228 Fundamental Electrical and Electronic Principles

X and Y Shift Controls These controls enable the trace position on

the screen to be adjusted. This makes the measurement of period and
amplitude easier.

6.17 Dual Beam Oscilloscopes

These instruments are widely used, and are more versatile than the single
beam type described. They have the advantage that two waveforms can
be displayed simultaneously. This enables waveforms to be compared, in
terms of their amplitudes, shape, phase angle or frequency.
The principles of operation are exactly the same as for the single beam
instrument. They contain two electron gun assemblies, which have
common brightness and focusing controls. The timebase generator
is also common to both channels. There will be two separate
Y-amplifiers, each controlling its own set of vertical deflection
plates. The inputs to these two amplifiers are usually marked as
channel 1 and channel 2, or as channels A and B.

Worked Example 6.16

Q The traces obtained on a double beam oscilloscope are shown in Fig. 6.37. The graticule is marked in
1 cm squares. The channel 1 input is displayed by the upper trace. If settings of the controls for the
two channels are as follows, determine the amplitude, r.m.s. value, and frequency of each input.

Channel 1: timebase of 0.1 ms/cm; Y-amp setting of 5 V/cm

Channel 2: timebase of 10 μs/cm; Y-amp setting of 0.5 V/cm

Fig. 6.37

A
Channel 1: peak to peak occupies 3 cm, so

Vpp  3  5  15 V
Vpp15
the amplitude  
2 2
therefore, Vm  7.5 V Ans
 Alternating Quantities 229

As the waveform is a sinewave, then r.m.s. value V  VmI 2

7.5
therefore, V   5.3 V Ans
2

1 cycle occupies 4 cm, so T  4  0.1  0.4 ms

1 1
f Hz 
T 0.4  103
so, f  2.5 kHz Ans
Channel 2: peak to peak occupies 2 cm, so
Vpp  2  0.5  1 V, and Vm  0.5 V Ans

Since it is a squarewave, then r.m.s. value  amplitude,

hence V  0.5 V Ans
2 cycles occur in 3 cm, so 1 cycle occurs in 2/3 cm

therefore, T  0.6667  10  6.667 μs

1 1
f Hz 
T 6.667  106
so, f  150 kHz Ans

Summary of Equations
Frequency generated: f  np hertz
1
Periodic time: T  second
f

Angular velocity:   2f rad/second

Standard expression for a sinewave: e  Em sin( φ)  Em sin(t φ)

 Em sin(2ft φ) volt

2Im
Average value for a sinewave: I ave   0.637I m

Im
R.m.s. value for a sinewave: I   0.707I m
2

max. value
Peak factor for a sinewave:  1.414
r.m.s. value

r.m.s.value
Form factor for a sinewave:  1. 11
ave value
230 Fundamental Electrical and Electronic Principles
Assignment Questions
1 A coil is rotated between a pair of poles.
Calculate the frequency of the generated
emf if the rotational speed is (a) 150 rev/s,
(b) 900 rev/minute, (c) 200 rad/s.
2 An alternator has 8 poles. If the motor winding
is rotated at 1500 rev/minute, determine
(a) the frequency of the generated emf, and
(b) the speed of rotation required to produce
frequency of 50 Hz.
3 A frequency of 240 Hz is to be generated by
a coil, rotating at 1200 rev/min. Calculate the
number of poles required.
4 A sinewave is shown in Fig. 6.38. Determine its
amplitude, periodic time and frequency.
I (mA)
5
25 50
0 t ( s)
5
Fig. 6.38
5 A sinusoidal current has a peak-to-peak value
of 15 mA and a frequency of 100 Hz. (a) Plot
this waveform, to a base of time, and (b)
write down the standard expression for the
waveform.
6 A sinusoidal voltage is generated by an 85
turn coil, of dimensions 20 cm by 16 cm. The
coil is rotated at 3000 rev/min, with its longer
sides parallel to the faces of a pair of poles. If
the flux density produced by the poles is 0.5 T,
calculate (a) the amplitude of the generated
emf, (b) the frequency, (c) the r.m.s. and
average values.
7 Write down the standard expression for a
voltage, of r.m.s. value 45 V, and frequency
1.5 kHz. Hence, calculate the instantaneous
value, 38 s after the waveform passes
through its zero value.
8 For each of the following alternating
quantities, determine (a) the amplitude and
r.m.s. value, and (b) the frequency and period.
(i) e  250 sin 50t volt
(ii) i  75 sin 628.3t milliamp
(iii) f  20 sin 100t milliweber
(iv) v  6.8 sin (9424.8tf) volt.
9 For a current of r.m.s. value 5 A, and frequency
2 kHz, write down the standard expression.
Hence, calculate (a) the instantaneous value
150 μs after it passes through zero, and (b) the
time taken for it to reach 4 A, after passing
through zero for the first time.
10 Calculate the peak and average values for a
250 V sinusoidal supply.
11 A sinusoidal current has an average value of
3.8 mA. Calculate its r.m.s. and peak values.
12 An alternating voltage has an amplitude of
500 V, and an r.m.s. value of 350 V. Calculate
the peak factor.
13 A waveform has a form factor of 1.6, and an
average value of 10 V. Calculate its r.m.s.
value.
14 A moving coil voltmeter, calibrated for
sinewaves, is used to measure a voltage
waveform having a form factor of 1.25.
Determine the true r.m.s. value of this voltage,
if the meter indicates 25 V. Explain why the
meter does not indicate the true value.
15 Explain why only sinusoidal waveforms can be
represented by phasors.
16 Sketch the phasor diagram for the two
waveforms shown in Fig. 6.39.
I (mA)
5
3
2 t
0
(rad)
Fig. 6.39
17 Sketch the phasor diagram for the two
voltages represented by the following
expressions:
v1  12 sin 314t volt,
v 2  8 sin(314t  / 3) volt.
 Alternating Quantities 231

Assignment Questions
18 Determine the phasor sum of the two voltages v  Vm sin(t φ)
specified in Question 17 above.

19 Three currents, in an a.c. circuit, meet at a v1  12 sin t , and v 2  8 sin( t  / 6) volt.

junction. Calculate the phasor sum, if the
currents are:
i1  10 sin t amp
i2  5 sin(t  / 4 ) amp
i3  14 sin(t  / 3) amp.
23 The waveform displayed on an oscilloscope
is as shown in Fig. 6.40. The timebase is set
to 100 μs/cm, and the Y-amp is set to 2 V/cm.
Determine the amplitude, r.m.s. value, periodic
time and frequency of this waveform.

20 Determine the phasor sum of the following

voltages, all of which are sinewaves of the
same frequency:
v1 has an amplitude of 25 volt, and a phase
angle of zero.
v2 has an amplitude of 13.5 volt, and lags v1
by 25°.
v3 has an amplitude of 7.6 volt, and leads v2
by 40°.
21 By means of a phasor diagram, drawn to scale,
check your answer to Question 19 above.

22 Plot, on the same axes, the graphs of the

following two voltages. By adding ordinates,
determine the sum of these voltages. Express Fig. 6.40
the result in the form
232 Fundamental Electrical and Electronic Principles

Suggested Practical Assignments

The principal practical exercise relating to this chapter is the usage of the
oscilloscope. The actual exercises carried out are left to the discretion of your
teacher. Using an oscilloscope is not difficult, but does require some practice;
particularly in obtaining a clear, stationary trace, from which measurements can
be made.
 Chapter 7
D.C. Machines

Learning Outcomes
This chapter covers the operating principles of d.c. generators and motors, their characteristics
and applications. On completion you should be able to:
1 Understand and explain generator/motor duality.
2 Appreciate the need for a commutator.
3 Identify the different types of d.c. generator, and describe their characteristics. Carry out
practical tests to compare the practical and theoretical characteristics.

7.1 Motor/Generator Duality

An electric motor is a rotating machine which converts an electrical
input power into a mechanical power output. A generator converts a
mechanical power input into an electrical power output. Since one
process is the converse of the other, a motor may be made to operate as
a generator, and vice versa. This duality of function is not confined to
d.c. machines. An alternator can be made to operate as a synchronous
a.c. motor, and vice versa.

To demonstrate the conversion process involved, let us reconsider

two simple cases that were met when dealing with electromagnetic
induction.

Consider a conductor being moved at constant velocity, through a

magnetic field of density B tesla, by some externally applied force F
newton. This situation is illustrated in Fig. 7.1.

Work done in moving the conductor,

W  Fd newton metre 233

234 Fundamental Electrical and Electronic Principles

Fig. 7.1

W
mechanical power input, P1  watt
t

Fd
so, P1  watt
t

and since d/t is the velocity, v at which the conductor is moved,

then

P1  Fv watt. . . . . . . . . . . . .[1]

However, when the conductor is moved, an emf will be induced into

it. Provided that the conductor forms part of a closed circuit, then
the resulting current flow will be as shown in Fig. 7.2. This induced
current, i, produces its own magnetic field, which reacts with the main
field, producing a reaction force, Fr, in direct opposition to the applied
force, F.

Now, Fr  Bi newton

Fr

Fig. 7.2
 D.C. Machines 235

Assuming no frictional or other losses, then the applied force has only
to overcome the reaction force, such that:

F  Fr  Bi newton
so eqn [1] becomes P1  Bi v watt. . . . . . . . . . . . [2]
Also, induced emf, e  B v volt
so generated power, P2  ei watt
therefore, P2  Bi v watt. . . . . . . . . . . .[3]

Since [3]  [2], then the electrical power generated is equal to the
mechanical power input (assuming no losses). Now consider the
conductor returned to its original starting position. Let an external
source of emf, e volt pass a current of i ampere through the conductor.
Provided that the direction of this current is opposite to that shown in
Fig. 7.2, then the conductor will experience a force that will propel
it across the field. In this case, the same basic arrangement exhibits
the motor effect, since the electrical input power is converted into
mechanical power.
Although the above examples involve linear movement of the
conductor, exactly the same principles apply to a rotating machine.

7.2 The Generation of d.c. Voltage

We have seen in Chapter 6 already that, if a single-loop coil is
rotated between a pair of magnetic poles, then an alternating emf is
induced into it. This is the principle of a simple form of alternator.
Of course, this a.c. output could be converted to d.c. by employing
a rectifier circuit. Indeed, that is exactly what is done with vehicle
electrical systems. However, in order to have a truly d.c. machine,
this rectification process needs to be automatically accomplished
within the machine itself. This process is achieved by means of a
commutator, the principle and action of which will now be described.
Consider a simple loop coil the two ends of which are connected to a
single ‘split’ slip-ring, as illustrated in Fig. 7.3. Each half of this slip-
ring is insulated from the other half, and also from the shaft on which
it is mounted. This arrangement forms a simple commutator, where the
connections to the external circuit are via a pair of carbon brushes. The
rectifying action is demonstrated in the series of diagrams of Fig. 7.4.
In these diagrams, one side of the coil and its associated commutator
segment are identified by a thickened line edge. For the sake of
clarity, the physical connection of each end of the coil, to its associated
commutator segment, is not shown. Figure 7.4(a) shows the instant
when maximum emf is induced in the coil. The current directions
have been determined by applying Fleming’s right-hand rule. At this
236 Fundamental Electrical and Electronic Principles

rotation

brush
commutator

Fig. 7.3

I I I I

(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 7.4

instant current will be fed out from the coil, through the external circuit
from right to left, and back into the other side of the coil. As the coil
continues to rotate from this position, the value of induced emf and
current will decrease. Figure 7.4(b) shows the instant when the brushes
short-circuit the two commutator segments. However, the induced emf
is also zero at this instant, so no current flows through the external
circuit. Further rotation of the coil results in an increasing emf, but of
the opposite polarity to that induced before. Figure 7.4(c) shows the
instant when the emf has reached its next maximum. Although the
generated emf is now reversed, the current through the external circuit
will be in the same direction as before. The load current will therefore
be a series of half-sinewave pulses, of the same polarity. Thus the
commutator is providing a d.c. output to the load, whereas the armature
generated emf is alternating.
A single-turn coil will generate only a very small emf. An increased
amplitude of the emf may be achieved by using a multi-turn coil.
 D.C. Machines 237

E (V)

0 t (s)

Fig. 7.5

The resulting output voltage waveform is shown in Fig. 7.5. Although

this emf is unidirectional, and may have a satisfactory amplitude,
it is not a satisfactory d.c. waveform. The problem is that we have
a concentrated winding. In a practical machine the armature has a
number of multi-turn coils. These are distributed evenly in slots around
the periphery of a laminated steel core. Each multi-turn coil has its
own pair of slots, and the two ends are connected to its own pair of
commutator segments. Figure 7.6 shows the armature construction
(before the coils have been inserted). The riser is the section of the

riser

slot

segments

Fig. 7.6

commutator to which the ends of the coils are soldered. Due to the
distribution of the coils around the armature, their maximum induced
emfs will occur one after the other, i.e. they will be out of phase with
each other. Figure 7.7 illustrates this, but for simplicity, only three coils
have been considered.

E (V)

0 t (s)

Fig. 7.7

Nevertheless, the effect on the resultant machine output voltage is

apparent, and is shown by the thick line along the peaks of the waveform.