CHAPTER VI

IONIC EQUILIBRIA
SOLVENTS PROTOPHILIC OR BASIC
phase of the solution, usually SOLVENTS
constitutes the largest proportion -proton accepting (acetone, ehter,
of the system. and liquid ammonia)

types:
• protophilic or basic solvent
• protogenic solvent
• amphiprotic solvent
• aprotic solvents
PROTOGENIC SOLVENTS
-proton-donating (formic acid,
acetic acid, sulfuric acid, liquid
HCl, and liquid HF)
AMPHIPROTIC SOLVENTS
-act as both (water and alcohols)
DISSOLUTION
APROTIC SOLVENTS
- neither accept or donate -transfer of molecules or ions
protons, neutrals (hydrocarbon)
from a solid state into solution
 THEORIES OF ACIDS AND BABSES

THEORY ACID BASE

• IONIZATION OF WEAK ACIDS
ARRHENIUS liberates Liberates OH AND BASES
H20 in in aqueous
aqueous solution
solution IONIZATION - complete
LEWIS E acceptor E donor
separation of ions in a crystal
lattice when a salt is dissolved
BRONSTED- P donor P acceptor
LOWRY DISSOCIATION - separation of ions
in solution when the ions are
associated by interionic attraction
SOLUBILITY
• concentration of a standard
solution in which the dissolved
• solute is in equilibrium with its Factors Affecting Solubility
solid phase at constant • temperature
• Intrinsic Solubility • pH
• Apparent Solubility • addition of salt
• Kinetic Solubility • pressure (Henry’s Law)
• Thermodynamic Solubility • salt formation
• particle zie
Temperature
§ ENDOTHERMIC DISSOLTION
- heat is absorbed, > temp, >
Salts Formation
soLubility
§ SALTING-IN
- a salts increases hydrophilicity of
§ EXOTHERMIC DISSOLUTION
the solution
- heat is released, < temp,
>solubility (CaOH)
§ SALTING-OUT
- added salt reduces the available
amount of water > solute
precipitates
 - the negative logarithm of the H+
pH concentration

pH = -log [H+]
CHAPTER VII
BUFFERS AND ISOTONIC SOLUTION
• compound or a mixture of
BUFFER CAPACITY
compounds whcih has the
ability to resist changes in pH - buffer efficiency or buffer index
when small amounts of acids
and bases are added
• this property results from the B = represents the small
presence of a buffer pair increment in gram equivalents per
which consist f either: liter of strong base or acid added to
the buffer solution to produce a
- weak acid and some salt or its change in pH
conjugate base
- weak base and some salt or its
conjugate acid
HENDERSON-HASSELBALCH
EQUATION
• aka pH or buffer equation WEAK ACIDS
• preparationof drug solutions at a
desired pH using both the
neutral and the salt forms of a
drug
• determine percentage of neutral WEAK BASES
and ionized forms at a given pH
• determination of pKa of an acid
or a base
BUFFERED ISOTONIC SOLUTIONS
Pharmaceutical solutions that are
meant for application delicate
membranes of the body should
also be ajusted to approximately
the same osmotic pressure that of
the body fluids.
Isotonic solutions cause no
swelling or contraction of the
tisseus with which they come in
contact and produce no
discomfort when instilled in the
eye, nasal tract, blood or other
body tissues.
TONICITY OF SOLUTIONS
• ISOTONIC SOLUTIONS

- living cell does not gain or loss • HYPERTONIC SOLUTIONS

water
- sameosmotic pressure with body - more solutes compared to cell
fliuds concentrations
- 0.9% NaCl solution, normal - freeze lower than 0.52 *C
saline, D5W - cauases creantion of the cell
- 5% NaCl solution
• HYPOTONIC SOLUTIONS

- less solutes compared to cell

concentrations
- freeze higher than -0.52*C
- causes lysis of the cell
- distilled water
TONICITY
- is the concentration of the
solutes that cannot cross the • OSMOLALITY and
membrane since these solutes OSMOLARITY
exert an osmotic pressure on
that membrane. - are colligative properties
that measure the
concentration of the solutes
Tonicity is not the difference independently of their
between the two osmolarities abilityto cross a cell
on opposing sides of the membrane
membrane.
MEASUREMENT OF TONICITY
1. HEMOLYTIC METHOD
- the effect of various
solutions of the drug is A quantitative method
observed on the developed by Hunter was
appearance of red blood used based on the fact
that a hypotonic solutions
cells suspended in the liberates oxyhemoglobin
solutions. in direct proportion to the
number of cells
hemolyzed.
2. Measurement of the slight
temperature differences
-the second method is based
on a arising measurement of
the slight temperature
differences from differences in
the vapor pressure of thermally
insulated samples contained in
constant-humidity chambers.
3. CALCULATING TONICITY using
Liso values
- because freezing point
depressions for solutions of
electrolyts of both the weak and
strong types are always greater
than those calculated from
equation ΔTf= Kfc, a new factor, L
= i Kf, is introduced to overcome
this difficulty.
The L value can be obtain from the
freezing oint lowering of the
solutions of representative
compounds of a given ionic type
Example.
at acentration c that is isotonic
with body fluids. The specific The Liso value for a 0.9% (0.154M)
value of L is writtn as Liso solution of sodium chloride, which
has a freezing point depression of
0.52*C and is isotonic with body
fluids, is?
 METHODS OF ADJUSTING
TONICITY AND pH
• CLASS 1 METHODS

- NaCl or some other substances is

added to the solution of the drug
to make it isotonic

1.Freezing Point
Depression/Crysoscopic Method
- FPD used to calculate the
amount of solute to add in making
an isotonic solution
2. Sodium Chloride Equivalent
Method/ E VALUE
E value - gram of NaCl equivalent
to 1 gram of a substance
STEPS:
Step 1. Calculate the amount of
NaCl represented by the
ingredients
Step 2. Calculate the amount of
NaCl that would make the volume
of solution specified isotonic
Step 3. Subtract step 1 from
step 2
Step 4. if agent other than
NaCl (boric acid, dextrose, Na
or K nitrate), divide the
amount of NaCl (step 3) by
the NaCl equivalent (E value)
of the other substance
• CLASS II METHODS
- water is added to the drug >
isotonic solutions

ØWhite Vincent Method

V = wt x E x 111.1

ØSprowls Method
V = 0.3g x E x 111.1