CHAPTER II

METALLIC Bond
STATES OF MATTER -exist as a collection of many
I. FORCES OF ATTRACTION atoms as +ions arranged in a well-
defined 3D arrangement called
crystal lattice with some of the
INTRAmolecular forces outermost electrons roaming
-forces within a molecule around in the whole piece of the
metal, forming a sea of electrons
3 major types around the metal atoms
1. Metallic bond
2. Ionic Bond
3. Covalent bond
IONIC BOND
-affinity between oppositely
charged particles
-presents in salts/ionic
compounds
-forces that hold ions together in
the crystal lattice of salt.
-this bond is formed by the
complete transfer of valence
electron(s) between atoms. A
type of chemical bond that
generates two oppositely
charged ions.
COVALENT BOND
-made by sharing electrons
-this bond is formed between
atoms that have similar
eleactronegativities
>Nonpolar (CI2, CO2, CCI2) -no
sIgnificant difference of
electronegativity
>Polar (HCl,HCHO) - has significant
difference of electronegativity
Nonpolar Covalent Bond
-this bond is formed between Polar Covalent Bond
atoms that have similar
-is formed when atoms of slightly
electronegativities- the affinity or
desire for electrons. differenct electronegativities share
electrons.
INTERmolecular forces

-forces of attraction between

molecules
-forces of attraction or repulsion
which act between neighborin
particles(atoms, molecules or
ions).
-they are weak compared to the
intramolecular forces
Types:

A. Binding forces B. Attractive forces

ØCohesion - similar molecules Øvan der waals

ØAdhesion - different molecules ØHydrogen bond
ØRepulsive - prevent molecules ØIon-dipole
from annihilating each other ØIon-induced Dipole
VAN DER WAALS
-weak forces that involve the
dispersion of charge across a
molecule called dipole
1. Keesom Forces (orientation
effect)
§ Dipole-dipole
§ molecules are polar with
permanent polar dipoles
§ 1-7 kcal/mole
§ ex. water, HCl, ethanol, acetone,
phenol
2. Debye Forces (induction effect)
§ dipole-induced dipole
§ transient dipole induced by a
permanent dipole
§ polar molecules produce
temporary electric dipole in
nonpolar molecules
§ 1-3 kcal/mole
§ ex. ethyl acetate, methylene
chloride, ether
3. London Forces (dispersion effect)
§ induced dipole-induced dipole
§ induce polarity between non polar
molecules
§ responsible for liquefaction of
gases
§ 0.5-1 kcal/mole
§ ex. carbon disulfide, CCl2, hexane
HYDROGEN BOND
-electrostatic interaction of H with
highly electronegative atoms (N, O,
F, S, Cl) ION-DIPOLE INTERACTION

-accounts for unusual properties of - polar molecules are attracted to

water either positive or negative charges
- occurs when salt is dissolved in a
polar solvent
solubility of crystalline substances in
H2O
-quaternary ammonium + tertiary
amine
ION-INDUCED DIPOLE

-induced by close proximity of a

charged ion to a non-polar molecule
-responsible for the solubility of non-
polar molecules
-ex. Iodine complex with salts
INTERMOLECULAR FORCES OF ATTRACTION

SAMPLE PROBLEMS
1. What forces exist between the 2. Which of the following can form
following? H-bonds with water?
o HBr - H2S § CH3OCH3
oCl2 - CBr4 § CH4
oI2 - NO3 § F-
oNH3 - C6H6 § HCOOH
§ Na+
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MATTER

ADDITIVE
• depends on the total CONSTITUTIVE
contribution of the atoms in the
molecules • depends on the arrangement of
the number and kind of atoms
• ex. MW, mass within a molecules
• atoms = MW = Mass • ex. refractive index, optical
rotation
COLLIGATIVE

• function of the number of qOsmotic pressure eleviation

species or particles present in a
given solution qVapor pressure lowering
qFreezing point depression
qBoiling point elevation
 TYPES OF PROPERTIES

INTENSIVE/INTRINSIC
EXTENSIVE/EXTRINSIC
• independent of the amount of
the substances in the system
• depends on the quantity of
• ex. Temperature, Pressure,
substance in the system
Density, Viscosity, Surface
tension, Specific gravity • ex. Mass, Volume, Lenght
DENSITY = mass per unit volume
(M/V)

SPECIFIC VOLUME= reciprocal of

SPECIFC GRAVITY = density of specific gravity, opposite of
sample/ density of standard density

1. Pycnometer method
2. Mohr Westphal balance
3. Plummet method (Archimedes
principle: buoyancy - weight of
immersed is equal to displaced)
SAMPLE PROBLEMS

DENSITY 3. The density of a substance is

1. A loaf bread has a mass of 500g 4.0g/cm3. If a sample of the
and a volume of 2500cm3. What substance has a volume of 25cm3,
is the density of the bread? then what is its mass?

2. A block of wood has a mass of 4. You have a lead ball with mass
6.0g and a volume of 12.0cm3. of 420g. The density of lead is
What is the density of the block of 10.5g/cm3. What is the volume of
wood? the ball?
SPECIFIC GRAVITY

1. Calculate the specific gravity of 3. if the sp.gr. of ice is 0.92, then

iron. The density of iron is 7850 wis the density of ice?
kg/m3. The specific gravity ofers is
1000kg/m3.

2. If the density of gold is

19300kg/m3, what is the sp.gr. of
gold? density of water:
1000kg/m2
 THE GASEOUS STATE
GAS LAWS
• refers to an ideal situation where
no intermolecular interactions
exist and collisionsare perfectly
elastic.
• there is no energy exchanged
upon collision.
1. BOYLES LAW
• aka “mariottes law”
• states that in a perfect gas where
mass and temperature are kept
constant, the volume of the gas
varies inversely with the absolute
pressure.
• formula
P1V1=P2V2
2. GAY-LUSSAC LAW
• states that the pressure of a
given mass of gas varies directly
with the abolute temperature of
the gas, when the volume is kept
constant
• formula
3. CHARLES LAW
• temperature and the volume is
directly proportional
• pressure is constant
• formula
IDEAL GAS LAW
§ also called the general gas
equation
§ is the equation pf state of a
hypothetical ideal gas.
§ formula:
COMBINED GAS LAW
§ the ratio oduct of pressure and
volume and the absolute
temperature of a gas is equal to a
constant
SAMPLE PROBLES
GAS LAW
BOYLES LAW
Problem #1: A gas occupies 12.3
liters at a pressure of 40.0 mmHg.
What is the volume when the
pressure is increased to 60.0
mmHg?
Problem #2: If a gas at 25.0 °C
occupies 3.60 liters at a pressure
of 1.00 atm, what will be its
volume at a pressure of 2.50 atm?
Problem #3: To what pressure
must a gas be compressed in
order to get into a 3.00 cubic foot
tank the entire weight of a gas
that occupies 400.0 cu. ft. at
standard pressure?
CHARLES

Problem #1: Calculate the Problem #3: A gas occupies 900.0

decrease in temperature (in mL at a temperature of 27.0 °C.
Celsius) when 2.00 L at 21.0 °C is What is the volume at 132.0 °C?
compressed to 1.00 L.

Problem #4: What change in

Problem #2: 600.0 mL of air is at volume results if 60.0 mL of gas is
20.0 °C. What is the volume at cooled from 33.0 °C to 5.00 °C?
60.0 °C?
 GAY-LUSAAC’S
Problem #1: A 30.0 L sample of
nitrogen inside a rigid, metal
container at 20.0 °C is placed inside
an oven whose temperature is 50.0
°C. The pressure inside the
container at 20.0 °C was at 3.00
atm. What is the pressure of the
nitrogen after its temperature is
increased to 50.0 °C?
Problem #2: Determine the
pressure change when a constant
volume of gas at 1.00 atm is
heated from 20.0 °C to 30.0 °C.
Problem #3: A gas has a pressure
of 0.370 atm at 50.0 °C. What is
the pressure at standard
temperature?
IDEAL GAS LAW
Problem #1: Determine the
volume of occupied by 2.34 grams
of carbon dioxide gas at STP.
Problem #2: A sample of argon gas
at STP occupies 56.2 liters.
Determine the number of moles
of argon and the mass of argon in
the sample.
Problem #3: At what temperature
will 0.654 moles of neon gas
occupy 12.30 liters at 1.95
atmospheres?
Problem #4: A 30.6 g sample of
gas occupies 22.414 L at STP.
What is the molecular weight of
this gas?
 COMBINED GAS LAW
Problem #1: A gas has a volume of 800.0
mL at −23.0 °C and 300.0 torr. What
would the volume of the gas be at 227.0
°C and 600.0 torr of pressure?
Problem #2: 500.0 liters of a gas in a
flexible-walled container are prepared
at 700.0 mmHg and 200.0 °C. The gas is
placed into a tank under high pressure.
When the tank cools to 20.0 °C, the
pressure of the gas is 30.0 atm. What is
the volume of the gas?
Problem #3: 690.0 mL of oxygen are
collected over water at 26.0 °C and a
total pressure of 725.0 mm of
mercury. What is the volume of dry
oxygen at 52.0 °C and 800.0 mm
pressure?
Problem #4: What is the volume of
gas at 2.00 atm and 200.0 K if its
original volume was 300.0 L at 0.250
atm and 400.0 K.
 KINETIC MOLECULAR
• gases are composed of THEORY
particles called atoms or
molecules, the total volume
of which is so small as to be • the particles exhibit
negligible in relation to teh continuous random motion
volume of the space in owing to their kinetic energy
which the molecules are
• the moleculesexhibiut
confined.
perfect elasticity.
• the particles of the gas do
not attract one another, but
instead move with complete
independence.
THE LIQUID STATE BOILING POINT

CRITICAL TEMPERATURE • the temperature at which the

vapor pressure of the liquid
equals the external and
• temperature above which a atmospheric pressure.
liquid can no longer exist

CRITICAL PRESSURE

• pressure required to liquefy a gas at its

critical temperature, which is also the
highest vapor pressure of a liquid can
have.
THE SOLID STATE

• have fixed shapes

• nearly incompressible
• have strong intermolecular
forces
• very little kinetic energy
• atoms vibrate fixed positions
about an equilibrium position,
and so there is very little
transitional motion.
CRYSTALLINE SOLIDS
• solids whose structural units
are arranged in a fixed
geometric pattern or lattices.
• definite shape
• orderly arrangement of units
• definite and sharp melting
points
• solvates - aka
“pseudopolymorphs” crystals
having solvent molecules
6 Distinct Critical Systems Based
on Symmetry
qCUBIC - NaCl
qTETRAGONAL - Urea
qHEXAGONAL - Iodoform
qMONOCLINIC - Sucrose
qRHOMBIC - Iodine
qTRICLINIC - Boric Acid
 POLYMORPHISM
• condition where substances can
exist in more than 1 crystalline
form
• polymorphs have different
melting points, x-ray crystals and
diffraction patterns and
solubility
THEOBROMA oil Polymorphs (MP)
• unstable y form - 18*C
ᵅ form - 22*C
β prime form - 28*C
β stable from - 34*C
types of polymorphism
venantiontropic - reversible
vmonotropic - unidirectional
transition
POLYMORPHIC CHANGES AND PROPERTIES

ENANTIOTROPIC ISOTROPIC
- change is reversible - similar (identical) properties in
all directions
MONOTROPIC
- change is unidirectional ANISOTROPIC
- different properties in various
directions along the crystal
 AMORPHOUS CRYSTALLINE
orandom unoriented ofixed geometric patterns
molecules oice and NaCl
oglass and plastics oorderly arranged units,
oarranged in random incompressible
manner oDefinite melting point
ono definite melting point opass sharply from solid to
ofaster dissolution rate liuid
FREEZING POINT
LATENT HEAT of FUSION
• temperature at which liquid >
• energy absorbed when 1 g of
solid solid melt
• melting point of a pure • heat liberated when it freezes
crystalline compound

LE CHATELIER’S PRINCIPLE
- states that a system at
equilibrium readjusts so as to
reduce the effect of an external
stress
LIQUID CRYSTALLINE STATE
(MESOPHASE)

• Liquid cyrstals- itermediate

between liquid and solid states
• may result from the heating of
solids (thermotropic) or form the
action of certain solvents on
solids (lyotropic liquid crystals)
Two main types of Liquid Crystals

1. SMECTIC 2. NEMATIC
• Soap like or grease like • threadlike
• molecules are mobile in 2 • molecules are mobile in 3
directions directions
• rotates in 1 axis • rotates in 1 axis

CHOLESTERIC
• speacial type of nematic
 SUPERCRITICAL FLUIDS
• properties intermediate
between those of liquids and
gases formed from the gaseous
state where the gas is held
under a combination of
temperature and pressures that
exceed the critical point of a
substance
PHASE EQUILIBRIA AND THE PHASE RULE
(GIBSS’S PHASE RULE)

• relates the effect of the least F = no. of degrees of freedom

number of indipendent variables
(T, P, and C) among the various
phases (S,L and G) that can exist
in an equilibrium system
containing a given number of
components
• formula
F=C-P+X
C = no. chemical components
P = no. of phases
X = variable dependent upon
coniderations of the phase
diagram
F -number of degrees of freedom
least number of
intensive/independent variables
that must be fixed to describe the
system completely
P - number of homogenous
C - number of components physically distinct portion of
smallest number of constituents a system that is separated
by which the composition of each from other portions of the
phase in the system at
equilibrium can be expressed in system by bounding surfaces
the form of a chemical formula or
equation
 APPLICATION of the phase rule to single-component
system
SYSTEM NUMBER OF DEGREES OF
PHASES FREEDOM
GAS, LIQUID OR 1 F=C-P+2 system is BIVARIANT (F=2)
SOLID = 1 -1 + 2 = 2

GAS-LIQUID, 2 F=C-P+2 system is UNIVARIANT (F= 1)

LIQUID-SOLOD, =1-2+2=1
OR GAS-SOLID
GAS-LIQUID- 3 F=C-P+2 system is INVARIANT (F=0)
SOLID =1-3+2=0
TWO COMPONENT SYSTEMS

• S and L phases only • 2 components - liquid phase

• aka “condensed system” • 2 components S & L - eutectic
• the vapor state is disregarded mixtures
with an assumption of working • 3 components
at a pressure at 1atm
TWO COMPONENT SYSTEM
CONTAINING TWO LIQUIDS
BINODAL CURVE
- area within the curve which
represents a 2-phase system
- any point beyond it is a single
phase
UPPER CONSULATE/ CRITICAL
SOLUTION TEMPERATURE
- maximmum temperature at
which two phase region in the
phase diagram of a two-
component system containing two
liquids will exist
TIE LINE
- line from which a system
separates into phases of constant
composition
- approximates proportion of
components in a particular
temperature
CONJUGATE PHASES
- phases of constant composition
that separate when a mixture is
prepared within the boundary of
the 2-phase system.
TWO COMPONENT SYSTEM
CONTAINING SOlID AND LIQUID
• minimum temperature where
both exist in liquid form
• point where solid A, solid B and
the liquid phase co-exist
EUTECTIC POINT
- is the point where solid A, solid B
and the liquid phase co-exist
- 3 phase co-exist
EUTEXIA
- phenomenon of lowering the
melting point due to combinations
of components (thymol-salol,
comphor-menthol)
THREE COMPONENT SYSTEM

• ternary system PHASE RULE: F = C - P

• 2 liquids are miscible + 3rd
component (co-solventt) with APEX - 100% of each component
afffinity to both layers
BASE - opposite of apex, 0% of
• has 4 degrees of freedom each component
• temperature and pressure are
both made constant
PHASE DIAGRAM

• represents that states of matter

that exist as temperature and
pressure are varied.
• it is a graphic way to summarize
the conditions under which
equilibria exist between the
different states of matter.
• such a diagram also allows us to
predict which phase of a
substance is present at any given
temperature and pressure.
LATENT HEAT/ MOLAR HEAT
• heat necessary for 1 mole of a
gas, solid, or liquid to change to
another phase.
• either gained or lost.
• without latent heat, no phase
transition