Temple 
4. Kalasan Temple  
5. Sari Temple  
6. Lumbung Temple  
7. Sewu Temple  
8. Ratu Baka archaeological site 
9. Pura Pegulingan 

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main stupa at Kalasan Temple, but several parts of the Prasadha, the slotted-square Anda,
Harmika and parts of the damaged Yashti can still be seen. The main stupa at Pura Pegulin-
gan in Bali, which is similar to a miniature of stupa, can be found at these sites.
The miniature of stupa at Pegulingan is probably related to the statues of Pancatathagata,
which itself is related to the Vajrayana Buddhism doctrine, and it could be seen on the
Dhyani Buddha statues that are placed on the four corners of the stupa (Astawa, 1996). The
Ratu Boko Temple was built as a vihara and named Abhayagirivihara; it still preserves the
legacy of Buddhism (Magetsari, 1981). The author found the type of the main stupa at Ratu
Boko, but it has been reconstructed ever since its discovery. Meanwhile, Ngawen, Mendut,
Pawon, Kalasan, Sari, Lumbung and Sewu Temples have one main stupa surrounded by
plain smaller stupas. The main stupas at these temples are the symbols of Parinirvana. It
has been found that these main stupas in each temple were not decorated with parasols or
chattra.

4 CONCLUSION

The stupas of Borobudur Temple have two forms and four types. The two forms are plain
and perforated stupas. The plain stupas are located from the second terrace to the sixth
terrace and serve as the boundary between Vedika and Pradaksinapatha. A similar func-
tion is also found at Sewu Temple. The perforated stupas and the main stupas of Borobu-
dur Temple are related to the teachings of both the Mahayana and Vajrayana Buddhism
sects. These stupas, which are located on the seventh and eighth terraces, serve as a prepa-
ration stage to enter the Parinirvana, which is symbolised by a single main stupa. The
Dhyani-Buddha Vairocana statues that are placed inside these stupas indicate the symbols
of the Vajrayana sect. According to Parinirvana Sutra, the hollow space-square stupas
symbolise the last level of arupadhatu, which eventually leads to the Parinirvana stage
that is manifested by the main stupa. The stupas of Borobudur Temple and those found
in other Buddhist sacred sites in Java represent the art of the Sailendra dynasty, which
dates back to the period between 7th and 10th centuries. No parasols of the stupas have
survived, and because of the limited archaeological evidence and references, it is impos-
sible to reconstruct the parasols of the stupas. Borobudur itself was erected in the late 8th
century on the basis of the comparison of its stupas with those at Candi Sewu. The stupas
of Sailendra are related to the development of the Mahayana and Vajrayana Buddhism
that were practiced not only at Borobudur but also in other Buddhist temples in Indonesia
between the 7th and the late 14th centuries, according to Negarakrtagama, which men-
tions Vajrayana temples in Java and Bali.

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