CEE380 Condensed Lectures PDF

Units of Measurement
Conversion factors-U.S. customary to SI
To convert from To Multiply by

Length
In m 0.025400
ft m 0.304800
Area
in2 mm2 645.160000
ft2 m2 0.092903
Volume
in3 m3 16.387064x10-6
ft3 m3 28.316847x10-3
quart (U.S. liquid) liter (1000 cm3) 0.946353
gallon (U.S. liquid) m3 3.785412x10-3
Mass & Weight Free conversion software from
gram dyne 980.665000 http://www.joshmadison.com/software/convert/
kg (force or mass) N 9.806650
lb (mass) kg (mass) 0.453592
kips (1000 lbs) kN 4.448222
Stress
kg/m2 N/m2 (pascal) 9.806650
kg/cm2 kN/m2 (kPa) 98.066100
kip/ft2 (ksf) kN/m2 47.880260
lb/in2 (psi) kN/m2 6.894757
Density
lb/ft3 kg/m3 16.018460
kip/ft3 kN/m3 157.087477
g/cm3 lb/ft3 62.427900
g/cm3 kN/m3 9.806650
CEE 380, Introduction 21

What is Geotechnical Engineering?
• The engineering behavior of soil and rock
• Soil (and rock) response to “built” facilities
• Requires a thorough understanding of geology and
engineering principles
Soil & Rock Mechanics
Geotechnical
Engineering
Structural, Hydro, &
other Civil
Geology Engineering, planners,
owners, attorneys
Typical Projects/Applications
– Roadways and Highways (embankment design,
subgrade design, frost heave mitigation)
– Building Foundations (spread footings, piles, shafts)
– Support of Deep Excavations
– Tunnel Design and Support
– Ground Improvement
– Earthquake Engineering
– Geo-Environmental Engineering (hazardous waste,
landfills, groundwater & site remediation)

Why Geotechnical Engineering?
1995 La Conchita Landslide, CA
Leaning Tower of Pisa

Historical Geotechnical Engineering (roads)
Roman road building on Marshland

Munfakh, 2004 Geotechnical Innovation in Transportation Projects https://www.pinterest.com/pin/484911084859156827
Modern Geotechnical Engineering (roads)

Historical Geotechnical Engineering
(Shafts)
Concept of Egyptian self sinking

caisson foundation (Kerisel 1985)
Munfakh, 2004 Geotechnical Innovation in Transportation Projects

Modern Geotechnical Engineering (Shafts)

(Compaction/Ground Improvement)
Munfakh, 2004 Geotechnical Innovation in Transportation Projects

Modern Geotechnical Engineering
(Compaction/Ground Improvement)

(Pile Driving)
Pile driving rig also used for soil

densification (Lorini 1596)
After Munfakh, 2004

(Piles)

(Retaining Structures)
After Munfakh, 2004

(Retaining Structures)

(Tunneling)
After Munfakh, 2004

(Tunneling)
After Munfakh, 2004

(Tunneling)

Slope Stability

Slope Stability

Foundation Engineering

Foundation Engineering
Foundation Failure in Shanghai
June 27, 2009

Geotechnical Earthquake Engineering
• Ground Shaking
• Liquefaction
• Landslides
• Retaining Walls Failures
• Lifeline Hazards
1964 Alaska Earthquake

www.rocky.edu/.../contentimage/landslide.jpg
www.geocities.com/HotSprings/Spa/4951/eq.html
crystalproductions.com/catalog/images/CP0853.jpg

Geotechnical Earthquake Engineering
Sichuan Earthquake China 2010

Geo-Environmental Engineering
msw.cecs.ucf.edu/ lesson4introduction.html
Earth Dams
Teton Dam – Idaho, June 5, 1976, Early PM
http://ponce.sdsu.edu/teton_dam_failure_photos.html
Failure of an RCC Dam, Brazil,
2004

Geo-Energy Applications
Geotech engineers are involved in energy extraction from the subsurface:
e.g. oil and gas recovery, enhanced geothermal systems
www.nationalgeographic.com
worldpress.com
and storing the waste from energy production in the subsurface:

CO2 storage, wastewater injection, and nuclear waste storage
SKB-
Sweden,
2014

Where does Soil Come from?
CEE 380, Lecture 2 6

VOLCANO LAVA - above the
surface
MAGMA
- below the
surface
Basalt
Pumice columns,
Isle of Mull
Magma
Obsidian
Basalt with
olivine crystals
Andesite
Basalt
Rock images: Sandatlas.org

ASH Tuff
Magma
Volcanic
bomb

Gabbro under the
Diorite microscope
Granite
MAGMA
Gabbro

Conglomerate
Shale
Limestone
Sandstone

Boulders
Pebbles
Magma
Sand
WEATHERING - the wearing away of rocks
EROSION - the movement of the broken pieces
away from the site of weathering
Eroded material is Sediment settles Grand Canyon,
transported by rivers, into layers Arizona
glaciers and wind
Layers in
sandstone
Sediment is compacted and cemented into
SEDIMENTARY ROCK
sandatlas.org
WHERE ARE SEDIMENTARY
ROCKS FORMED?
Coral
reefs
River delta
Desert sand dunes Coastal sand
dunes
Beach &
River beds & shallow sea
Glacial moraine banks
Image: Wikimedia/PLOS Biology
ENVIRONMENTS
Image: Wikimedia/Ian Coral reefs
Stannard
Microscopic planktonRiver delta

(coccolithophore)
Desert sand dunes
Coastal sand
dunes
Chalk
cliffs Beach &
shallow sea
River beds &
Bloom of plankton
Glacial moraine banks
Igneous
rock
(Granite)
Metamorphic
rock
(Gneiss)

Gneiss
Slate
Marble
Schist
Rock origins
Intact Rock: Portion of rock without visible breaks
1. Igneous rock e.g., granite – crystalline assemblage (minerals:
quartz, feldspar, plagioclase, pyroxene, mica, olivine)
2. Sedimentary rock e.g., sandstone – assemblage of detrital
particles from other rocks, in a matrix of materials such as clay
minerals, calcite, quartz with voids, pores and interconnected
pores (detrital: particles of rock derived from pre-existing rock
through weathering and erosion processes)
3. Metamorphic rock e.g., gneiss – formed under high stress and
temperature from igneous and sedimentary rocks
Examples of Intact Rock: a) granite, b) sandstone, c) gneiss

Geologic age –
simplified

What Is Soil?
• Aggregation of weakly cemented mineral grains that can be moved
with pick or shovel
• Multi-Phase Material: Mineral grain, air, water (ice, hydrocarbons..)
Other Phases: Quartz

Mineral Grains:
-Water -Calcium Carbonate
-Air -Quartz
-Contaminants -Feldspar
-Ice -Mica
-…..
Mica Calcium
Sites With Photos of Minerals:

http://www.cri.ensmp.fr:80/mineral/“see our minerals links”
http://www.theimage.com/mineral/minerals1.html
http://minerals.usgs.gov/

Soil vs Rock
Common Different
• Formed by minerals • Rock masses, in general, have discontinuities

(faults, joints, cracks, etc.)
• Granular materials
• Cohesion of rock >> soil cohesion
• Frictional materials • Rock compressibility << soil compressibility
• Affected by the environment (weathering, etc.) • Mechanical interaction with pore fluids
• May have layered structure • At low stresses and room temperatures, rocks
• Have non-zero porosity behave elastically, while soils behave elasto-
plastically
Shales are intermediate geomaterials: they

posses both soil and rock properties.

Phase Relations
http://www.eng.fsu.edu/~tawfiq/geotech/IndexProperties.htm

Phase Relations
http://www.eng.fsu.edu/~tawfiq/soilmech/lecture.html

Weight-Mass-Volume Relationships
V = volume
Weight (W) =
S = solids (mineral)
Mass (M) x Acceleration of gravity
a = air (gas)
v = voids (= water + air)

Volume Relationships
Vv Vol. of Voids V  Vw
Void ratio  e    a
Vs Vol. of Solids Vs
Vv
Porosity  n  ( 100%, expressed as a %)
Vt
VW
Saturation Ratio (degree of saturation)  Sr  (  100%)
VV

Weight-Mass-Volume Relations
Ww M
Water content  w   w (%)
Ws Ms
Unit Weight (weight/volume)

Wt W W
Total   t  ; Water   w  w ; Solids   s  s ;
Vt Vw Vs
Ws
Dry   d  ; Buoyant   b   t   w
Vt
Density (mass/volume)
Mt M M M
Total   t  ; Water   w  w ; Solids   s  s ; Dry   d  s ; Buoyant   b   t   w
Vt Vw Vs Vt
Unit Weight Density
Material (pcf) (kN/m3) Mg/m3 (or g/cm3)
Water (@60oF) 62.4 9.81 (~ 10.0) 1.0
Soil ~ 80 – 140 ~ 12.6 – 22.0 ~ 1.28 – 2.24
Concrete ~ 145 ~ 22.8 ~ 2.32
Steel ~ 490 ~ 77.0 ~ 7.85
Weight-Mass-Volume Relations
Specific Gravity
 s s
Solids (mineral grains) : G s  
 w w
 
Soil Mass : G m  t  t
 w w
 (at any T)  w (at any T)
Water : G w  w  1
 w (at 4 C)
o
 w (at 4 C)
o
Useful hints
• Gsw = Sre
• Gs ~ 2.6 to 2.8 for many soils (assume 2.7 for general purposes)

Weight-Volume Relations
Typical Values (from PHT)
Specific Gravity (GS) of Mineral Grains
Used as heavy backfill

Given: 50 cm3 clay
Example
Given: 50 cc Clay, Mt=85 g, Ms=60g, G=2.7
Mt = 85 g
Compute: , e, S, d
Ms = 60 g Water Content:
Gs = 2.7 M w M t  M s 85g  60g
= =   0.417=41.7%
Compute: w (water content) Ms Ms 60g
Void Ratio:
e (void ratio) e=
Vv
,
Sr (saturation ratio Vs
Ms 60g
d (dry density) Vs= 
Gs x o 2.7 x1g / cc
 22.2cc ,
V V  Vs 50cc  22.2cc
e= v  T   1.25 ,
Vs Vs 22.2cc
Saturation:
Vw Mw 25g
S= , Vw=   25cc ,
Vv Gw x o 1x1g / cc
Vw 25cc
S=   0.899  89.9% ,
Vv 50cc  22.2cc
Check
G=Se => S=G/e=2.7x0.417/1.25=0.90=90% Ok round off
Dry Density:
Ws 60 g lb / ft 3
  1.2 g / cc  1.2 g / ccx62 .427  74 .91lb / ft 3  75lb / ft 3
d= V 50 cc g / cc ,
lb / ft 3
 d  1.2 g / ccx 62 .427  74 .91lb / ft 3  75lb / ft 3
g / cc

Given: 50 cm3 clay
Example
Water contents
Mt = 85 g 𝑀𝑤 𝑀𝑡 −𝑀𝑠 85−60
Ms = 60 g 𝜔= = = = 0.417 = 41.7%
𝑀𝑠 𝑀𝑠 60
Gs = 2.7 Void Ratio
𝑉𝑣
Compute: w (water content) 𝑒=
𝑉𝑠
e (void ratio) 𝑀 60 𝑔
𝑉𝑠 = 𝐺 𝜌𝑠 =2.7 ×1𝑔/𝑐𝑚3 = 22.2 𝑐𝑚3
Sr (saturation ratio) 𝑠 𝑜
𝑉𝑣 𝑉𝑡 −𝑉𝑠 50 𝑐𝑚3 −22.2 𝑐𝑚3
d (dry density) 𝑒=𝑉 = 𝑉 = = 1.25
𝑠 𝑠 22.2 𝑐𝑚3
Saturation
𝑉𝑤
𝑆=
𝑉𝑣
𝑀𝑤 25 𝑔
𝑉𝑤 = 𝐺 =1.0 ×1𝑔/𝑐𝑚3 = 25 𝑐𝑚3
𝑤 𝜌𝑜
𝑉𝑤 25 𝑐𝑚3
𝑆= = 50 𝑐𝑚3−22.2 𝑐𝑚3 = 0.899 = 89.9%
𝑉𝑣
G𝜔
G𝜔 = 𝑆𝑒 → 𝑆 = 𝑒 =90% okay
Dry Density
𝑊𝑠 60 𝑔
𝜌𝑑 = =50𝑐𝑚3 = 1.2 𝑔/𝑐𝑚3
𝑉
𝑙𝑏
𝑔 𝑓𝑡3
= 1.2 3 × 62.4 𝑔 = 74.9 𝑙𝑏/𝑓𝑡 3
𝑐𝑚
𝑐𝑚3

Another Example:
Given: w = 41.7 %
Gs = 2.7
saturated sample
Saturation: saturated sample => S=100%
Compute: e (void ratio) Water Content:
Sr (saturation ratio) Ww
=
d (dry unit weight)
= 0.417 =>Ww=0.417Ws
Ws
Assume: Ws=1 lb =>Ww=0.416 lb
Void Ratio:
V
e= v ,
Vs
Ws 1lb
Vs=   5.9 x103 ft3 ,
Gs x o 2.7 x62.5lb / ft3
Ww 0.417lb
Vv=Vw=   6.7 x103 ft 3 ,
Gw x o 1x62.5lb / ft 3
Vv 6.7 x10 3 ft 3
e=   1.13
Vs 5.9 x10 3 ft 3
Check
G=Se => e=G/s=2.7x0.417/1=1.13 Ok…
Dry Density:
W 1lb
d= s   79 .3lb / ft 3 ,
V 5.9 x10 3 ft 3  6.7 x10 3 ft 3

Another Example:
Given: w = 41.7 % Saturation: saturated sample => S=100%
Gs = 2.7 Water Content:

saturated sample
Ww
= = 0.417 =>Ww=0.417Ws
Ws
Compute: e (void ratio)
Sr (saturation ratio) Assume: Ws=1 lb =>Ww=0.416 lb
d (dry unit weight) Void Ratio:

V
e= v
Vs
W 1lb
Vs= s   5.9 103 ft 3
Gs o 2.7  62.5lb / ft 3
W 0.417lb
Vv=Vw= w   6.7 103 ft 3
Gw o 1 62.5lb / ft 3
Vv 6.7 10 3 ft 3
e=   1.13
Vs 5.9 10 3 ft 3
Check
G=Se => e=G/s=2.7x0.417/1=1.13 OK
Dry Density:
W 1lb
d= s  3 3
 79 .3lb / ft 3
V 5.9 10 ft  6.7 10 ft
3 3

Relative Density
• For granular soils (sands and silts)
• Maximum Dry Density <=> Minimum Void Ratio
– Obtained by shaking a sand sample into a known volume (difficult to estimate)
• Minimum Dry Density <=> Maximum Void Ratio
– Obtained by pouring (raining) oven-dried soil through a sieve into mold with
known volume (fairly easy to estimate)
Relative Density (or Density Index):
emax  e     d min
Dr = Id = 100 %= d max  d 100%
emax  emin d  d max   d min
Relative Density Descriptive

Term
0-15 Very Loose
15-35 Loose
35-65 Medium
65-85 Dense
85-100 Very Dense

Clay Sample from Salt Lake
In-situ Saturated Conditions:
Total Volume Vt = 100.0 cm3
Total Weight Wt = 187.6 g
Specific Gravity of Soil Solids = Gs = 2.8
Pore Fluid Characteristics:
Salt Concentration in fluid = C = 0.2 g/cm3 of fluid
Specific Gravity of Salt ions = GNa = 2.5
After Oven Drying:
Total Dry Weight (of solids) = Ws = 137.0 g

Clay cont.
1) What is the density of the salt water?
2) In-situ void ratio?
Volume (cm3) Mass (g)
50.6 b) W 50.6 a)
Na
100 187.6
S 137
a) Mw = 187.6 – 137 = 50.6 g

b) Vw = Mw/w = 50.6g/1g/cm3 = 50.6 cm3

Clay cont.
50.6 b) W 50.6 a)
4.4 c) Na
100 187.6
S 137
c) MNa = VNaNa = VNa (GNaw)

And MNa = VfluidC = (Vw + VNa) C
So VNa (GNa w) = (Vw + VNa) C
Solve for VNa = (C Vw)/(GNa w-C)
VNa = (0.2g/cm3 x 50.6cm3)/(2.5*1g/cm3 – 0.2g/cm3)
VNa = 4.4 cm3

Clay cont.
50.6 b) W 50.6 a)
55 g)
4.4 c) Na 11 e)
100 187.6
45 d) S 126 f) 137
d) Vs = 100 – 50.6 - 4.4 = 45 cm3

e) MNa = NaVNa = (GNaw) VNa = 2.5x1 g/cm3x4.4 cm3 = 11 g
f) Ms = sVs = (Gsw) Vs = 2.8x1g/cm3x45 cm3 = 126 g
Check: Does 126 g+ 11g+ 50.6g = 187.6 g okay!
g) Vf = VNa + Vw = 4.4 cm3 + 50.6 cm3 = 55 cm3

Clay cont.
50.6 b) W 50.6 a)
55 g)
4.4 b) Na 11 e)
100 187.6
45 d) S 126 e) 137
1) Density of salt water = (MNa + Mw)/Vf =

(11g+50.6g)/55cm3 = 1.12 g/cm3
2) In-situ void ratio = e = Vv / Vs = 55/45 = 1.22

Phase Relations
Unit Weight (γ)
Water Content (ω)
Void ratio (e)
Porosity (n)
Degree of Saturation (S)
Relative Density (Dr)
Index Properties
Index Properties
Soil Grain Properties Soil Aggregate Properties
Size of Grains Mineralogy Density Moisture content Consistency Sensitivity
Coarse Grained Fine Grained

(Sand & Gravel) (Silts & Clays)
Sieve Analysis Hydrometer

Soil Grain Properties / Soil Texture
• Grain Sizes • Plasticity
• Grain Size Distribution • Cohesion
• Particle shape(s)
Index Properties


Soil Identification
Particle Size Geologic Origin
Coarse-Grained Soils Silts & Clays Residual Soils Transported Soils

< 0.075 mm
Boulders Cobbles Alluvium Aolian
> 300 mm 75-300 mm (water) (wind)
Gravel Sand Glacial Colluvial

4.75-75 mm 0.075 -4.75 mm (ice) (gravity)
Clay Mineral Length (D) Thickness (t) D/t

Kaolinite 10,000 1000 5-10
Illite 3,000 100 30-40
Montmorillonite 1,000-4,000 10 100-400

Grain Size Scale
• ASTM D422 & D653 Scale (adopted by ASCE)
Coarse-grained Fine-grained
Sieve analysis Hydrometer analysis

Sieve Analysis
Sieve analysis
1.) Pulverize soil with mortar and pedestal to break up clods of silt
and clay, then wash the material on a No. 200 sieve.
2.) Using the soil retained on a No. 200 sieve, allow the material to
air dry and then weigh the material.
3.) Place a stack of sieves on shake table with the coarsest on top.
Place the material in the coarsest sieve and shake.
4.) Make the following computations for a given particle size,
% finer = 100 - % retained
% retained = (sum of weight retained/total weight of sample)
5.) Plot on grain size distribution curve, % finer by weight
Uniform soils are represented by nearly vertical curves. "S" shaped
curves which extend over several log cycles are well-graded (contain
good representation of sands and gravels)

Hydrometer Test
A hydrometer test is performed as follows.
• The soil is air-dried and then pulverized.

• The dry soil is weighed and mixed in a beaker
of water containing a dispersion fluid. (In
suspension, the electrostatic forces of attraction
between adjacent particles are often greater than
the gravitational forces. The dispersion fluid
helps to prevent development of clay flocs.)
• After tempering, the fluid is poured into a glass
cylinder and mixed.
• The change in density of the fluid is measured
with time using a hydrometer.
• Based on the change in density of the fluid with
time, an estimate of the particle size distribution
can be obtained.

Sample
Sieve
Analysis

Grain Size Distribution
Definitions:
Effective grain size: D10 -10% of the sample passing by weight
𝐷60
Coefficient of uniformity: 𝐶𝑢 =
𝐷10
𝐷30 2
Coefficient of curvature: 𝐶𝑐 =
𝐷10 𝐷60
It is used in soil classification of coarse grained material

Gradation Curves
Approximately one size, Cu < 4
An assortment of particle
Sizes, Cu > 4 and Cc between 1 and 3
Absence of certain
particle sizes, Cc > 3

Particle/Grain Shape
Coarse-grained particles

Kaolinite 10,000 1000 5-10 Lengths in Angstroms (Å)
Illite 3,000 100 30-40 1 Å = 10-10 m
Montmorillonite 1,000-4,000 10 100-400 10000 Å = 1 m
5 m
7.5 m Montmorillinite
17 m
Kaolinite Illite (Holtz and Kovacs, 1981)
Trovey, 1971 ( from Mitchell, 1993) Trovey, 1971 ( from Mitchell, 1993)

Specific Surface – Definition
Specific surface = surface / volume
Specific surface = surface / mass Preferred
Surface related force Surface related forces: van der
Gravitational force Waals forces, capillary forces, etc.
Example:
1 11 cm cube ,  = 2.65g / cm 3
6 1 cm 2 −4
Ss = = 2 . 3  10  m 2
/g
1 cm  2.65 g / cm
3 3 Ss is inversely
proportional to
1 11m cube ,  = 2.65g / cm 3
the particle size
6 1m 2
Ss = = 2 .3  m 2
/g
1m  2.65 g / cm
3 3

Specific Surface
Scaled
Clay Mineral Length (D) Thickness (t) D/t Particle Size Specific Surface
Kaolinite 10,000 Å 1000 Å 5-10 10 – 20 m2/gram
Illite 3,000 Å 100 Å 30-40 65 – 100 m2/gram
Montmorillonite 1,000-4,000 Å 10 Å 100-400 700 – 840 m2/gram
Compare to coarse-grained soils
Silt ~0.05 mm ~0.05 mm ~1 50x larger than 0.02 m2/gram

kaolinite length
Medium sand ~0.8 mm ~0.8 mm ~1 800x larger than 0.001 m2/gram

kaolinite length
Fine gravel ~10 mm ~10 mm ~1 10000x larger than 0.0001 m2/gram

kaolinite length

Application – Target rock formations
To prevent CO2 leakage to the near
surface, the caprock formations should
have >30% of clay-sized particles,
because it guarantees low-permeability
and high CO2 entry values for the rock.
clay silt sand clay silt sand
Eau Claire shale Opalinus clay

Application – Filter Design
Piping: seeping water progressively erodes soil particles
leaving large voids (pipes) in the soil.
To prevent piping, we use filters. Filters must:

1.) Retain soil. Water-bearing erodible soils and rocks must
never be in direct contact with passageways large enough to
allow appreciable loss of the erodible material. To prevent
movement of erodible soils into filters, the pore spaces
between the filter soil should be small enough to hold some
of the larger particles of the erodible soil in place.
2.) Allow water passage. To prevent a buildup of water
pressure and possible “blowout”

Flow Net
through an
Earthfill Dam
Filter criteria
1) Transition or filter zones must be provided on each side of the dam

core to prevent the fine core material being forced into the
downstream shell by seepage water . D 85
Seepage (soil)
2) The upstream filter
provides material for
induced self-healing
D15
should a transverse
(filter)
crack appear in the soil
core. It retains the filter
core material against
movement into the
rockfill. Soil which has
D85 (soil) migrated into filter
Entrapped in filter
Soil Filters
D15 ( filter )
4 D85 (soil)
D85 ( soil )
(Retain Soil) Seepage
D15 ( filter )
5 D15 (filter)
D15 ( soil )
(Allow water to soil
drain to prevent filter
pressure buildup)
Soil which has
D50 ( filter ) migrated into filter
 25 D85 (soil)
D50 ( soil ) Entrapped in filter
(Compatibility)
Soil Filters
Free draining gravel

Geosynthetic
Filter Fabrics
(Koerner,1998)
Index Properties
Index Properties
Size of Grains Mineralogy

Density Moisture content Structure
Coarse Grained Electron - Consistency

(Sand & Gravel) Microscope
Weight-Volume Relations Sensitivity
Sieve Analysis X-Ray Diffraction
Relative Density
Compaction
Field Measurements
Fine Grained
(Silts & Clays)
Hydrometer

Index Properties Soil Structure
Density Structure Consistency
Moisture content Sensitivity

Primary Structure Secondary Structure
Geometrical a- single grained

Interparticle cracks
arrangement b- forces
flocculated joints
(Fabric) c- dispersed slickensides
concretions
a. Single grained
b. Flocculated Only significant
c. Dispersed in clays at low
confining stress

Soil Structure – Fabric
Granular soils (Gravels, sands, and many silts)
Loose packing Dense packing
Honeycombed fabric
• Meta-stable structure
• Loose fabric
• Susceptible to
liquefaction (earthquake-
induced or static load-
Holtz, Kovacs and Sheahan, 2011 induced)
emax  e  d   d min  d   d min
D 
Relative  100 % , I
Density (or Density  Index):  100 %   100% ,
emax  emin  d max   d min  d max   d min
r d
 d max emax  e     d min

Drr =Id =  I d
D x100 %= d max x d x100 %
 d emax  emin d  d max   d min
A
Void
Relative Density Descriptive Term e ratio
0-15 Very Loose
15-35 Loose 0 emin emax
35-65 Medium
65-85 Dense B
85-100 Very Dense
A
Dr 
B

Fine-grained soils (primarily clays)
Face (F)
Edge (E) Clay Particle
Flocculated fabric Dispersed fabric

The net interparticle
Edge-to-face (EF): positively force between surfaces
charged edges and negatively is repulsive
charged surfaces (more common)
Edge-to-edge (EE)

Secondary Structure – Slickensides
Slickenside: The polished, grooved, and striated surface produced on
rocks by movement along a fault or sometimes at the bottom of a
landslide. The grooves are parallel to the direction of movement but
they may be straight or curved. (From Glossary Selected Geologic Terms)
http://www.coolrox.com/abstract.htm
England Conference: http://www.soton.ac.uk/~ygec2000/

Index Properties
Consistency
Soil Grain Properties
Soil Aggregate Properties

Consistency is
an index
Density Consistency Sensitivity measure of
fine-grained
Moisture content
soft soil strength
medium
Structure stiff
hard
(PHT, 1974)

Unconfined Compression Test
=> Unconfined Compressive Strength (an index property)

Unconfined Compression Test
Deviator stress, Dsd

Dense sand
or OC clay
(Dsd)f
Loose sand
sax = Dsd (Dsd)f or NC Clay
Axial strain
slat = 0 Stress = Force/Area

Strain = Deformation/Length
(Dsd)f = deviatoric stress at failure
= Unconfined Compressive Strength

Sensitivity
Index Properties
Definition:
St=qu(undisturbed)/ qu(remolded)
Density Moisture content Structure Consistency Sensitivity
St <1  secondary structure (cracks, joints, Ottawa clay

slickensides)
Most Clays: 1<St <8
St >4  sensitive clay
St >8  extra-sensitive clay
St >15  quick clay
Thixotropy: gain of strength in a remolded soil
Atterberg Limits
Relative sizes of adsorbed water layers on sodium montmorillonite

and sodium kaolinite

Atterberg Limits
Volume
Water content <=> State of clay
States defined
by Atterberg Shrinkage Plastic Liquid Water content
limits Limit, Limit, Limit,
SL PL LL
Clay Behavior:  increasing water content 

SOLID – PLASTIC  LIQUID
air voids  saturated

Atterberg
Limits

Atterberg Limits

Atterberg Limits and Clay Content
Atterberg limits vary by clay content, mineralogy (& ion adsorption
capacity), and proportion of various clay minerals in soil

Indices
Plasticity Index: PI = LL – PL defines plastic range
Liquidity Index: LI = (w-PL)/(LL-PL) = (w-PL)/ PI defines relative state of clay/silt
Natural water content less than plastic limit  LI < 0

Natural water content between liquid and plastic  0 < LI < 1
Natural water content greater than liquid limit  LI > 1 (highly structured quick clay)
Approximate Consistency Scale

(for remolded samples)
Very soft
Soft
Stiff
Very Stiff
Very Stiff to Hard

Hard

Activity
Activity of a clay = plasticity index (PI) / Percent by weight finer than 2m ( 2 x 106 m)

Liquid Limit
Test Procedure:
1 -remove soil retained on #40 sieve (0.425 mm)

which delineates fine/medium sand
2 - begin test at natural moisture content or air dry,

pulverize, and temper with water for 16 hours
3- place soil in liquid limit cup
4 - cut groove in soil (2 mm wide at base, 8 mm

high)
5 - count blows required to close groove over a

length of 13 mm (0. 5 in) (10 mm height of fall)
6 - plot water content as function of number of blows
7- liquid limit defined as water content

corresponding to 25 blows
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EcXJ961qjGA
Liquid Limit Test

Automated Liquid Limit Device

Plastic Limit
Test Procedure:
1 -Roll soil into a thread
2 - Plastic limit is water content at which soil

just begins to crumble when rolled to a
thread diameter of 1/8 in.
Note 1 - If thread can be rolled to a smaller

diameter then soil is too wet
Note 2- If thread breaks up before reaching

1/8 in diameter then soil is too dry.

Shrinkage Limit
Test Procedure:
1 - Prepare a sample of known volume at a

water content above the liquid limit and oven
dry the sample
2- Weigh the oven-dried sample and compute

the initial moisture content
3- Compute the volume of the oven-dried

sample by immersing in mercury
The shrinkage limit is the water content at

which the dried sample would just become
saturated.

Plasticity Chart/Classification
M: silt
C: clay
O: organics
H: high plasticity
L: low plasticity

Indices
Natural water content less than plastic limit → LI < 0

Natural water content between liquid and plastic → 0 < LI < 1
Natural water content greater than liquid limit → LI > 1 (highly structured quick clay)

Very soft
Soft
Stiff
Very Stiff
Very Stiff to Hard

Hard

Activity
Activity of a clay = plasticity index (PI) / Percent by weight finer than 2m (= 2 x 10-6 m)


Soil Classification
Purpose of Classification
-to develop a consistent method of describing soils for communicating with other engineers
-classification system should be relatively simple and based on quantitative analyses
-classification system should say something significant about the engineering properties
Elements of Classification Systems

Grain Size Analysis
Classification & Index Properties
Sieve analysis (coarse-grained soils) (w,e,,S,grain size distribution,LL,PI,etc.)
Hydrometer test (fine-grained soils)
-useful, but not necessary
Classification system
(Language)
Atterberg Limits
Liquid and Plastic Limits
Engineering Properties
Visual Classification (Permeability, Compressibility, Strength, etc.)
Required for organic soils such as peat
Engineering Application
Existing Systems (Highways, Underground Facilities, Foundation)
Unified Soils Classification System
AASHTO
USDA

Unified Soil Classification System
Nomenclature
Coarse-Grained material → particle size distribution (controls engineering behavior)

G = Gravel S = Sand
W = Well graded P = Poorly graded
Fine-Grained material → plasticity & water content (Atterberg limits) (controls

engineering behavior)
C = Clay
M = Silt
L = Low plasticity clay, low compressibility silt
H = Highly plastic clay, high compressibility silt
Organic soils & Peat

O = Organic silts and clays
Pt = Peat
Classification is performed on material passing the sieve with 75mm openings (this size
distinguishes cobbles from coarse gravels)

Unified Soil Classification System:
Procedure
1. Visually examine the soil to evaluate soil texture, organic content, peat
2. Perform sieve analysis on materials passing 75 mm sieve

[Coarse fraction = % or fraction retained (coarser than) #200 sieve]
[Fines content = % or fraction passing (finer than) #200 sieve]
3. If fines content is greater than 5% (and you have enough soil), perform
Atterberg limits on material passing #40 sieve
4. Go into USCS chart to determine appropriate symbol(s)
Coarse-grained soil = 50% or more retained on #200 sieve
Fine-grained soil = 50% or more passes the #200 sieve

Coarse-Grained Soil
Coefficient of uniformity: Cu = D60/D10 Coefficient of curvature: CC = (D30 )2 / (D10* D60)
For coarse grained soil with 5 ≤ FC (%) ≤ 12, use dual symbol based on classification of fines content
on plasticity chart → Example: Well-graded gravel with 7% fines that plots in ML zone = GW-GM

Visual Classification of Soil
Highly Organic, Coarse Grained, Fine Grained
Determine amount passing #200 Sieve
Highly Organic Soils Coarse Grained Fine Grained

(Pt) 50% or less Pass # 200 More than 50% pass #200
Fibrous texture, color, odor (0.074 mm) (0.074 mm)
V. High w, vegetable matter (sticks, leaves)
Sieve Analysis
Gravel (G) Sand (S)

Greater% retained Greater % pass
on #4 sieve (4.76 mm) #4 sieve (4.76 mm)
< 5% pass 5%<f<12% >12% pass < 5% pass 5%<f<12% >12% pass
#200 pass # 200 #200 #200 pass # 200 #200
Grain Size Dual Symbol LL & PL Grain Size Dual Symbol LL & PL
Curve Grain Size on f<#40 Curve Grain Size on f<#40
& Plasticity Plasticity & Plasticity Plasticity
e.g. GW-GM Chart e.g. SW-SM Chart
well poorly Below In Hatched Above well poorly Below In Above

graded graded A-Line Zone A-Line graded graded A-Line Hatched A-Line
/Hatched /Hatched /Hatched Zone /Hatched
Zone Zone Zone Zone
GW GP GM GM-GC GC SW SP SM SM-SC SC

Fine-Grained Soil
Casagrande’s plasticity chart
U line
If a soil plots to the left of the U line, the Atterberg limits should be rechecked


Find LL, PL
f<#40 (0.42 mm)
L H
LL < 50% LL>50%
Below In Above Below Above

A-Line Hatched A-Line A-Line A-Line
U line /Hatched Zone /Hatched /Hatched /Hatched
Zone Zone Zone Zone
Color, Odor Color, Odor

LL & PL on LL & PL on
Oven Dry Soil Oven Dry Soil
Organic Inorganic Organic Inorganic
OL ML ML-CL CL OH MH CH

Organic Soils and Peat
• Highly organic soils - Peat (Group symbol Pt)
- A sample composed primarily of vegetable tissue in
various stages of decomposition and has a fibrous to
amorphous texture, a dark-brown to black color, and an
organic odor should be designated as a highly organic
soil and is classified as peat, Pt.
• Organic clay or silt (group symbol OL or OH):

- “The soil’s liquid limit (LL) after oven drying is less than
75 % of its liquid limit before oven drying.” If the above
statement is true, then the first symbol is O.
- The second symbol is obtained by locating the values of
PI and LL (not oven dried) in the plasticity chart.


Soil Classification
(Unified Soil Classification system)
CEE 380, UIUC, Topic

CEE 380,
5; © Lecture
Fall 2017
5 Y. Hashash, S. Olson & Others 22
Soil Classification
(AASHTO)

AASHTO Classification

USDA

Comparison of Classification Systems
sand

Classification Example

M: silt
C: clay
O: organics
H: high plasticity
L: low plasticity

Field Identification

Soil
Minimum requirements:
Description
• Apparent consistency
(fine-grained) or density
(coarse-grained)
• Water content condition
adjective (dry, moist, wet)
• Color description
• Minor soil type name with “y” added if ≥ 30%
• Descriptive adjective for main soil type
- Particle-size distribution adjective for gravel & sand (well-graded,
poorly graded, uniform medium-grained, etc.)
- Plasticity adjective and soil texture (silty or clayey as applicable) for
inorganic and organic silts and clays
• Main soil type’s name (e.g., SAND, CLAY)
• Descriptive adjective (some or trace) for minor soil type if ≤ 30%
• Minor soil type name(s)
• Inclusions Example: Medium dense, moist, gray, silty,
• USCS symbol poorly graded, SAND, with trace clay and
• Geologic name (if known) particles of coal (SM) (American Bottoms sand)
Apparent density of
coarse-grained soils
Consistency of fine-
grained soils
CEE 380, UIUC, Topic 5; ©

CEE
Fall380,
2017Lecture
Y. Hashash,
5 S. Olson & Others 31
1. Visual Identification – Coarse-grained, Fine-grained, Organic

2. Coarse-grained – Visual, Measure, “Feel and Smear” tests
3. Fine-grained – Shaking (dilatancy) test, Dry Strength test,
Thread test, Smear test
4. Organics – Visual, Odor, Ignition test
Field Identification:
Coarse-Grained Soils
“Feel and Smear” test – Estimate grittiness or softness of particles
Coarse- to medium- Very harsh and gritty feel and

grained sand smear
Coarse- to fine-grained Less harsh feel, but very gritty

sand smear
Medium- to fine-grained Less gritty feel and smear; softer

sand with more fine sand
Fine-grained sand Relatively soft feel and much less

gritty smear

Fine-Grained Soils
Dry strength
Dry Sample
-Break & Crumble between fingers
High Dry strength Slight Dry Strength

CH (clays) Silt & Fine Sand
Dilatancy
Smooth feel Gritty feel
Silt Fine Sand
Sample with water:
-Shaken in Hand: water appears
-Squeezed: water disappears
Quickest Reaction Moderately Quick Reaction No Reaction

Sand Inorganic Silt Plastic Clay

Plasticity of Fine-Grained Soils
CEE 380, UIUC, Topic 5; © Fall 2017 Y. Hashash, S. Olson & Others 35
Soil As a Construction Material
Earth Fill Dam, Oroville, CA Why use Soil?
It’s Cheap and Available!
Highway Embankment, Alligator Alley, FL

http://www.westwindcontracting.com/rdconst.htm
Landfill, Buford, Georgia

Construction of highway off-ramp
As soil embankments are constructed, the fill is spread in layers and compacted in order to
increase strength and reduce compressibility of the soil. The loose lift thickness is usually 8
inches to 12 inches. Fill maybe fine-grained (clayey) or coarse-grained soils (sands and gravels).
The cat spreads the material out evenly and compacts it at the same
time.
http://cee.engr.ucdavis.edu/faculty/boulanger/geo_photo_album
The water truck sprays the earth during compaction to condition

the soil to near its optimum moisture content for compaction, and
to control dust at the site.
The operators of the water truck and cat sequence

their passes across the site. A grader was later used
for final shaping of the roadway surface.

Soil Compaction – Why?
Compaction is the densification of soils and rocks by
the application of mechanical energy
1. No site is ideal → it probably would already be developed if
it was
2. Increase strength (e.g., for slope stability)
3. Decrease compressibility (e.g., for settlement)
4. Decrease permeability (e.g., for dams)
5. Control seasonal volume change (shrink/swell, frost heave)
Lastly, it’s INEXPENSIVE compared to remediation or

replacement with better material (like concrete)
CEE 380, Lecture 6
Mechanism of Soil Compaction
6
Theory of Compaction
• Original work on compaction done by R.R. Proctor in early 1930s.
Proctor was involved in dam construction for old Bureau of
Waterworks and Supply in Los Angeles
• Proctor established that compaction is a function of:

• Dry unit weight (gd) → Best indicator (dependent variable)
• Compactive effort
• Water content (w)
• Soil type (gradation, plasticity, presence of clay minerals)

Theory of Compaction
• Compactive effort
– Measure of mechanical energy input into soil
– Field → f (# of passes, weight of roller)
– Lab → calculated based on type of equipment & procedure
• Compaction water content

– for a given compactive effort and soil type, changes in
compaction water content result in changes in dry unit weight

Compaction – Standard Proctor Test
Compaction – Proctor Tests
• In the early days of compaction, construction equipment was small and gave
relatively low compaction densities. Proctor tried to mimic highest compaction energy
(of that era) → “Standard” Proctor test
• During World War II, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers used heavier equipment to
compact airfields supporting heavy aircraft. Can’t write specification for compaction
greater than 100%, so they developed “Modified” Proctor test
Standard Proctor Test Modified Proctor Test

5.5 lb hammer (W) 10 lb hammer (W)
12” drop height (H) 18” drop height (H) ~ 5x Higher
25 blows/layer 25 blows/layer compacting
3 layers 5 layers energy
Mold size: 1/30 ft3 Mold size: 1/30 ft3
Energy 12,375 ft·lb/ft3 Energy 56,250 ft·lb/ft3
W  H  # of layers  (blows/layer)
Compactive Effort (Energy/Vo l) =
Volume of soil
ASTM D1557 Standard Test Method for Soil Compaction
Using Modified Compaction Effort
Method A Method B
Mold — 4-in. diameter. Mold — 4-in. diameter.
Material—Passing No. 4 sieve. Material—Passing 3/8” sieve.
Layers—Five. Layers—Five.
Blows per layer—25. Blows per layer—25.
Use—May be used if 20 % or less by Use—Shall be used if more than 20 %
mass of the material is retained on the by mass of the material is retained on
No. 4 sieve. the No. 4 (4.75-mm) sieve and 20 %
Other Use—If this method is not or less by mass of the material is
specified, materials that meet these retained on the 3/8-in. (9.5-mm) sieve.
gradation requirements may be tested Other Use—If this method is not
using Methods B or C. specified, materials that meet these
gradation requirements may be tested
Method C using Methods B or C.
Mold — 6-in. diameter.
Material—Passing 3/4” sieve.
Layers—Five.
Blows per layer—56.
Use—Shall be used if more than 20 % by mass of the material is
retained on the 3/8-in. (9.53-mm) sieve and less than 30 % by mass of
the material is retained on the 3/4-in. (19.0-mm) sieve.
http://www.astm.org/cgi-bin/SoftCart.exe/DATABASE.CART/REDLINE_PAGES/D1557.htm?L+mystore+qjgm4889+1107816400
Compaction – Proctor Test Procedure
• Several samples of the same soil, but at different water contents, are
compacted according to the compaction test specifications.
The first four blows

Successive blows
• The total or wet unit weight and the actual water content of each
compacted sample are measured.
Wt γt
γt = , γd = Derive gd from the known gt and w
Vt 1+ w
• Plot the dry unit weight, gd, versus water content, w, for each
compacted sample. The curve is called as a compaction curve.

Compaction (Moisture-Density) Curves
gd max
Crosby B Till

Shape of Compaction Curve
rd
w
Increase of density due to addition of water and compaction effort (after Johnson and Sallberg, 1960)

Zero Air Voids Curve
WS
gd =  WS = g dVT [1]
VT
gS WS
GS =  g S = GS g W and g S =
gW VS
WS
 VS = [2] VW VW
GS g W Recall that SR = = [8]
VV VT − VS
g dVT
Substitute [1] into [2]  VS = [3] Substitute [2] and [7] into [8]
GS g W
wg dVT
WW
w=  WW = wWS [4] gW wg d
WS SR = =
g V g
 WW = wg dVT VT − d T gW − d
Substitute [1] into [4] [5] GS g W GS
WW
gW =  WW = g W VW [6]
VW
w gW
Combine [5] and [6] and rearrange Sr = or gd =
gW 1 w 1
 VW =
wg dVT − +
gW
[7]
g d Gs S R GS
rd Dry of optimum Wet of optimum
Increase in w tends to wopt Water starts replacing
“lubricate” particles soil particles in mold.
and/or reduce suction Since rw < rs, the dry
so that it’s easier to density rd decreases
reorient particles into
a denser configuration

Effect of Soil Type on Compaction
• Coarse-grained soils
primarily affected by
gradation
•Fine-grained soils
plasticity
Compaction of Sands
- Response different from that of fine-grained soils

- Very little curvature to compaction curve
- Low density at low water content (bulking)
- General practice use relative density, Dr
- Generally compacted dry
Sands and Sandy Gravels, Foster (1962)

max. dry density, gdmax, 100% Soil Structure:
compaction
- Flocculated (low water content)
- Orderly arrangement or
Dispersed (high water content)
optimum water content, wopt

Engineering Properties STRENGTH
COMPRESSIBILITY
Low Stress
High Stress
(Lambe, 1958)
PERMEABILITY VOLUME
CHANGE
Siburua Clay (Lambe, 1962)

Engineering Properties:
Dry vs. Wet of Optimum
(After Lambe & Whitman, 1969)
Property Dry of Optimum Wet of Optimum
Structure Particle Arrangement Random Orderly
Water Deficiency Deficient, more swell Less swell susceptible,
susceptible, lower pore higher pore pressure
pressure
Permanence More sensitive to change Less sensitive to change
Permeability Magnitude higher Lower
Permanence Reduced by permeation
Compressibility Magnitude more in high stress range More in low stress range
Rate Rapid consolidation Slow consolidation
Strength As molded Undrained Much higher Lower
As molded drained Higher Lower
After Saturation Higher (no swelling Higher (swelling
Undrained allowed) allowed)
After Saturation drained About the same About the same
Pore-water Pressure at Lower Higher
failure
Stress-strain Modulus Much Higher Lower
Sensitivity More sensitive Less Sensitive
Pneumatic rubber-tired roller
A pneumatic rubber-tired
roller is compacting clay
soil. Clays are more
difficult to compact than
sands and gravels, because
they must be brought to
the right range of water
content before they can be
compacted to high
densities. Static pressure,
as exerted by the wheels of
this rubber-tired roller,
compacts clays well.

Vibratory padded drum (sheepsfoot) roller

Vibratory Steel Drum Roller
Compacting sand. Vibration is more effective for compacting sands and

gravels than static pressure. Water conditioning is not as important for
compacting sands and gravels as it is for compacting clays.
Other Compaction Equipment
Mesh (or grid) roller
Used for compacting rocky soil
or other granular soils
• Websites for Compaction Equipment:

– http://www.mbw.com/
– http://www.ircmg.com/roadmachinery/soilcomp.html
– http://www.cat.com/cgi-bin/equipment_family.cgi
Hand tamper (jumping jack)

Used for compacting in tight quarters
Compaction Equipment
SOIL LABORATORY
STRUCTURE EQUIVALENT
100%
Clay Kneading
Disperse
(Harvard Miniture)
Dense ?
Dense / Vibratory
Flocculated? (shake table)
Flocculated Static pressure
Flocculated Impact
to dispersed (Proctor)
Static weight, kneading, Flocculated Impact
impact, vibration to dispersed (Proctor)

Field Compaction Techniques
NUMBER OF PASSES & NUMBER OF PASSES & LIFT THICKNESS
ROLLER SPEED

LIFT THICKNESS

Field vs. Laboratory Compaction
1. Lab. static, 2000 psi

2. Modified Proctor
3. Standard Proctor
4. Lab. Static, 200 psi
5. Field, rubber tired
6. Field, sheepsfoot
(Turnbull, 1950)
1. At field, compaction is kneading type

2. At lab, compaction is dynamic impact type

Field Compaction Control/Specifications
End Product Specification
• Fine grained soils & coarse grained soils with some fines (SM–GC)
– Relative Compaction
g d , field
Relative Compaction , RC = (%)
g d ,max( lab)
– Allowable moisture content (± __% of wopt)
– Commonly (almost always?) don’t allow:

– Medium to high plasticity soils (LL > 35 – 40; PI > ~ 20)
– Organic materials, topsoil, roots, branches, etc.
– Cobbles or boulders (they can nest)
– Construction debris, trash, or refuse
– Frozen soils
Placement of Soil Fill
Design Requirements:
Strength,
Permeability,
Compressibility
Specification:
Field (equipment or
end product)
Laboratory (target
density-moisture)
Types of Field Compaction:

-Smooth steel-drum • Roller Drums, Sheepfoot Roller, Hand Tampers...
-Rubber tired • Site for Compaction Equipment:
-Pad-foot (sheepsfoot) – http://www.mbw.com/
-vibration – http://www.ircmg.com/roadmachinery/soilcomp.html
Types of Compaction: – http://www.cat.com/cgi-bin/equipment_family.cgi
Equipment: 1. Impact
-Self propelled 2. Kneading
-Towed 3. Static
4. Dynamic
Field Density Determination (cont’d)
• Nuclear Density Gauge
Direct Transmission
Back scatter
http://www.troxlerlabs.com/index.html Air Gap

Dynamic Cone Penetrometer
The Dynamic Cone Penetrometer (DCP) is an
instrument which can be used for the rapid
measurement of the in situ strength of existing flexible
pavements constructed with unbound materials.
http://www.transport-links.org/ukdcp/docs/Technical%20Information%20Note.pdf
Example problem
The transportation engineers reported to you that the airport runway
needs sufficient strength for airplane landing. To improve the soil strength,
you decided to borrow and compact the fill material for the pavement.
The design criteria indicates that the required relative compaction is 97%
of Modified Proctor test and the required moisture content is ±2% of opt.
Determine the optimum water

content and maximum dry
density of fill material.
ω opt (%) 15
ρ dry-max (Mg/m3) 1.77

Example problem – solution II
What is the required moisture contents and dry density of the fill?
Relative Compaction = ρdry-field /ρdry-max, lab

0.97 = ρdry-field /1.77 => ρdry-field ~= 1.72 Mg/m3
opt = 15% => 13% <  < 17%
ω opt (%) 13 <  < 17
ρ dry-max (Mg/m3) ρdry >1.72

Example problem – solution III
If the total density of fill material is 1.64 Mg/m3 and its water content is
16.0%, calculate the total volume of fill material required to obtain 1 m3
of compacted soil.
Mrequired = 1 m3 * 1.72 Mg/m3 = 1.72 Mg
ρdry = ρt / (1+w) = 1.41 Mg/m3

Vrequired = Mrequired / ρdry =1.72 Mg /1.41
Mg/m3 = 1.22 m3

CEE 380
Geotechnical Engineering
Lecture 7:
Short review
1
Phase Relations
Unit Weight (γ)
Water Content (ω)
Void ratio (e)
Porosity (n)
Degree of Saturation (S)
Relative Density (Dr)

Soil Grain Properties / Soil Texture
• Grain Sizes • Plasticity
• Grain Size Distribution • Cohesion
• Particle shape(s)
Index Properties


Grain Size Scale
• ASTM D422 & D653 Scale (adopted by ASCE)
Coarse-grained Fine-grained
Sieve analysis Hydrometer analysis

Sieve Analysis
Sieve analysis
1.) Pulverize soil with mortar and pedestal to break up clods of silt
and clay, then wash the material on a No. 200 sieve.
2.) Using the soil retained on a No. 200 sieve, allow the material to
air dry and then weigh the material.
3.) Place a stack of sieves on shake table with the coarsest on top.
Place the material in the coarsest sieve and shake.
4.) Make the following computations for a given particle size,
% finer = 100 - % retained
% retained = (sum of weight retained/total weight of sample)
5.) Plot on grain size distribution curve, % finer by weight
Uniform soils are represented by nearly vertical curves. "S" shaped
curves which extend over several log cycles are well-graded (contain
good representation of sands and gravels)

Grain Size Distribution
Definitions:
Effective grain size: D10 -10% of the sample passing by weight
𝐷60
𝐶𝑢 =
Coefficient of uniformity: 𝐷10
𝐷30 2
𝐶𝑐 =
Coefficient of curvature: 𝐷10 𝐷60
It is used in soil classification of coarse grained material

Gradation Curves
Approximately one size, Cu < 4
An assortment of particle
Sizes, Cu > 4 and Cc between 1 and 3
Absence of certain
particle sizes, Cc > 3

Kaolinite 10,000 1000 5-10 Lengths in Angstroms (Å)
Illite 3,000 100 30-40 1 Å = 10-10 m
Montmorillonite 1,000-4,000 10 100-400 10000 Å = 1 m
5 m
7.5 m Montmorillinite
17 m
Kaolinite Illite (Holtz and Kovacs, 1981)
Trovey, 1971 ( from Mitchell, 1993) Trovey, 1971 ( from Mitchell, 1993)

Caprock formations
To prevent CO2 leakage to the near
surface, the caprock formations should
have >30% of clay-sized particles,
because it guarantees low-permeability
and high CO2 entry values for the rock.
clay silt sand clay silt sand
Eau Claire shale Opalinus clay

Loose packing Dense packing
Honeycombed fabric
• Meta-stable structure
• Loose fabric
• Susceptible to
liquefaction (earthquake-
induced or static load-
Holtz, Kovacs and Sheahan, 2011 induced)
Index Properties
Consistency

Consistency is
an index
Density Consistency Sensitivity measure of
fine-grained
Moisture content
soft soil strength
medium
Structure stiff
hard
(PHT, 1974)

Sensitivity
Index P ropertie s
Definition:
S oil G rain P ro pertie s
St=qu(undisturbed)/ qu(remolded)
S oil A g grega te P ro pertie s
D ensity M oisture conten t S tructure C onsistenc y S ensitivity
St <1 → secondary structure (cracks, joints, Ottawa clay

slickensides)
Most Clays: 1<St <8
St >4 → sensitive clay
St >8 → extra-sensitive clay
St >15 → quick clay (weak bonding between
the particles due to groundwater flow)

Atterberg Limits
Water content <=> State of clay
Volume
States defined
by Atterberg Shrinkage Plastic Liquid Water content
limits Limit, Limit, Limit,
SL PL LL
Clay Behavior: ⎯⎯ increasing water content ⎯→

SOLID ⎯– PLASTIC ⎯ LIQUID
air voids ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ saturated

Atterberg Limits

Atterberg Limits and Clay Content
Atterberg limits vary by clay content, mineralogy (& ion adsorption
capacity), and proportion of various clay minerals in soil

Indices
Natural water content less than plastic limit → LI < 0

Natural water content between liquid and plastic → 0 < LI < 1
Natural water content greater than liquid limit → LI > 1 (highly structured quick clay)

Very soft
Soft
Stiff
Very Stiff
Very Stiff to Hard

Hard

Plastic Limit
Test Procedure:
1 -Roll soil into a thread
2 - Plastic limit is water content at which soil

just begins to crumble when rolled to a
thread diameter of 1/8 in.
Note 1 - If thread can be rolled to a smaller

diameter then soil is too wet
Note 2- If thread breaks up before reaching

1/8 in diameter then soil is too dry.

Shrinkage Limit
Test Procedure:
1 - Prepare a sample of known volume at a

water content above the liquid limit and oven
dry the sample
2- Weigh the oven-dried sample and compute

the initial moisture content
3- Compute the volume of the oven-dried

sample by immersing in mercury
The shrinkage limit is the water content at

which the dried sample would just become
saturated.

M: silt
C: clay
O: organics
H: high plasticity
L: low plasticity


Soil Classification
Purpose of Classification
-to develop a consistent method of describing soils for communicating with other engineers
-classification system should be relatively simple and based on quantitative analyses
-classification system should say something significant about the engineering properties
Elements of Classification Systems

Grain Size Analysis
Classification & Index Properties
Sieve analysis (coarse-grained soils) (w,e,,S,grain size distribution,LL,PI,etc.)
Hydrometer test (fine-grained soils)
-useful, but not necessary
Classification system
(Language)
Atterberg Limits
Liquid and Plastic Limits
Visual Classification (Permeability, Compressibility, Strength, etc.)
Required for organic soils such as peat
Engineering Application
Existing Systems (Highways, Underground Facilities, Foundation)
Unified Soils Classification System
AASHTO
USDA

Nomenclature
Coarse-Grained material → particle size distribution (controls engineering behavior)

G = Gravel S = Sand
W = Well graded P = Poorly graded
Fine-Grained material → plasticity & water content (Atterberg limits) (controls

engineering behavior)
C = Clay
M = Silt
L = Low plasticity clay, low compressibility silt
H = Highly plastic clay, high compressibility silt
Organic soils & Peat

O = Organic silts and clays
Pt = Peat
Classification is performed on material passing the sieve with 75mm openings (this size
distinguishes cobbles from coarse gravels)

Procedure
1. Visually examine the soil to evaluate soil texture, organic content, peat
2. Perform sieve analysis on materials passing 75 mm sieve

[Coarse fraction = % or fraction retained (coarser than) #200 sieve]
[Fines content = % or fraction passing (finer than) #200 sieve]
3. If fines content is greater than 5% (and you have enough soil), perform
Atterberg limits on material passing #40 sieve
4. Go into USCS chart to determine appropriate symbol(s)
Coarse-grained soil = 50% or more retained on #200 sieve
Fine-grained soil = 50% or more passes the #200 sieve


Sieve Analysis
Gravel (G) Sand (S)

Greater% retained Greater % pass
on #4 sieve (4.76 mm) #4 sieve (4.76 mm)
< 5% pass 5%<f<12% >12% pass < 5% pass 5%<f<12% >12% pass
#200 pass # 200 #200 #200 pass # 200 #200
Grain Size Dual Symbol LL & PL Grain Size Dual Symbol LL & PL
Curve Grain Size on f<#40 Curve Grain Size on f<#40
& Plasticity Plasticity & Plasticity Plasticity
e.g. GW-GM Chart e.g. SW-SM Chart
well poorly Below In Hatched Above well poorly Below In Above

graded graded A-Line Zone A-Line graded graded A-Line Hatched A-Line
/Hatched /Hatched /Hatched Zone /Hatched
Zone Zone Zone Zone
GW GP GM GM-GC GC SW SP SM SM-SC SC


Find LL, PL
f<#40 (0.42 mm)
L H
LL < 50% LL>50%
Below In Above Below Above

A-Line Hatched A-Line A-Line A-Line
U line /Hatched Zone /Hatched /Hatched /Hatched
Zone Zone Zone Zone
Color, Odor Color, Odor

LL & PL on LL & PL on
Oven Dry Soil Oven Dry Soil
Organic Inorganic Organic Inorganic
OL ML ML-CL CL OH MH CH


Classification Example

Soil As a Construction Material
Earth Fill Dam, Oroville, CA Why use Soil?
It’s Cheap and Available!
Highway Embankment, Alligator Alley, FL

http://www.westwindcontracting.com/rdconst.htm
Landfill, Buford, Georgia

CEE 380, Lecture 7
Mechanism of Soil Compaction
31
Compaction – Standard Proctor Test

Compaction – Proctor Test Procedure
• Several samples of the same soil, but at different water contents, are
compacted according to the compaction test specifications.
The first four blows

Successive blows
• The total or wet unit weight and the actual water content of each
compacted sample are measured.
Wt γt
γt = , γd = Derive gd from the known gt and w
Vt 1+ w
• Plot the dry unit weight, gd, versus water content, w, for each
compacted sample. The curve is called as a compaction curve.

Compaction (Moisture-Density) Curves
gd max
Crosby B Till

d Dry of optimum Wet of optimum
Increase in w tends to wopt Water starts replacing
“lubricate” particles soil particles in mold.
and/or reduce suction Since w < s, the dry
so that it’s easier to density d decreases
reorient particles into
a denser configuration

Effect of Soil Type on Compaction
• Coarse-grained soils
gradation
•Fine-grained soils
plasticity
LIFT THICKNESS

Field Compaction Control/Specifications
End Product Specification
• Fine grained soils & coarse grained soils with some fines (SM–GC)
– Relative Compaction
g d , field
Relative Compaction , RC = (%)
g d ,max( lab)
– Allowable moisture content (± __% of wopt)
– Commonly (almost always?) don’t allow:

– Medium to high plasticity soils (LL > 35 – 40; PI > ~ 20)
– Organic materials, topsoil, roots, branches, etc.
– Cobbles or boulders (they can nest)
– Construction debris, trash, or refuse
– Frozen soils
Example problem
The transportation engineers reported to you that the airport runway
needs sufficient strength for airplane landing. To improve the soil strength,
you decided to borrow and compact the fill material for the pavement.
The design criteria indicates that the required relative compaction is 97%
of Modified Proctor test and the required moisture content is ±2% of wopt.
Determine the optimum water

content and maximum dry
density of fill material.
ω opt (%) 15
ρ dry-max (Mg/m3) 1.77

Example problem – solution II
What is the required moisture contents and dry density of the fill?
Relative Compaction = ρdry-field /ρdry-max, lab

0.97 = ρdry-field /1.77 => ρdry-field ~= 1.72 Mg/m3
wopt = 15% => 13% < w < 17%
ω opt (%) 13 < w < 17
ρ dry-max (Mg/m3) ρdry >1.72

Example problem – solution III
If the total density of fill material is 1.64 Mg/m3 and its water content is
16.0%, calculate the total volume of fill material required to obtain 1 m3
of compacted soil.
Mrequired = 1 m3 * 1.72 Mg/m3 = 1.72 Mg
ρdry = ρt / (1+w) = 1.41 Mg/m3

Vrequired = Mrequired / ρdry =1.72 Mg /1.41
Mg/m3 = 1.22 m3

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Units of Measurement

Conversion factors-U.S. customary to SI

To convert from To Multiply by

CEE 380, Introduction 21

Soil & Rock Mechanics

CEE 380, Introduction 24

Leaning Tower of Pisa

Roman road building on Marshland

CEE 380, Introduction 27

Concept of Egyptian self sinking

CEE 380, Introduction 28

CEE 380, Introduction 29

CEE 380, Introduction 30

CEE 380, Introduction 31

Pile driving rig also used for soil

After Munfakh, 2004

CEE 380, Introduction 32

CEE 380, Introduction 33

After Munfakh, 2004

CEE 380, Introduction 35

After Munfakh, 2004

After Munfakh, 2004

CEE 380, Introduction 38

CEE 380, Introduction 39

CEE 380, Introduction 40

CEE 380, Introduction 41

CEE 380, Introduction 42

1964 Alaska Earthquake

CEE 380, Introduction 43

CEE 380, Introduction 44

CEE 380, Introduction 47

and storing the waste from energy production in the subsurface:

CEE 380, Introduction 48

CEE 380, Lecture 2 6

Rock images: Sandatlas.org

Rock images: Sandatlas.org

Rock images: Sandatlas.org

Rock images: Sandatlas.org

Sediment is compacted and cemented into

Microscopic planktonRiver delta

Rock images: Sandatlas.org

Examples of Intact Rock: a) granite, b) sandstone, c) gneiss

CEE 380, Lecture 2 21

CEE 380, Lecture 2 22

Other Phases: Quartz

Sites With Photos of Minerals:

CEE 380, Lecture 2 24

• Formed by minerals • Rock masses, in general, have discontinuities

Shales are intermediate geomaterials: they

CEE 380, Lecture 2 25

CEE 380, Lecture 2 28

CEE 380, Lecture 2 29

CEE 380, Lecture 2 30

CEE 380, Lecture 2 31

Unit Weight (weight/volume)

CEE 380, Lecture 2 33

Used as heavy backfill

CEE 380, Lecture 2 34

CEE 380, Lecture 2 35

CEE 380, Lecture 2 36

Assume: Ws=1 lb =>Ww=0.416 lb

CEE 380, Lecture 2 37

Gs = 2.7 Water Content: