Exercise 21.

THE SOCIAL MEDIA PRODUCT PLACEMENT JUGGERNAUT

Social media is the air that celebrities breathe. No other platforms can keep them so relevant in the cut-
throat business of fame. But beyond satisfying their need to connect with the public, social media is also
helping to fill bank accounts. To maintain their fabulous lifestyle, celebrities can turn to social media
where the world of Instagram and influencer marketing awaits. And what a lucrative world it is.

69.

So what do we know about specific rates for social media posts? Mid-level reality TV stars can earn
anywhere from $1,000 to $20,000 for a brand sponsored Instagram post. This can go as high as $50,000
for a TV sitcom star. That's a lot of money, but relatively low compared to the current crop of It-girl
model who can command up to $300,000 for a single Instagram post, or an A-list actor who can receive
up to $500,000.

70.

Although celebrity endorsements have been around for as long as advertising itself, their foray into social
media is new territory. Traditional print and TV advertising is replete with famous faces pushing products
we doubt they use or consume, but there is an understanding that we accept the falsehood because we
know the game, we know they've been paid. The pseudo-ads posted as selfies on Instagram or Twitter,
however, usually contain no clear indication that money has changed hands, despite the fact that, in many
cases, it's legally required to do so.

71.

Beginning enthusiastically with "OMG", the original post was liked online by hundreds of thousands of
followers. There was no doubt that she had actually used the medication, as it had been prescribed by her
doctor. But had she included the mandatory information, it would have given the very distinct, and true,
impression that it was a promotion. Ever mindful of her public image, she was aware this may not go
down well with her followers. For her sins, she was forced to remove her gushing reviews from
Instagram, Twitter and Facebook, and repost with a huge risk of disclaimer.

72.

Celebrities love social media because it helps them to build some semblance of authenticity and social
intimacy with fans. First they create an image of openness and honesty with their online followers and
then they exploit it in their sponsored posts. One star, for example, recently confided that her "secret" to
staying trim was a certain weight loss tea. A photo of her looking slim and healthy, holding a cup of the
miraculous fat-melting infusion was there for all to see. No mention was made of frequent, grueling
sessions with a well-paid personal trainer. A clearly sponsored post — though honest — would have
dismantled her credibility.
73.

As advertising professionals will tell you, that is exactly the goal of any ad — to sell an idea or a
desirable lifestyle, and it doesn't even have to be true or attainable. The personality vouching for the
product isn't even required to actually use it. All that needs to happen is for consumers to want some
glamour and coolness to rub off on them. That is how advertising works. But this sneaky new form of
celebrity endorsement, with its camouflaged product promotions requires consumers to completely
suspend belief in order to place their trust in someone with an agenda.

74.

As such, the language has to be just right, peppered with the kinds of casual terms friends use with each
other. Celebrities 'swear by' a new skincare product, are 'in love with' a new coconut water, 'can't live
without' a new protein shake. The more cynical among us might question the true author of these snappy
captions — is it the paid influencer or has the brand's marketing department come up with the text and
tailored it to the target audience? Because the audience is what it's all about. Keeping it is important, but
first it has to be found.

75.

So far, it's been a very successful strategy, and as long as a supply of famous faces are willing to accept
cash for comments, the use of social media as a unique advertising tool won't be going away any time
soon.

Missing Paragraphs:

A. Make no mistake — they are raking in it. Even those who are no longer as famous as they once were
can be offered tantalizing amount by companies to promote products on the main personal social media
platforms —Instagram, Twitter, and Facebook. The uber-famous with the largest followings are making
money hand over fist, and the amounts are staggering.

B. Besides failing to list the downsides of the product, the celebrity fell foul of the law by not being
explicit about the fact that she was paid to make the post. There are rules about this sort of thing, too.
Celebrities receiving payment to promote a product on their platforms are required to tag the post #ad or
#sponsored — something to indicate that a monetary transaction has taken place in return for their
endorsement. So what's preventing them from adding those few letters?

C. The beauty of influencer marketing for brands is that they don't have to build their target audience
from scratch — something which is costly and time-consuming as it involves extensive market research.
Once the influencer has been chosen, it is just a matter of getting the followers to support the brand, talk
about it themselves to others, and buy the products.

D. For that kind of money, celebrities are happy to plug a product hard. Juice cleaners, meal replacement
regimes, weight-loss teas, waist shapers, teeth whitening kits — they comprise a range of categories that
are perfectly suited to the highly narcissistic nature of the medium that is social media, requiring nothing
more than a love of selfies and a complete lack of shame. The questionable efficacy of the products is no
deterrent to the blatant money-grab.
E. But what makes people susceptible to such influence? When asked, consumers said they trusted
celebrities over brands. The problem with branded marketing content is that it is biased; influencer
marketing, on the other hand, does not come across as an overt marketing attempt. Instead, it looks like a
recommendation from a trusted friend.

F. Advertisers have a major responsibility to inform celebrities, bloggers and anyone else they're paying
to push a product that appropriate disclosures need to be made. Advertising should be identifiable as
advertising so that consumers know when they're hearing a marketing pitch versus an independent
viewpoint.

G. Advertising is powerful and its manipulation runs deep when consumers are gullible to such marketing
ploys. The endorsements — casually slipped in between a candid photo with a beloved pet and a carefree
snap with a close friend, for example — make unwitting followers feel that this product is simply a part
of the celebrity's daily life, and that they should make it a part of theirs too. They want it, and at that
point, they're hooked.

H. Disclosure with regards to medication is one of these instances. An American celebrity got into hot
water with the U.S. Food and Drug Administration for promoting a medication without providing
information about possible side effects. The FDA, which is responsible for protecting public health
through the regulation and supervision of a range of products including dietary supplements, prescription
and over-the-counter medications, took a very dim view of this.

69. A

“But beyond satisfying their need to connect with the public, social media is also helping to fill bank
accounts. To maintain their fabulous lifestyle, celebrities can turn to social media where the world of
Instagram and influencer marketing awaits. And what a lucrative world it is.” connects with “Make
no mistake — they are raking in it. Even those who are no longer as famous as they once were can be
offered tantalizing amount by companies to promote products on the main personal social media
platforms —Instagram, Twitter, and Facebook.”

70. D

“That's a lot of money, but relatively low compared to the current crop of It-girl model who can
command up to $300,000 for a single Instagram post, or an A-list actor who can receive up to $500,000.”
connects with “For that kind of money, celebrities are happy to plug a product hard.”

71. H

“The pseudo-ads posted as selfies on Instagram or Twitter, however, usually contain no clear indication
that money has changed hands, despite the fact that, in many cases, it's legally required to do so.”
connects with “Disclosure with regards to medication is one of these instances. An American celebrity
got into hot water with the U.S. Food and Drug Administration for promoting a medication without
providing information about possible side effects... There was no doubt that she had actually used the
medication, as it had been prescribed by her doctor.”

72. B

“Beginning enthusiastically with "OMG", the original post was liked online by hundreds of thousands of
followers...For her sins, she was forced to remove her gushing reviews from Instagram, Twitter and
Facebook, and repost with a huge risk of disclaimer.” connects with “Besides failing to list the
downsides of the product, the celebrity fell foul of the law by not being explicit about the fact that she
was paid to make the post.”

73. G

“...make unwitting followers feel that this product is simply a part of the celebrity's daily life, and that
they should make it a part of theirs too. They want it, and at that point, they're hooked.” connects
with “As advertising professionals will tell you, that is exactly the goal of any ad — to sell an idea or a
desirable lifestyle, and it doesn't even have to be true or attainable.”

74. E

“The problem with branded marketing content is that it is biased; influencer marketing, on the other hand,
does not come across as an overt marketing attempt. Instead, it looks like a recommendation from a
trusted friend.” connects with “As such, the language has to be just right, peppered with the kinds of
casual terms friends use with each other.”

75. C

“The beauty of influencer marketing for brands is that they don't have to build their target audience
from scratch — something which is costly and time-consuming as it involves extensive market research.
Once the influencer has been chosen, it is just a matter of getting the followers to support the
brand, talk about it themselves to others, and buy the products.” connects with “So far, it's been a
very successful strategy...”
Exercise 22.

Mathematical Games
The majority of video games designed to provide mathematics learning fail educationally for one of two
reasons. One of these is that the designers know how to design and create video games but know little
about mathematics education (in particular, how people learn mathematics) and in many cases don't seem
to know what maths really is. The second is that they have a reasonable sense of mathematics and have
some familiarity with the basic principles of mathematics education, but do not have sufficient education
in video game design.

37.

To create an engaging game that also supports good mathematics learning requires a great deal more: a
complete understanding of what mathematics is, how and why people learn and do mathematics, how to
get and keep them engaged in their learning and how to represent the mathematics on the platform on
which the game will be played. That too demands much more than just superficial knowledge.

38.

Following the tradition of textbook publishing, that figure does not include any payment to the authors
who essentially create the entire pedagogic framework and content. Nor does it take into account the
money required for the fees payable to the project's academic advisory board, without whom the project
is unlikely to succeed.

39.

Though this term is specific to this context, its concept has been well known in maths education circles
for over twenty years and is recognised as the biggest obstacle to practical mastery of middle school
mathematics. To understand the precise implication of what the term entails and appreciate how
pervasive it is, it is necessary to examine the role symbolic expressions play in mathematics.

40.

But just how essential are those symbols? Perhaps this question can best be answered through a
comparison with music. Until the invention of recording devices, symbolic musical notation was the only
way to store and distribute music, yet no one ever confuses music with a musical score. In the same way
as music is created and enjoyed within the mind, mathematics is created and carried out in the mind. At
its heart, mathematics is a mental activity and one that throughout human history has proved to be highly
beneficial to life and society.
41.

So, why is it that many people believe mathematics itself is symbolic manipulation? And if the answer is
that it results from our classroom experiences, why is mathematics taught that way? The answer to that
second question is that mathematics is taught symbolically because for many centuries symbolic
representation has been the most effective way to record mathematics and pass on mathematical
knowledge to others.

42.

While it is true to say that people sometimes scribble down symbols when they do everyday maths in a
real-life context, for the most part, what they write down are the facts needed to start with, perhaps the
intermediate results along the way and, if they get far enough, the final answer at the end. But the actual
mathematical part is primarily a thinking process as even when people are asked to 'show all their work',
the collection of symbolic expressions they write down is not necessarily the same as the process that
goes on in their minds when they do the maths correctly. In fact, people can become highly skilled at
doing mental mathematics and yet be hopeless at its symbolic representations.

43.

It is simply not the case that ordinary people cannot do everyday maths. Rather, they cannot do symbolic
everyday maths. From this observation, it can be concluded that the symbol barrier is huge and pervasive.
For the entire history of organised mathematics instruction, where there has been no alternative to using
static, symbolic expressions on flat surfaces to store and distribute mathematical knowledge, that barrier
has prevented millions of people from becoming proficient in a cognitive skill set on a par in importance
with the ability to read and write.

A So, given the effort and expense to make a maths game, is it worth pursuing? From an educational
perspective, it certainly is. That being said, it must be acknowledged that the vast majority of maths video
games on the market essentially capitalise on just one educationally important aspect of video games -
their power to fully engage players in a single activity for long periods of time. Only a fraction of them
take advantage of another educationally powerful feature of the medium - their ability to overcome the
'symbol barrier'.

B With routine mathematics, the symbolic barrier emerges. In their 1993 book Street Mathematics and
School Mathematics Terezinha Nunes, David William Carraher and Analucia Dias Schliemann describe
research conducted in the street markets of Recife, Brazil. This and other studies have shown that when
people are regularly faced with everyday mathematics in their daily lives, they master it to an astonishing
98 per cent accuracy. Yet when faced with the very same problems (from a mathematical perspective)
presented in the traditional symbols, their performance drops to a mere 35 to 40 per cent accuracy.

C In both these subjects, the symbols are merely static representations on a flat surface of dynamic
mental processes. Just as the trained musician can look at a musical score and hear the music come alive
in his or her head, the trained mathematician can look at a page of symbolic mathematics and have that
mathematics come alive in the mind.

D In other words, designing and building a good mathematics educational video game, whether it is a
massively multiplayer online game (MMO) or a single smartphone app, requires a team of experts from
several different disciplines. That means it takes a lot of time and a substantial budget. For a simple-
looking, casual game that runs on an iPad, it can take about nine months from start to finish and cost
upwards of a quarter of a million.

E Yet tens of thousands of years of evolution have produced the most adaptive device on the planet: the
human brain. Trying to design a computer system to adapt to human cognitive activity is like trying to
build a cart that will draw a horse. It can be done, but it will not work nearly as well as building a cart
that a horse can pull.

F To build a successful video game requires an understanding, at a deep level, of what constitutes a game,
how and why people play games, what holds their attention, and how they interact with the different
platforms on which the game will be played. That is a lot of deep knowledge.

G By and large, the public identifies doing maths with writing symbols, often obscure symbols. Why do
people readily make this identification? A large part of the explanation is that much of the time they spent
in the school mathematics classroom was devoted to the development of correct symbolic manipulation
skills, and symbol-filled books are the standard way to store and distribute mathematical knowledge. So
we have become used to the fact that mathematics is presented by way of symbolic expressions.

H Still, given the comparison with music, is it possible to break free of that historical legacy? It would
appear that it is, as long as a distinction is made between the advanced mathematics used by scientists and
engineers and the kind of maths important to ordinary people. Advanced mathematics, on the other hand,
is intrinsically symbolic, whereas everyday maths is not and such activities as counting, proportional
reasoning and problem solving can be done mentally.
37. F

“To build a successful video game requires an understanding, at a deep level, of what constitutes a
game, how and why people play games, what holds their attention, and how they interact with the
different platforms on which the game will be played.” connects with “To create an engaging game that
also supports good mathematics learning requires a great deal more: a complete understanding of
what mathematics is, how and why people learn and do mathematics, how to get and keep them engaged
in their learning and how to represent the mathematics on the platform on which the game will be
played.”

38. D

“For a simple-looking, casual game that runs on an iPad, it can take about nine months from start to finish
and cost upwards of a quarter of a million.” connects with “Following the tradition of textbook
publishing, that figure does not include any payment to the authors who essentially create the entire
pedagogic framework and content.”

39. A

“Only a fraction of them take advantage of another educationally powerful feature of the medium - their
ability to overcome the 'symbol barrier'.” connects with “Though this term is specific to this context,
its concept has been well known in maths education circles for over twenty years and is recognised as the
biggest obstacle to practical mastery of middle school mathematics.”

40. G

“To understand the precise implication of what the term entails and appreciate how pervasive it is, it is
necessary to examine the role symbolic expressions play in mathematics.” connects with “A large part
of the explanation is that much of the time they spent in the school mathematics classroom was
devoted to the development of correct symbolic manipulation skills, and symbol-filled books are the
standard way to store and distribute mathematical knowledge.”

41. C

“Perhaps this question can best be answered through a comparison with music.” connects with “In both
these subjects, the symbols are merely static representations on a flat surface of dynamic mental
processes.”

42. H
“The answer to that second question is that mathematics is taught symbolically because for many
centuries symbolic representation has been the most effective way to record mathematics and pass
on mathematical knowledge to others.” connects with “Still, given the comparison with music, is it
possible to break free of that historical legacy?”

43. B

In fact, people can become highly skilled at doing mental mathematics and yet be hopeless at its
symbolic representations.” connects with “This and other studies have shown that when people are
regularly faced with everyday mathematics in their daily lives, they master it to an astonishing 98
per cent accuracy. Yet when faced with the very same problems (from a mathematical perspective)
presented in the traditional symbols, their performance drops to a mere 35 to 40 per cent
accuracy.”

Exercise 23.

The Frozen Past

It’s taken over 200 years to find irrefutable evidences of Ice Ages
 John Galvin reports

For hundreds of years, Europeans were aware of large lumps of rock, some as big as a house, lying
around in places where they didn't belong, far from the strata where such material originated. They
became known as ‘erratics' and until the late 18th century the accepted story was that they had been
dumped by a great flood.

37.

At a young age, he wanted to study natural history, but to please his parents and obtain financial support,
he qualified as a doctor (though he never practised medicine) and also worked for a doctorate. He went
on to become an expert on fossilised fish and a professor at a college in Neuchatel. It was there that he
encountered the idea of an Ice Age.

38.

The upshot was that two years later, they went on a trip into the mountains to study the evidence at first
hand, Agassiz fully intended to dispel the ludicrous notion of what was called 'ice rafting', but came away
converted. Like many converts, he became more enthusiastic about the idea than the original enthusiasts.
Indeed, he proposed there had once been a great ice sheet engulfing Europe all the way from the North
Pole to the Mediterranean Sea.

39.

The talk produced a mixture of anger and disbelief. Even when Agassiz organised a field trip to show the
members scars and grooves cut into the rock by the action of boulders dragged along by glaciers, they
dismissed them as damage caused by the wheels of passing carriages. This only stirred him into more
proselytising.

40.

Such language attracted attention, but in scientific terms a much more important event also occurred in
the same year when Agassiz presented his ideas to a meeting of the British Association for the
Advancement of Science, held in Glasgow in September. The great geologist Charles Lyell, who was a
big influence on Charles Darwin, was in the audience, and like many who heard the Ice Age theory for
the first time, was unconvinced. But as a good scientist, soon after the meeting, he headed into the
Highlands to look for evidence in the form of `terminal moraines' left behind by long-melted glaciers and
found them.

41.
The seeds of the modern theory of Ice Ages were sown in a book published just two years after the Ice
Age theory came in from the cold. The author was Joseph Adhemar, a mathematician who worked in
Paris, and his book was called Revolutions De La Mare. Although it was essentially a confused jumble of
ideas, it did contain one little jewel. This was the idea that climate is modulated by the slightly elliptical
nature of the Earth's orbit.

42.

Because the Earth travels more swiftly when it is nearer to the sun, it spends seven fewer days traversing
the (Northern Hemisphere) winter half of its orbit than it does traversing the summer half. In the south,
winters are longer than summers. Thus, he argued that over thousands of years this extra length of winter
had allowed the vast Antarctic ice sheet to grow. But he also knew that because of a wobble of the
spinning Earth, the pattern of the seasons slowly shifts around the orbit of the earth' as the millennia go
by. Some 11,000 years ago, Northern winter was seven days longer than summer. And 11,000 years
before that, the pattern was the same as it is today.

43.

Enter James Croft who came from a poor family and was largely self-taught, reading voraciously about
science while supporting himself with a succession of dead-end jobs. When he was in Glasgow working
for a newspaper, he got his big break- a job as caretaker at the Andersonian College and Museum. The
college had a first-class scientific library, which he raided while his brother unofficially helped him out
with his job.

A Before the year was out, the Ice Age theory had been presented to the Geological Society in London
and established as fact. The geologists were convinced that the Earth (or at least Europe) had once been
covered by a great ice sheet, But this led to the questions of when and why the Ice Age had occurred.

B In 1840, Agassiz presented the evidence in a book, Etude Sur Les Glaciers, written in a way that could
not be ignored: 'Europe, previously covered with tropical vegetation and inhabited by herds of great
elephants, enormous hippopotami, and gigantic carnivores became suddenly buried under a vast expanse
of ice. Silence followed ... springs dried up, streams ceased to flow, and sunrays rising over that frozen
shore .... were met only by the whistling of northern winds and the rumbling of the crevasses as they
opened across the surface of that huge ocean of ice.'

C Agassiz picked up the notion from a friend, a geologist called Jean de Charpentier, who gave a talk on
the topic in Lucerne at a meeting of the Swiss Society of Natural Sciences. He reported how heaps of
rocky debris, known as moraines, are left behind by glaciers, and speculated that the Swiss glaciers had
been part of a huge single ice sheet. Agassiz thought the idea was ridiculous and told his friend so.
D And there it was - an explanation of not one but many Ice Ages. The only snag is that it was wrong.
The actual amount of heat 'lost' during the prolonged winter is nowhere near enough to make the great ice
sheets grow. But it did set people thinking about the influence of planetary motion on climate.

E As geologists developed techniques for dating the scars left behind by ice, and other evidence for Ice
Ages in the form of past changes in flora and fauna, his idea could be tested because it is possible to
calculate when the orbital parameters made for cold winters. By the end of the century, they showed he
was wrong in a way that should have grabbed attention.

F By the time the next annual meeting of the Society came around, Agassiz was its president despite
being only thirty years old. The audience settled into their seats expecting a dull presidential address on
fossil fishes, and were astonished when he delivered an impassioned lecture on the Ice Age in which that
very term was introduced.

G At present, closest approach to the Sun occurs in early January, while the most distant occurs in July.
So, Northern Hemisphere summers are a tiny bit cooler than they would otherwise be, and Northern
Hemisphere winters are a tiny bit warmer. But the cycle of the seasons is explained by the tilt of the
Earth, which brings short, cold winter days and long, hot summer days, completely overwhelming this
small orbital effect. This knowledge was applied to longer-term effects.

H The first alternative explanation came from Bernhard Kuhn, a Swiss who suggested that these boulders
had been carried to their new locations by ice. It was natural that this idea should originate in
Switzerland, where the power of glaciers is clearly visible. The Scottish pioneer of geology, James
Hutton, reached the same conclusion after a visit to the Jura Mountains. But the idea languished until it
was vigorously promoted by another Swiss, Louis Agassiz.
37. H

“the accepted story was that they had been dumped by a great flood” connects with “The first
alternative explanation came from Bernhard Kuhn, a Swiss who suggested that these boulders had been
carried to their new locations by ice.”

“But the idea languished until it was vigorously promoted by another Swiss, Louis Agassiz.” connects
with “At a young age, he wanted to study natural history, but to please his parents and obtain financial
support, he qualified as a doctor (though he never practised medicine) and also worked for a doctorate.”

38. C

“It was there that he encountered the idea of an Ice Age.” connects with “ Agassiz picked up the
notion from a friend, a geologist called Jean de Charpentier, who gave a talk on the topic in Lucerne at a
meeting of the Swiss Society of Natural Sciences.”

39. F

“The audience settled into their seats expecting a dull presidential address on fossil fishes, and were
astonished when he delivered an impassioned lecture on the Ice Age in which that very term was
introduced.” connects with “The talk produced a mixture of anger and disbelief.”

40. B

“In 1840, Agassiz presented the evidence in a book, Etude Sur Les Glaciers, written in a way that could
not be ignored: 'Europe, previously covered with tropical vegetation and inhabited by herds of great
elephants, enormous hippopotami, and gigantic carnivores became suddenly buried under a vast expanse
of ice. Silence followed ... springs dried up, streams ceased to flow, and sunrays rising over that frozen
shore .... were met only by the whistling of northern winds and the rumbling of the crevasses as they
opened across the surface of that huge ocean of ice.'” connects with “Such language attracted attention,
but in scientific terms a much more important event also occurred in the same year when Agassiz
presented his ideas to a meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, held in
Glasgow in September.”
41. A

“Such language attracted attention, but in scientific terms a much more important event also occurred
in the same year when Agassiz presented his ideas to a meeting of the British Association for the
Advancement of Science, held in Glasgow in September.” connects with “A Before the year was out,
the Ice Age theory had been presented to the Geological Society in London and established as fact.”

42. G

“This was the idea that climate is modulated by the slightly elliptical nature of the Earth's orbit.”
connects with “Because the Earth travels more swiftly when it is nearer to the sun, it spends seven
fewer days traversing the (Northern Hemisphere) winter half of its orbit than it does traversing the
summer half. In the south, winters are longer than summers.”

43. D

“But it did set people thinking about the influence of planetary motion on climate.” connects with
“Enter James Croft who came from a poor family and was largely self-taught, reading voraciously
about science while supporting himself with a succession of dead-end jobs.”

Exercise 24.

Temptation, temptation
We tend to act impulsively when small imminent rewards triumph over big future benefits. How can
we keep our impulsivity in check?

By David Freeman
Walk into any fast-food restaurant, and you can watch a small crowd of ordinary people doing something
that is utterly irrational: eating junky, excess-weight-inviting food that is likely to leave them feeling bad
about their bodies and open to a host of serious ills. We literally line up to trade our health and self-image
for a few minutes of pleasant mouth feel and belly comfort - because the latter is right here, right now,
whereas the former is months, years or even decades away.

37.

Today this tendency plays out in such undesirable habits as overeating and overspending. Because the
rewards for our good behaviour are off in the future where they seem less important, we are almost
guaranteed to act against our own interests when we make impulsive decisions.

38.

New insights into the psychological subtleties of temporal discounting have suggested ways to counteract
the distorted thinking behind the phenomenon and change short-sighted behaviour. If these strategies
work, we will be more likely to cat more healthily, exercise and stay out of debt.

39.

Thoughtful decisions to resist temptation, on the other hand, appear largely rooted in the prefrontal
cortex, the seat of executive functions such as working memory, attention and inhibitory control. So, if
we can make the sooner, smaller reward seem less compelling or get the larger, later reward to attract
more attention, researchers have discovered, activity shifts from the limbic system to the prefrontal cortex
- and we make wiser choices.

40.

What is more, that perceived gap between the value of sooner and later rewards grows as the time to the
sooner reward approaches. A study published in 2009 showed that students placed much less value on a
gift voucher that they had to wait a relatively short time to use than on one they could use immediately.
The same study also determined that the students perceived only a minimal difference in the worth of two
vouchers when one required waiting a long time and the other even longer.

41.

Certain environmental cues can also trick the brain into judging time in ways that might mitigate
temporal discounting. People exposed to a slow audio rhythm are less likely to overestimate the time to
distant events and more likely to opt for later rewards than those who hear sound at a swifter pace. That
result suggests faster-paced sensory cues might speed up our internal clocks, making time of the essence.
It also implies that a calming environment may temper temporal discounting- that a mellow fast food
restaurant might sell more salads and fewer cheeseburgers.
42.

Another approach to combating this damaging trait involves collecting detailed data. A range of findings
shows that our brains tend to grasp events that are further in the future in vaguer terms than events close
at hand. Gathering specific information about more distant rewards, therefore, may help far-off goals
effectively compete for attention with more immediate wants.

43.

These observations strongly suggest that generic statements about consequences do not work. Instead, it
has to be details that are particular to the individual and directly connected to a single decision which are
presented to the person concerned. So, if you are tempted to spend more than you can afford on that
flashy car you have seen, take a breather and remind yourself out loud that the hefty monthly payments
would downgrade your holiday privileges for the next five years.

A If these kinds of seemingly simple tweaks prove effective and can be adopted by society as a whole,
we may be able to reap rich revvards. The world 30 years from now could be one in which obesity
epidemics, personal debt crises and other mass ills of poor choice seem like relics of another age.

B The drive to instant gratification appears to be hardwired in humans. However, that fact does not mean
we are destined to grab immediate rewards we will later regret as was previously thought because of the
long-held belief that impulsiveness was fixed. Recent research has brought to light evidence that it can be
moved, thereby counteracting the urge to make unwise decisions.

C This concept has been successfully applied to anti-obesity programmes. People on these health-clinic
programmes are asked to document exactly how much weight they gain when they slip and then how
long it takes them to get back to their previous weight. This ritual causes people to place greater value on
the eventual downsides of eating too much. Furthermore, it has been found that if people are given
specific information about the consequences of their overeating and they say it so that others can hear,
they take their decision with their eyes open.

D This foolish exchange reflects a glitch in our brains that may wreak more havoc in our lives and in
society than any other. Known as temporal discounting, it is our tendency to view small rewards now as
more desirable than much bigger payoffs down the road. Scientists think this trait may have been
programmed into us by evolution at a time when the environment, with its numerous threats to our
survival, favoured those who grabbed whatever they could whenever they could get it.

E Finding ways to delay the more immediate reward can suppress the time-skewing effect. Research has
shown that requiring people to wait just five minutes for a treat cuts the appeal of the treat in half. Thus,
if you are about to order a double cheeseburger at the fast-food counter or if you are eyeing an
unaffordable new watch, persuade yourself to run a few errands before deciding whether to indulge.
F Additional research supports the notion that the hustle and bustle of fast-food chains may magnify our
desire for a faster pay-off. One 2010 study found that people who were asked to think about their last
visit to a fast-food chain tended to opt for immediate rewards to a greater extent than those who were not
given the fast-food trigger. Therefore, avoiding fast-food restaurants can have a double bonus: not being
plied with less healthy food and easing the pernicious effects of temporal discounting on health and
wealth-related decision making.

G Important clues about how to combat rash behaviour come from studies of how we perceive time when
making decisions in which immediate desires conflict with longer-term goals. Some of the same brain
systems involved in temporal discounting also contribute to our ability to estimate spans of time.
Researchers have shown over the past ten years that these estimates become skewed when comparing the
times at which a reward will be received. In short, the later benefit feels further off, diminishing its
appeal.

H Temporal discounting has long been seen as the triumph of feelings or impulses over reason. To go
beyond that imprecise insight, several groups of neuroscientists have scanned people's brains using
functional MRI while they were tempted to grab immediate rewards. They found that this urge seems to
originate mainly in the brain's limbic system, a set of cerebral regions charged with emotion.
37 D

“We literally line up to trade our health and self-image for a few minutes of pleasant mouth feel
and belly comfort” connects with “This foolish exchange reflects a glitch in our brains that may wreak
more havoc in our lives and in society than any other.”

38 B

“Recent research has brought to light evidence that it can be moved, thereby counteracting the urge to
make unwise decisions.” connects with “New insights into the psychological subtleties of temporal
discounting have suggested ways to counteract the distorted thinking behind the phenomenon and
change short-sighted behaviour.”

39 H

“They found that this urge seems to originate mainly in the brain's limbic system, a set of cerebral
regions charged with emotion.” connects with “Thoughtful decisions to resist temptation, on the other
hand, appear largely rooted in the prefrontal cortex, the seat of executive functions such as working
memory, attention and inhibitory control.”

40 G

“Important clues about how to combat rash behaviour come from studies of how we perceive time
when making decisions in which immediate desires conflict with longer-term goals. Some of the
same brain systems involved in temporal discounting also contribute to our ability to estimate spans of
time.” connects with “What is more, that perceived gap between the value of sooner and later
rewards grows as the time to the sooner reward approaches.”

41 E

“Finding ways to delay the more immediate reward can suppress the time-skewing effect.” connects
with “Certain environmental cues can also trick the brain into judging time in ways that might mitigate
temporal discounting.”

42 F

“It also implies that a calming environment may temper temporal discounting- that a mellow fast food
restaurant might sell more salads and fewer cheeseburgers.” connects with “Additional research
supports the notion that the hustle and bustle of fast-food chains may magnify our desire for a faster
pay-off.”

43 C

“Gathering specific information about more distant rewards, therefore, may help far-off goals
effectively compete for attention with more immediate wants.” connects with “This concept has been
successfully applied to anti-obesity programmes. People on these health-clinic programmes are asked to
document exactly how much weight they gain when they slip and then how long it takes them to get
back to their previous weight.”
Exercise 25.

Pneumatics is making a comeback

Sometimes an email won't suffice, so it's time to breathe new life into
an antique messaging technology.
In a windowless room in a London basement, there's a device on the wall that makes things disappear.
Technicians file in, grasping large containers shaped like capsules and stuff bags into them. One places
his container into the device, taps a code on a panel, and whoosh, it's gone. A few minutes later, the
capsule reappears a kilometre away.

37.
Pneumatic networks were once heralded as the future of communication and delivery. Indeed, some think
their history echoes the way current information technology developed. Yet while today's pneumatic
market may be modest by comparison, it is now proving essential for a few types of organisation such as
this one in London. In a digital age, why has this antique technology been embraced once more?

38.

By the turn of the 20th century, entrepreneurs - and even the American postmaster general - were
predicting a 'pneumatic age', promising delivery of everything from household goods to hot food. Some
people even dreamed of pneumatic public transport, 'We had this utopian discourse about the pneumatic
subway; the crazy notion that you'd be able to travel under the Atlantic,' says Holly Kruse of Rogers State
University in Oklahoma, who has studied the social impact of pneumatic tubes.

39.

Tubes never formed a pneumatic interact, of course. One by one, citywide networks fell into disuse.
Surprisingly, perhaps, a few were still running in the late 20th century, but the last postal example, in
Prague, was eventually shut down in 2002 after a flood had damaged it beyond repair.

40.

In 2008, a UK-based organization called Foodtubes looked into the idea of distributing food to
supermarkets via networks of one-metre-wide underground tubes. Pneumatic transport was one of the
methods explored. The project attracted interest from at least one supermarket, but the up-front cost
meant it never got off the ground. Therefore, it appears that if a large-scale demonstration could be put in
place to show that this form of transport is cost-effective, it might just snowball.

41.

Yet the real booming market for modern pneumatics is in hospitals. 'They are used extensively in the
healthcare sector,' says Robert Beardsley of the international pneumatic tube firm Aerocom. The
company has installed over 1000 hospital systems in around 80 countries for transporting samples and
medicines.

42.

These installations are not merely pipes connecting point A to point B. They are highly complex
networks with a multitude of junctions and computer-controlled switches that serve to deliver the
dispatched material to the appropriate destination. Some are vast: Stanford Hospital in California, for
example, has 124 stations.
43.

Pneumatic delivery has not revolutionized the world in the way its early advocates hoped it would.
However, it has found a niche because not everything can be reduced to is and Os. It has also evolved
from steampunk brass systems to. computerized ones and will continue to adapt as new technologies are
developed.

A The researcher argues that historical pneumatic efforts and the surrounding discussion echo facets of
society today, particularly our use of information technology. They foreshadowed the physical structure
of computer networks inside buildings. And as well as inspiring the same kind of hyperbole as the
Internet does, tubes also prompted similar moral issues. In E.M. Forster's 1909 sci-fi story The Machine
Stops, for instance, the `pneumatic post' helps create a dark future in which nobody converses face to
face.

B This particular contraption employs a technology that was supposed to have faded away decades ago -
pneumatic tubes. Hidden in the walls is a vast computer-controlled network of pipes propelling capsules
via air pressure and vacuum. Installed in the early 2000s, it is present in one of many buildings
worldwide that boasts a high-tech pneumatic network. Some of them have hundreds of stations fed by
several kilometres of tubes and junctions.

C However, while the electronic age delivered many of the benefits foreseen by early tube enthusiasts,
there are some that have not been realised. Wires cannot transport physical goods, for example. You can
order practically anything online and have it delivered to your door, but until the 3D-printing revolution
actually happens, it must still be transported by road. Could tubes prove more efficient?

D The London basement houses one of those contemporary networks. There, tubes deliver blood and
tissue for testing to the pathology lab from about 50 stations on various wards. Sending capsules at 20 to
30 kilometres per hour through an air-chute system is handy in a large hospital with dozens of patients
waiting for urgent treatment or diagnosis at any one time.

E If the demand for pneumatic delivery systems increases, there is a chance that they will become as
indispensible as digital technology. They may even be used to distribute food and medicine to those who
cannot venture out on their own. Although this would require huge investment, it would create a more
caring society.

F In fiction, pneumatic technology is often associated with a creaking bureaucratic dystopia, such as in
George Orwell's 1984, or in the satirical film Brazil. From the late 1900s, pneumatic tubes carried mail
across the cities of the US and Europe. They also carried cash, stock market messages and other objects
inside buildings. Tubes were the social network of their era. In 1890, pneumatic pipes beneath Milan,
Italy, allowed composer Giuseppe Verdi and his collaborator, Arrigo Boito, to shuttle messages
concerning the opera they were working on.
G The basic mechanics, though, are simple: fans blow air to push capsules one way, and suck to pull
them in the opposite direction. Air built up at the end of each tube provides a cushioning brake. The
modern twist comes with computer-controlled routing and motorized junctions that allow multiple
capsules to be transported at once. And each capsule has a radio tracking tag.

H Pneumatic delivery of more limited proportions, though, has been embraced by many modern
organisations. In fact, in some places, it has never gone away. Banks and supermarkets use tubes to move
money from cashiers to the back office as cash collected by roving clerks has the potential to be lost or
stolen.

37. B
“In a windowless room in a London basement, there's a device on the wall that makes things
disappear.” connects with “This particular contraption employs a technology that was supposed to
have faded away decades ago - pneumatic tubes.”

38. F

“In 1890, pneumatic pipes beneath Milan, Italy, allowed composer Giuseppe Verdi and his collaborator,
Arrigo Boito, to shuttle messages concerning the opera they were working on.” connects with “By the
turn of the 20th century, entrepreneurs - and even the American postmaster general - were predicting a
'pneumatic age', promising delivery of everything from household goods to hot food.

39. A

“'We had this utopian discourse about the pneumatic subway; the crazy notion that you'd be able to travel
under the Atlantic,' says Holly Kruse of Rogers State University in Oklahoma, who has studied the
social impact of pneumatic tubes.” connects with “The researcher argues that historical pneumatic
efforts and the surrounding discussion echo facets of society today, particularly our use of information
technology.”

40. C

“You can order practically anything online and have it delivered to your door, but until the 3D-printing
revolution actually happens, it must still be transported by road. Could tubes prove more
efficient?” connects with “In 2008, a UK-based organization called Foodtubes looked into the idea of
distributing food to supermarkets via networks of one-metre-wide underground tubes. Pneumatic
transport was one of the methods explored.”

41. H

“Banks and supermarkets use tubes to move money from cashiers to the back office as cash
collected by roving clerks has the potential to be lost or stolen.” connects with “Yet the real booming
market for modern pneumatics is in hospitals.”

42. D

“The company has installed over 1000 hospital systems in around 80 countries for transporting samples
and medicines.” connects with “The London basement houses one of those contemporary networks.”

43. G

“Some are vast: Stanford Hospital in California, for example, has 124 stations.” connects with “The
basic mechanics, though, are simple: fans blow air to push capsules one way, and suck to pull them in
the opposite direction.”
Exercise 26.

You are going to read an extract from an article. Seven paragraphs have been removed from the
extract. Choose from the paragraphs A-H the one that fits each gap (37-43). There is one extra
paragraph which you do not need to use.

Small shot, big impact

Some vaccines appear to provide extra benefits. Michael Brooke looks at them from a new perspective.
Have a look at your left shoulder: if you are past your mid-twenties it almost certainly bears a circular
scar. Do you remember how it got there? You queued up in the school hall, perhaps, or outside the nurse's
office, watching your friends rubbing their arms as they walked away, relieved at having survived their
jab.

37.

There is growing evidence that vaccines have a wider-ranging influence on the immune system than we
thought. In Africa, for instance, studies have shown that the measles vaccine cuts deaths from all other
infections combined by a third, mainly by protecting against pneumonia, sepsis and diarrhea.
38.

The World Health Organisation, which is the main provider of vaccines in developing countries, has
asked a group of vaccine experts to get to the bottom of it. 'This could have huge implications for
healthcare,' says Christine Benn, a senior researcher at the Statens Serum Institute in Denmark and a
member of the WHO committee. 'Vaccines have been a fantastic success, but we can probably do much
better by taking non-specific effects into account. An examination of these issues is long overdue.'

39.

In the 1940s and 50s, trials in the US and UK suggested that BCG-vaccinated children had a 25 per cent
lower death rate from diseases other than TB. But nobody took much notice until the late 1970s, when a
Danish anthropologist called Peter Aaby began working in the West African state of Guinea-Bissau. In
1979, he witnessed a severe measles outbreak that killed 1 in 4 infants affected. Aaby arranged for
measles vaccinations to be introduced, but was surprised to see that even after the epidemic abated,
immunised children were more likely to survive childhood.

40.

According to the old view of vaccines, they work by priming what is known as our adaptive immune
system. This consists of various defence cells circulating in the blood which make antibodies and other
molecules that latch on to specific foreign proteins on bacteria, viruses or other germs.

41.

But that may not be the whole story. Another, evolutionary older branch of our defences, known as the
innate immune system, might also be playing a role. These cells are programmed to react to anything
unfamiliar or untoward, such as the chemicals released when tissues are damaged, attacking any
molecules or microorganisms that might pose a threat. Last year, surprising evidence emerged that BCG
stimulates the innate immune system as well as the adaptive one.

42.

The discovery may be only one part of the explanation for BCG's mysterious powers, though. Another
part could be related to recent findings concerning the ability of memory cells to target unrelated
microbes if there is sufficient cross-reactivity with a germ we have previously vanquished.

43.

Whatever the explanation is, we might be able to maximise the benefits, either by designing new
vaccines, or by augmenting the effects of existing ones. But the WHO committee has another line of
enquiry. There are suggestions that one vaccine could have harmful non-specific effects. The vaccine
under suspicion is DTP, which prevents diphtheria, tetanus and pertussis, otherwise known as whooping
cough.

A It is this lock and key mechanism that is responsible for our immune memory. On our first encounter
with the measles virus, say, the immune cells that make potent antibodies to it reproduce, giving rise to
successive generations of daughter cells that make progressively more powerful antibodies. The end
product is highly proficient measles-killing machines that linger in our bodies for years. That's why, if we
re-encounter the virus, it is defeated so quickly that we don't even notice.

B The latest thinking is that allergies are caused by an imbalance in type 1 and 2 helper T-cells, with
type 2 becoming too dominant. Allergies may be on the rise in the West because we no longer meet
enough germs in childhood to strengthen the type 1 arm, according to the 'hygiene hypothesis'. If BCG
does push the balance back to type 1, that could be why it reduces allergies.

C Even in the West, where it is far less common for children to die from infectious illnesses, there are
still surprising benefits: some vaccines seem to reduce our susceptibility to eczema and asthma. Exactly
what causes these 'non-specific effects', as they are termed, is a mystery. But some scientists are arguing
that, despite the uncertainties, it is time to start harnessing them more effectively.

D The Bacille Calmette-Guerin vaccination was given to provide protection from tuberculosis. What we
are only just realising is that, in common with several other vaccines, it may have done far more than
that.

E But the theory that probably has the most compelling evidence behind it concerns two competing arms
of the adaptive immune system, known as type 1 and type 2 helper T-cells. Broadly speaking, type 1 cells
promote immune reactions against bacteria and viruses, while type 2 cells are geared towards fighting off
parasitic worms in the gut. Both the BCG and the measles vaccine seem to tip the balance to type 1,
according to studies of the antibodies released into the bloodstream after vaccination.

F What could the explanation be? Several lines of evidence suggest that our immune systems can be
affected by many factors, including past encounters with microbes. Those microbes can be in the
environment or a vaccine syringe. 'If infections can alter the immunological milieu, it is not a major leap
forward to suggest that vaccines might also do so,' said Andrew Pollard, head of the Oxford Vaccine
Centre at Oxford University, in an editorial about the Dane's work.

G In people who received a shot, certain kinds of innate immune cells responded more strongly to
bacterial and fungal pathogens completely unrelated to the TB bug. This is the first indication that the
innate immune system reacts to vaccines, and the researchers suggested it could explain some of the
general immune-boosting effects of BCG. 'It's quite preliminary data, but it's very important,' says Nigel
Curtis, head of infectious diseases at the Royal Children's Hospital in Melbourne, Australia.

H Considering vaccines have been used since the 1800s and are the cornerstone of our public health
system, it may seem hard to believe that such profound effects could have gone ignored all this time. In
fact, an early 20th century Swedish physician called Carl Naslund did notice something was up after the
BCG vaccine was introduced in his country. Vaccinated children had a much higher chance of reaching
their first birthday even though TB normally kills older children.

37 D

“What we are only just realising is that, in common with several other vaccines, it may have done far
more than that.” connects with “There is growing evidence that vaccines have a wider-ranging
influence on the immune system than we thought.”

38 C

“In Africa, for instance, studies have shown that the measles vaccine cuts deaths from all other infections
combined by a third, mainly by protecting against pneumonia, sepsis and diarrhea.” connects with “ Even
in the West, where it is far less common for children to die from infectious illnesses, there are still
surprising benefits: some vaccines seem to reduce our susceptibility to eczema and asthma.”

39 H
'Vaccines have been a fantastic success, but we can probably do much better by taking non-specific
effects into account. An examination of these issues is long overdue.' connects with “Considering
vaccines have been used since the 1800s and are the cornerstone of our public health system, it may
seem hard to believe that such profound effects could have gone ignored all this time.”

40 F

“What could the explanation be? Several lines of evidence suggest that our immune systems can be
affected by many factors, including past encounters with microbes. Those microbes can be in the
environment or a vaccine syringe.” connects with “According to the old view of vaccines, they work by
priming what is known as our adaptive immune system.”

41 A

“This consists of various defence cells circulating in the blood which make antibodies and other
molecules that latch on to specific foreign proteins on bacteria, viruses or other germs.” connects
with “It is this lock and key mechanism that is responsible for our immune memory.”

42 G

“Another, evolutionary older branch of our defences, known as the innate immune system, might also
be playing a role.” connnects with “In people who received a shot, certain kinds of innate immune cells
responded more strongly to bacterial and fungal pathogens completely unrelated to the TB bug.”

43 E

“The discovery may be only one part of the explanation for BCG's mysterious powers, though.
Another part could be related to...” connects with “But the theory that probably has the most
compelling evidence behind it concerns two competing arms of the adaptive immune system, known as
type 1 and type 2 helper T-cells.”
Exercise 27.

You are going to read an article. Seven paragraphs have been removed. Choose from the
paragraphs A-H the one that fits each gap (37-43). There is one extra paragraph which you do not
need to use.

The importance of sleep

A recent study claims to have found a new explanation for the puzzle that is one of our most essential
biological functions: sleep. Apparently, while we have our forty winks, a 'waste management' system
pumps cerebral fluid around the brain and flushes out molecular detritus, a natural by-product of neural
activity that collects during waking hours. If allowed to pile up, these waste toxins are responsible for a
number of neurological disorders, including Alzheimer's.

37.

As a biological state, sleep is not restricted to humans. It is essential for every living creature and tailored
to suit their individual lifestyles as a species — from up to 20 hours a day for brown bats hanging upside
down to a 30-minute daily shut-eye for giraffes standing up. Sleep does not, however, appear to make
sense from a survival point of view, as, unable to operate our guards and with significantly reduced
response to external stimuli, we are vulnerable to predators. Yet, it is hardly a choice for any of us.

38.

This is a pattern that nature doesn't let us break. Empirically. we have learnt more about the effects that
are triggered by a lack of sleep than the benefits we derive from it. Understand it or not, sleep is so vitally
important that any deviation from what is within the perceived norms can impair both our mental and
physical health.

39.
Experiments on rats have shown that total sleep deprivation for about two weeks or more inevitably led to
death. In known cases where humans were prevented from sleeping, either due to the existence of a
syndrome or other imposed reasons, the body gradually degenerated to the point of multiple organ failure.

40.

The energy conservation theory: Sleep lowers our energy needs by as much as 10 per cent as compared to
when we are restful and awake because our body reduces both its temperature and its caloric
consumption. This might have been crucial for the survival of our ancestors when food was not easily
available as it gave them the advantage of being more efficient hunters.

41.

REM (rapid eye movement), for example, is a deep state of sleep which involves intense brain activity. It
allows us to dream and it accounts for about one fifth of our total sleep time. REM sleep plays an
important role in restoring mental functions. NREM (non-rapid eye movement) sleep accounts for the
remaining four fifths and is conducive to restoring physiological functions.

42.

Mental activity during sleep has also been linked to brain plasticity, which is defined as the brain's ability
to modify its own structure and function to reflect changes in our body or the external environment.
There is evidence that sleep plays a critical role in brain development in infants and young children.

43.

Although we have been unable to provide concrete proof for the above theories, it is essential that we
recognise the advances that have been made towards comprehending why we sleep and the ways in
which research has helped us further our understanding of the mechanics of it. The bottom line is that it
might be too simplistic to assume there is a single answer to such a complex process

A The study is just another attempt to gain some insight into what makes us humans tick. Although we
have a relatively satisfactory understanding of other life-sustaining activities, such as eating (to fuel our
body with essential nutrients so that it can grow and repair itself) and drinking water (to keep our 70%
topped up), we are still searching for a definitive answer as to why we need to sleep.

B Up to now many theories have been put forward, including this recent one, but science has yet to come
up with a definitive explanation of why we sleep. Through research and experimentation we have gained
valuable insight into the mechanisms that go to work in our body while we sleep. We now know that
sleep is related to our psychology, physiology, metabolism and digestion. Let's have a look at a few of
these theories.

C Finally, there's the theory that maintains that dreams, which only occur when we sleep, are our way of
coping with our emotions. Although dream research offers many theories of why we dream, we know
that dreams help us do some problem solving, and deal with traumatic experiences.

D Sleep is controlled and dictated by our internal clock, which, in turn, is regulated by a process called
Circadian rhythm, inherent in all living beings. It's a daily cycle of biological activity which tells us when
it is time to eat, rest or be active. It is set to respond to external stimuli such as the presence of light,
which wakes us up in the morning or the absence of it, which prompts us to go to bed at night.

E The restorative theory: Sleep gives us the opportunity to do some essential repair work and
'housekeeping'. It is the time when many of the major restorative functions like tissue repair, muscle
growth, protein synthesis and the release of growth hormones take place in our body. The same goes for
our brain. It is important to note that there are two different states of sleep during which we switch from
physical to mental maintenance.

F The scientist cautions that the simple brain of a mouse and the more complex brain of a human are two
different things, and that what is true for one is not necessarily true for the other. It is important at this
stage not to be either too optimistic or too dismissive of new indications but to continue research until we
have enough evidence to form an assumption about its relevance to the human brain.

G The information consolidation theory: During sleep, and particularly during the first hours when deep
sleep occurs, our brain has the chance to process and consolidate the information it received the previous
day, as well as prepare for the next day. Recently acquired information is either discarded as useless or
committed to our long-term memory. The theory is supported by research that indicates that sleep
deprivation affects our ability to recall and retain information.

H Chronic sleep deprivation, or, in other words, rot enough sleep, which is the most common complaint,
has an adverse effect on our cognitive process, compromises our memory and can even make us
depressed. It increases the risk of serious illnesses like cardiovascular disease, diabetes and some forms
of cancer or even disease-related mortality.
37 A

A recent study claims to have found a new explanation for the puzzle that is one of our most essential
biological functions: sleep..... The study is just another attempt to gain some insight into what makes us
humans tick.

38 D

Sleep is controlled and dictated by our internal clock, which, in turn, is regulated by a process called
Circadian rhythm, inherent in all living beings ... This is a pattern that nature doesn't let us break.

39 H

Chronic sleep deprivation, or, in other words, rot enough sleep, which is the most common complaint, has
an adverse effect on our cognitive process, compromises our memory and can even make us depressed...
Experiments on rats have shown that total sleep deprivation for about two weeks or more inevitably led to
death

40 B

Let's have a look at a few of these theories... The energy conservation theory

41 E

It is important to note that there are two different states of sleep during which we switch from physical
to mental maintenance... REM (rapid eye movement), for example, is a deep state of sleep which
involves intense brain activity. It allows us to dream and it accounts for about one fifth of our total sleep
time. REM sleep plays an important role in restoring mental functions. NREM (non-rapid eye
movement) sleep accounts for the remaining four fifths and is conducive to restoring physiological
functions.
42 G

The information consolidation theory

43 C

Finally, there's the theory that maintains that dreams, which only occur when we sleep, are our way of
coping with our emotions.

Exercise 28.

You are going to read an article about coral reefs. Seven parts have been removed from the extract.
Choose from the paragraphs A-H the one which fits each gap (37-43). There is one extra paragraph
which you do not need to use.

CORAL BLEACHING
Coral bleaching is hardly a new phenomenon, but it has hit the headlines of late, on account of the serious
effect it is having on one very famous stretch of coral in particular, the Great Barrier Reef, more on which
later. But what exactly is coral bleaching, how does it occur and how does it impact on the coral habitat?
In layman's terms, it is the loss of a particular type of algae from the coral ecosystem. That dirty phrase
global warming is what scientists attribute to the recent upsurge in the phenomenon, for bleaching is
directly linked to above-average water temperatures, an effect which global warming is thought to
induce.

37.

In one sense, you could think of coral as parasitic, for it lures the algae to live amongst it with the
promise of a steady supply of the nutrients essential for the process of photosynthesis to occur. It is the
algae, incidentally, that give coral reefs their unique colouration, so bleached coral is not necessarily dead
coral, just coral that is no longer able to sustain this relationship.

38.

The reason for this is simple: the algae play a key role in the relationship by providing the coral with
oxygen. They also help in the expulsion of waste. Apart from water temperature, other triggers that result
in bleaching are similarly attributable to human activities. For instance, other key stress factors include
the increased presence of freshwater (linked to global warming) or harmful chemicals (linked to
pollution). Different types of coral can withstand the shock of exposure to these triggers with different
rates of success. Large corals, for example, are better adapted to dealing with temperature changes in the
water. Contrariwise, fragile branching corals feel the effects of this trigger very badly indeed.

39.
There are natural threats to coral welfare, too, but these tend to be less detrimental. Infectious diseases
can and do attack algae living in coral tissue. Sadly, the likelihood of such attacks increases with water
temperature, which takes us back full circle again, though, to the human influence and global warming.

40.

This sense of trepidation is not without its merits, either, as studies show that the reef has reduced in size
by more than half since 1985. That said, not by any means all of the reduction is attributable to bleaching,
with intense cyclones and indeed predators such as starfish also playing a significant role.

41.

Regeneration and regrowth is, of course, very possible. Indeed, after the bleaching events of the summers
of 1998 and 2002, which were very significant. resulting in places in a mortality rate of more than 50%,
this is precisely what occurred. But conditions must be conducive to regeneration and they are becoming
less and less so as water temperatures continue to rise.

42.

Fishermen could suffer economically from very low yields and local populations reliant of seafood for
their sustenance could be hit particularly badly, too. There could even be localised famine. Another way
fishermen would be impacted is in the sense that they would be set a greater challenge in many cases just
to catch fish. You see, coral reefs make excellent and comparably easy fishing grounds. Without them,
fishermen would be forced to look elsewhere and the deep ocean is not a simple place to operate ...
However, despite all the doom and gloom and the damning ignominy, humanity should feel for its
inaction and apathy towards this serious issue, there is still cause for hope.

43.

Indeed, reefs have a surprising capacity for recovery in any case, and, so long as conditions become more
conducive again, algae will return and recolonise bleached stretches of reef, prompting growth and
regeneration. Nature is nothing if not resilient, after all. Nonetheless, this cause for hope should not allow
us to become complacent. In fact, we have exhibited far too much complacency in relation to this issue
already. Rather, we should start doing everything we can to make our oceans as conducive as possible to
sustaining the rich sources of sea life that they presently do in the long-term, and not simply leave things
to chance.

A Indeed, bleaching has been described as a kind of self-preservation mechanism, for, once the coral
cannot sustain its symbiosis with the algae, it must rid itself of them altogether to stave off total starvation
in the short term. However, long-term, this is not a viable solution as the coral itself can only prosper
with the algae living harmoniously within its tissues.
B As mentioned already, bleaching is not a new phenomenon. Indeed, going back to the case of the Great
Barrier Reef, such events are recorded as having occurred there more than once in each of the past three
decades; however, the 2016 bleaching event was particularly damaging and this gave scientists great
cause for concern.

C However, given that the ecosystem is clearly very fragile and vulnerable, as these statistics emphasize,
bleaching is unquestionably yet another and an unwanted complication, when corals are already battling
against stiff odds.

D Contrary to popular belief, though, bleaching in and of itself does not lead to the total decay of the
coral bed. Indeed, the corals continue to survive. However, their relationship with the algae is symbiotic,
with the algae providing an estimated ninety percent of the coral's energy. Therefore, with the algae gone,
the coral effectively begins to starve.

E Indeed, a recent study of coral in the Andaman Sea proved a source of much optimism. There, corals
were found to be attracting an unusual type of algae better suited to higher temperatures, and thus were
thriving in the warm waters of this part of the Indian Ocean. This suggests other reefs may, in time, also
be able to develop a higher tolerance towards increased water temperatures, meaning the decline of the
world's corals might not be as catastrophic as once feared.

F Locational factors also come into play. For instance, if the coral is located in a shady or clouded area, it
tends to have the capacity to withstand shocks with a higher degree of success. A fast current and a rich
supply of nutrients can also play to the advantage of corals battling such triggers, and aid their recovery
in the aftermath of a shock episode.

G But that cause for hope is fast disappearing with the algae which supply corals their lifeline. As more
become victims of starfish, the situation is growing alarmingly bleak. This has prompted some experts to
suggest that a mass culling of starfish may be both justified and necessary.

H The results of a permanent loss of significant stretches of our coral reefs are potentially much more far-
reaching than most people would imagine, because the coral ecosystem sustains a rich variety of sea life
and, without it, such creatures would also be in jeopardy. This could have repercussions all the way up
the food chain.

37 D

However, their relationship with the algae is symbiotic, with the algae providing an estimated ninety
percent of the coral's energy... In one sense, you could think of coral as parasitic, for it lures the algae
to live amongst it with the promise of a steady supply of the nutrients essential for the process of
photosynthesis to occur.

38 A

However, long-term, this is not a viable solution as the coral itself can only prosper with the algae
living harmoniously within its tissues... The reason for this is simple: the algae play a key role in the
relationship by providing the coral with oxygen. They also help in the expulsion of waste.

39 F

Apart from water temperature, other triggers that result in bleaching are similarly attributable to human
activities. For instance, other key stress factors include the increased presence of freshwater (linked to
global warming) or harmful chemicals (linked to pollution). Different types of coral can withstand the
shock of exposure to these triggers with different rates of success... Locational factors also come into
play

40 B

the 2016 bleaching event was particularly damaging and this gave scientists great cause for concern...
this sense of trepidation is not without its merits

41 C

studies show that the reef has reduced in size by more than half since 1985... However, given that the
ecosystem is clearly very fragile and vulnerable, as these statistics emphasize

42 H

because the coral ecosystem sustains a rich variety of sea life and, without it, such creatures would also
be in jeopardy. This could have repercussions all the way up the food chain... Fishermen could suffer
economically from very low yields and local populations reliant of seafood for their sustenance
could be hit particularly badly, too.

43 E

meaning the decline of the world's corals might not be as catastrophic as once feared... Indeed, reefs
have a surprising capacity for recovery in any case, and, so long as conditions become more
conducive again, algae will return and recolonise bleached stretches of reef, prompting growth and
regeneration
Exercise 29.

You are going to read an article about views on life. Seven parts have been removed from the
extract. Choose from the paragraphs A-H the one which fits each gap (37-43). There is one extra
paragraph which you do not need to use.

LIVE FOR TODAY

When an Australian nurse, called Bronnie Ware, most of whose career has been dedicated to caring for
elderly people on their deathbeds, decided to start keeping a record of her patients' dying thoughts, little
could she have known the level of interest her blog, Inspiration and Chai, would generate. However, it
has proven remarkably popular with readers and has developed quite the following. Pointedly, it was this
that prompted her to do the once unthinkable and consider writing a book to share her, or her patients' to
be more precise, wisdom with the wider world, which she did by penning the aptly named The Top Five
Regrets of the Dying. So what would people do differently if they could live their lives over again? Well,
apparently, the most common lamentation is when people feel that they haven't stayed true to themselves
and followed their dreams. Nearly all Ware's patients wished that they had paid less heed in life to the
expectations and perceptions of others and, instead, had had the courage to live exactly how they
themselves had wished.

37.

Another common regret amongst males in particular was the extent of time and effort they had expended
on work and work-related issues throughout their lives. Although women also echoed this sentiment to an
extent, the likely reason why fewer did is simply down to the fact that in past generations women were
less inclined to be breadwinners. In other words, they were employed at home doing the household duties
rather than at the coalface, as it were.

38.

What they missed most was not playing a bigger part in their children's lives. However, they also
lamented the fact they had somewhat neglected their partners, too, and not afforded them nearly enough
attention.

39.
The next most common regret is hardly a revelation either. However, it is certainly one I think we can all
readily relate to: not expressing your true feelings often enough. As the saying goes, say it before its too
late. This is certainly sage advice can vouch for, as I personally regretted not telling my parents how
much I loved and appreciated them before the chance was gone.

40.

Though it was not only positive feelings the patients wished they had been more expressive of. Basically,
they just wished they had told the truth more often. It seems that this secrecy and lack of honesty causes
more relationship trouble than its worth in the long run, even if it placates people and makes life easier
from a very short-term point of view.

41.

Another regret related to close loved ones was the failure to properly keep in touch with them. Patients
deeply regretted letting their old friends fall out of the loop and not making a greater effort to stay in
contact. Friendships, after all, need constant attention and if you don't devote the appropriate time and
effort to grooming them, you inevitably lose touch.

42.

That, perhaps, explains the next regret Ware highlights, which is that people hadn't allowed themselves to
be happier in life. We are, it seems, ruled by fear; fear of change from the familiar and routines, and
much else besides, and this handicaps our capacity to be happy and grasp our chances when they arrive.
We end up stressing too much and not enjoying life or allowing ourselves to partake in the excitement of
living. Unsurprisingly, therefore, patients thought they ought to have allowed themselves to let their hair
down and enjoy life more often: to simply laugh and be silly and make light of their and the world's
problems.

43.

So perhaps it was a little premature of me earlier to imply that little in Ware's book came as a revelation,
though this was not, in any case, intended as criticism. It certainly gave me food for thought, and the
sense I came away with most is how important the urgency of living in the now is, with sincerity and an
appetite for fun, for tomorrow it just might be too late. And, then, what was the point of it all anyway?

A What I find most curious about this, of course, is that, as children, this is precisely what we do. We
have fun and we don't take things too seriously. Somewhere along the way, as adults, we, therefore, must
forget how to do this. Then, ironically, we go full circle again in old age and realise just how important it
is, though not before it's, sadly, too late to act on this compulsion.

B This, though, begs the question: should we not be asking ourselves is all the effort worth it or for
nought? After all, these traditional breadwinners and sloggers that were the men she interviewed, people
who toiled day-in-day-out throughout their working lives, although having done so with the best of
intentions — wanting to support their families — recognised that what they sacrificed was simply
unwarranted; the end did not justify the means.

C Pointedly, perhaps, this lack of communicative openness and freedom not only resulted in deep regrets,
but, in many cases, Ware notes, also contributed to more serious health-related problems. People literally
made themselves sick from bitterness and pent-up frustration; from bottling everything up rather than
venting their concerns and vexations.

D At this point, I should add that what struck me most about reading the revelations in Ware's book was
how little of the content came as any sort of revelation whatsoever. After all, isn't it oh so obvious that we
ought to be devoting more time to our personal lives and our personal satisfaction rather than simply
spending hour upon hour grinding out a living every day? Perhaps putting in the overtime will move us
slightly ahead and enable us to extract a little more success from our careers; this is not really up for
debate. But at what cost?

E Indeed, to me, this is the most important thing to take away from the book; that sense of urgency; the
necessity of telling people you care about exactly how you feel. I would almost suggest that you cease
reading on and do so immediately if you have left such sentiments for someone you know unspoken for
too long.

F What I found particularly interesting, though, and contrary to my expectations was that rather than look
back on life through rose-tinted glasses, the elderly seem to reflect very honestly on things, focusing on
missed opportunities and what they should have done differently.

G However, it is hard to ignore such problems and one often feels the weight of the world on one's
shoulders. The bigger question, therefore, is how to lift that weight and find true happiness.

H Sadly, it seems, the realisation that life should be guided by personal motives rather than exterior
influences comes upon us far too late, though, by which time we lack the health and freedom to realise
our neglected personal ambitions. Father Time has already caught up with us then.

37. H

Well, apparently, the most common lamentation is when people feel that they haven't stayed true to
themselves and followed their dreams. Nearly all Ware's patients wished that they had paid less heed
in life to the expectations and perceptions of others and, instead, had had the courage to live exactly
how they themselves had wished... Sadly, it seems, the realisation that life should be guided by
personal motives rather than exterior influences comes upon us far too late.

38. B

Another common regret amongst males in particular was the extent of time and effort they had
expended on work and work-related issues throughout their lives... This, though, begs the question:
should we not be asking ourselves is all the effort worth it or for nought? After all, these traditional
breadwinners and sloggers that were the men she interviewed, people who toiled day-in day-out
throughout their working lives, although having done so with the best of intentions — wanting to
support their families — recognised that what they sacrificed was simply unwarranted; the end did not
justify the means.
39. D

At this point, I should add that what struck me most about reading the revelations in Ware's book was
how little of the content came as any sort of revelation whatsoever... The next most common regret is
hardly a revelation either.

40. E

However, it is certainly one I think we can all readily relate to: not expressing your true feelings often
enough. As the saying goes, say it before its too late... Indeed, to me, this is the most important thing to
take away from the book; that sense of urgency; the necessity of telling people you care about exactly
how you feel.

41. C

It seems that this secrecy and lack of honesty causes more relationship trouble than its worth in the long
run... Pointedly, perhaps, this lack of communicative openness and freedom not only resulted in deep
regrets, but, in many cases, Ware notes, also contributed to more serious health-related problems.

42. F

What I found particularly interesting, though, and contrary to my expectations was that rather than look
back on life through rose-tinted glasses, the elderly seem to reflect very honestly on things, focusing on
missed opportunities and what they should have done differently... That, perhaps, explains the next regret
Ware highlights, which is that people hadn't allowed themselves to be happier in life.

43. A

Unsurprisingly, therefore, patients thought they ought to have allowed themselves to let their hair down
and enjoy life more often: to simply laugh and be silly and make light of their and the world's
problems... What I find most curious about this, of course, is that, as children, this is precisely what we
do. We have fun and we don't take things too seriously.
Exercise 30.

You are going to read an extract from an article. Seven paragraphs have been removed from the
extract. Choose from the paragraphs A - H the one which fits each gap (38 - 44). There is one extra
paragraph which you do not need to use.

EXERCISE AND THOSE WITH MOBILITY PROBLEMS

We live in an exercise-crazy society. Wherever you look, there are people trying to shape up and slim
down. Gyms are cropping up all over the place. On the surface, they all look the same and may offer the
same services. However, when you peel back the veneer, there are differences people should be aware of.

38.

'The biggest problem is the lack of knowledge and education," says one fitness expert. "There are very
few gyms that have staff trained to deal with those with special needs. They'll sign you up but don't know
how to help you. A further problem is the unsuitability of the building itself."

39.

The Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) categorises gyms and fitness centres under the umbrella of
places of public accommodation. They must follow the same rules and guidelines as those which apply to
hotels and restaurants. For example, their shower facilities must be wheelchair accessible.

40.

Some owners of gyms try to find ways to alleviate this problem. "A number of our facilities are on two
levels, but for whatever equipment we have on one level, there's usually a complement on the other level
as well," says one owner. "No one has to go to the second level to use a piece of equipment."

41.
"The trouble is in the definition of the phrase," says the legal advisor of an organisation that represents
400 health clubs worldwide. "We don't have an easy checklist to determine compliance. It's hard to say
what's reasonable for any particular facility."

42.

"The suggestion came from our participants,!" says the manager of a new fitness centre in New York
City. "They wanted to find a place to work out and exercise. They'd been trying to make use of city
facilities but had found them inaccessible. We took the idea to some people who we thought might be
interested in funding the project."

43.

One such manufacturer says he's had a lot of difficulty trying to sell his equipment to gyms and fitness
centres across the country. "There's a lot of red tape involved in selling to gyms. And they're really not
interested in having this kind of equipment. They'd rather have their staff members help disabled clients.
They disregard the issue because they don't have many members or potential members with disabilities."

44.

"What needs to be done is to educate the public and those who are working in gyms," says the manager of
a gym in Venice, California. "We need to better understand the needs of this group. They don't have to
stay away from clubs; they don't have to stand out."

A Many gyms follow these rules, but some don't. Like other establishments, they either claim poverty or
say they are reasonably accessible. However, according to the law, buildings with only two floors don't
need a lift. Unfortunately, many gyms are housed in two-storey buildings.

B No two gyms are exactly alike. Each has its own strengths and weaknesses. Of all the things a
prospective consumer should look at, the principal item is the staff. Do the trainers and assistants have
experience working with disabled individuals? The answer is commonly "no".
C A lot of times, navigating a chair in a fitness centre or gym is difficult. We try to place as much
equipment to service as many clients as possible so no one has to wait. Unfortunately, that's a• double-
edged sword. It means that navigating around the club is often difficult.

D Standard gyms aside, people with disabilities sometimes prefer to exercise in a place where they know
the staff is knowledgeable of their needs. This is why a few speciality gyms are opening up around the
country.

E When you visit a gym, the first thing you see is the layout. The first impression answers many
questions that should be asked by prospective consumers with disabilities. Is the gym multi-level? Is
there a lift? Is the locker room accessible?

F Finding appropriate equipment for the centre, however, is not an easy task. Access is limited due to
awkward equipment design, making it difficult for people with mobility impairments to transfer onto
pieces of equipment that might otherwise provide them with a good workout. Nevertheless, there are
people who do build equipment with disabled users specifically in mind.

G Fortunately, times are changing and people with disabilities are working out in the gym. Markets for
special populations like the disabled are growing. Younger people with disabilities aren't willing to just
sit at home and the newer club administrators are beginning to understand their needs. Out of necessity,
clubs are becoming more aware of how to deal with special populations like the disabled.

H It is difficult to hold small, privately owned gyms to any kind of standard in terms of physical layout.
Chain gyms are somewhat easier to regulate. Most gyms are housed in already existing buildings. They
stick to the letter of the law and the rather flimsy definition of "reasonable accommodation".

38 B

Of all the things a prospective consumer should look at, the principal item is the staff. Do the trainers
and assistants have experience working with disabled individuals? The answer is commonly "no"...
'The biggest problem is the lack of knowledge and education," says one fitness expert. "There are very
few gyms that have staff trained to deal with those with special need

39 E

A further problem is the unsuitability of the building itself... When you visit a gym, the first thing you
see is the layout. The first impression answers many questions that should be asked by prospective
consumers with disabilities. Is the gym multi-level? Is there a lift? Is the locker room accessible?

40 A

They must follow the same rules and guidelines as those which apply to hotels and restaurants... Many
gyms follow these rules, but some don't.
41 H

They stick to the letter of the law and the rather flimsy definition of "reasonable
accommodation"..."The trouble is in the definition of the phrase," says the legal advisor of an
organisation that represents 400 health clubs worldwide.

42 D

people with disabilities sometimes prefer to exercise in a place where they know the staff is
knowledgeable of their needs... "The suggestion came from our participants,!

43 F

Nevertheless, there are people who do build equipment with disabled users specifically in mind... One
such manufacturer says he's had a lot of difficulty trying to sell his equipment to gyms and fitness
centres across the country.

44 G

They disregard the issue because they don't have many members or potential members with
disabilities... Fortunately, times are changing and people with disabilities are working out in the gym