Masonry Level 3 - Learning Guide

REPUBLIC OF KENYA
LEARNING GUIDE
FOR
MASONRY
LEVEL 3
TVET CDACC
P.O. BOX 15745-00100
NAIROBI
First published 2020
©Copyright TVET CDACC
All rights reserved. No part of this learning guide may be reproduced, distributed, or transmitted in
any form or by any means, including photocopying, recording, or other electronic or mechanical
methods without the prior written permission of the TVET CDACC, except in the case of brief
quotations embodied in critical reviews and certain other non-commercial uses permitted by copyright
law. For permission requests, write to the Council Secretary/CEO, at the address below:
Council Secretary/CEO
TVET Curriculum Development, Assessment and Certification Council
P.O. Box 15745–00100
Nairobi, Kenya
Email: info@tvetcdacc.go.ke
Website: www.tvetcdacc.go.ke
FOREWORD
The provision of quality education and training is fundamental to the Government’s overall strategy
for social economic development. Quality education and training will contribute to achievement of
Kenya’s development blue print and sustainable development goals. Reforms in education are
necessary to align the sector to the provisions of the Constitution of Kenya 2010. This triggered the
formulation of the Policy Framework on “Reforming Education and Training in Kenya” (Sessional
Paper No. 1 of 2019). A key provision of this policy is the radical change in the design, development
and delivery of Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) which is the key to
unlocking the country’s potential for industrialization. This policy requires that training in TVET be
Competency Based, Curriculum development be industry led, certification be based on demonstration
of competence and that mode of delivery allows for multiple entry and exit in TVET programs.
The State Department for Vocational and Technical Training (VTT) has a responsibility of facilitating
the process of inculcating knowledge, skills and attitudes necessary for catapulting the nation to a
globally competitive country, hence the paradigm shift to embrace Competency Based Education and
Training (CBET) to address the mismatch between skills acquired through training and skills needed
by industry as well as increase the global competitiveness of Kenyan labor force. The Technical and
Vocational Education and Training Act No. 29 of 2013 and the Sessional Paper No. 1 of 2019 on
Reforming Education and Training in Kenya, emphasizes the need to reform curriculum development,
assessment and certification to respond to the unique needs of the industry.
This learning guide has been developed to support the implementation of CBET curriculum in
Masonry Level 3 and is intended to guide the trainee through the learning process. It is my conviction
that this learning guide will play a critical role towards supporting the development of competent
human resource for plumbing sector’s growth and sustainable development.
PRINCIPAL SECRETARY, VOCATIONAL AND TECHNICAL TRAINING

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION
ii
PREFACE
Kenya Vision 2030 is anticipated to transform the country into a newly industrializing, “middle-income
country providing a high-quality life to all its citizens by the year 2030”. The Sustainable Development Goals
(SDGs) number four that focuses on inclusive and equitable quality education and promotion of lifelong
learning for all, further affirm that education and training is an important driver to economic development
for any country. Kenya intends to create a globally competitive and adaptive human resource base to meet
the requirements of a rapidly industrializing economy.
TVET CDACC has a responsibility of facilitating the process of inculcating knowledge, skills and attitudes
necessary for catapulting the nation to a globally competitive country, hence the paradigm shift to embrace
Competency Based Education and Training (CBET) to address the mismatch between skills acquired through
training and skills needed by industry as well as increase the global competitiveness of Kenyan labor force.
The Technical and Vocational Education and Training Act No. 29 of 2013 and the Sessional Paper No. 1 of
2019 on Reforming Education and Training in Kenya, emphasizes the need to reform curriculum
development, assessment and certification to respond to the unique needs of the industry.
To effectively implement CBET curriculum in Masonry Level 3, this learning guide has been designed and
organized with clear interactive learning activities for each learning outcome of every unit of learning. The
guide further provides information sheet, self-assessment items, tools, equipment, supplies, and materials
necessary for the particular learning outcome. This is aimed at imparting the relevant knowledge, requisite
skills and the right attitude for work.
I am grateful to the trainers involved in the development of this learning guide.
Prof. CHARLES M. M. ONDIEKI, PhD, FIET (K), Con. Eng Tech.

CHAIRMAN, TVET CDACC
iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This learning guide has been designed and developed to support the implementation of Competency
Based Education and Training (CBET) curricula in Kenya. The learning guide is intended to support
learning by providing practical and theoretical learning activities, simplified content and self-
assessment items to guide the trainee in the learning process.
I recognize with appreciation the critical role of trainers in developing this learning guide and ensuring
its alignment with National Occupational Standards (OS) and CBET curriculum. I am convinced that
this learning guide will support trainees’ acquisition of knowledge, skills and right attitude needed for
work in the construction sector.
DR. LAWRENCE GUANTAI M’ITONGA, PhD

COUNCIL SECRETARY/CEO
TVET CDACC
iv
ACRONYMS
CBET Competency Based Education and Training
CDACC Curriculum Development, Assessment and Certification Council
PPE Personal protective equipment
M Meters
Mm Millimeters
L Liters
Sqm Square meter
ISO International Standards Organisation
B Base
H Height
3D 3 dimension
2D 2 dimension
DWG Drawing
BC Basic Competency
CR Core Competency
BIM Building information modeling
HDPE High-Density Polyethylene
v
CAD Computer Aided Design
CC Common Competency
PP Polypropylene
CON Construction Sector
PL Plumbing
SDG Sustainable Development Goals
KNQA Kenya National Qualifications Authority
NEMA National Environmental Management Authority
OS Occupational Standard
OSHA Occupation Safety and Health Act
DWV Drainage Water vent
HVAC Heating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning
PVC Poly Vinyl Chloride
CI Cast Iron
WC Water Closet
PTFE Poly-Tetra-Fluoro-Ethylene
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Table of Contents
FOREWORD....................................................................................................................................... ii
PREFACE ........................................................................................................................................... iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ................................................................................................................... iv
ACRONYMS ....................................................................................................................................... v
BACKGROUND INFORMATION .................................................................................................. 1
CHAPTER 1: MENSURATION AND CALCULATION ................................................................... 3
1.1 Introduction to the unit of learning .........................................................................................................3
1.2 Summary of Learning Outcomes ............................................................................................................3
1.2.1 Learning Outcome 1: Distinguish objects to be measured and calculated ..............................................3
1.2.1.1 Introduction to the learning outcome ...........................................................................................3
1.2.1.2 Performance Standard ..................................................................................................................3
1.2.1.3 Information Sheet .........................................................................................................................4
1.2.1.4 Learning activities ..................................................................................................................... 14
1.2.1.5 Self-Assessment ........................................................................................................................ 14
1.2.1.6 Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials ............................................................................... 15
1.2.1.7 References ................................................................................................................................. 17
1.2.2 Learning Outcome 2: Use and care of measuring and calculation instruments ................................... 20
1.2.2.1 Introduction to the learning outcome ........................................................................................ 20
1.2.2.2 Performance Standard ............................................................................................................... 20
1.2.2.3 Information Sheet ...................................................................................................................... 20
1.2.2.4 Learning Activities.................................................................................................................... 35
1.2.2.5 Self-Assessment ........................................................................................................................ 36
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1.2.2.7 References ................................................................................................................................. 39
1.2.3 Learning Outcome 3: Calculate parameters of a given object ............................................................. 43
1.2.3.4 Learning Activities.................................................................................................................... 66
1.2.3.5 Self-Assessment ........................................................................................................................ 66
1.2.3.7 References ................................................................................................................................. 71
CHAPTER 2: INTERPRETATION OF WORKING DRAWINGS .................................................. 81
2.1 Introduction to the unit of learning ...................................................................................................... 81
2.2 Summary of Learning Outcomes ......................................................................................................... 81
2.2.1 Learning Outcome 1: Use drawing instruments, supplies and materials ............................................. 81
2.2.1.4 Learning Activities.................................................................................................................. 105
2.2.1.5 Self-Assessment ...................................................................................................................... 105
2.2.1.6 Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials ............................................................................. 109
2.2.1.7 References ............................................................................................................................... 110
2.2.2 Learning Outcome 2: Differentiate parts of a drawing ...................................................................... 115
2.2.2.1 Introduction to the learning outcome ...................................................................................... 115
2.2.2.2 Performance Standard ............................................................................................................. 115
2.2.2.3 Information Sheet .................................................................................................................... 115
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2.2.2.5 Self-Assessment ...................................................................................................................... 125
2.2.2.7 References ............................................................................................................................... 128
2.2.3 Learning Outcome 3: Apply isometric drawings ............................................................................... 131
2.2.3.5 Self-Assessment ...................................................................................................................... 141
2.2.3.7 References ............................................................................................................................... 144
2.2.4 Learning Outcome 4: Apply different types of scales ....................................................................... 148
2.2.4.5 Self-Assessment ...................................................................................................................... 158
2.2.4.7 References ............................................................................................................................... 163
CHAPTER 3: CONSTRUCT SIMPLE 1 LEVEL MASONRY SUBSTRUCTURES .................... 169
3.1 Introduction to the unit of learning .................................................................................................... 169
3.2 Summary of Learning Outcomes ....................................................................................................... 169
3.2.1 Learning Outcome 1: Interpret Working Drawings .......................................................................... 169
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3.2.1.5 Self-Assessment ...................................................................................................................... 183
3.2.1.6 Tools, Equipment, supplies and materials............................................................................... 184
3.2.1.7 References ............................................................................................................................... 185
3.2.2 Learning Outcome 2: Quantify of Material Requirements ............................................................... 188
3.2.2.1 Introduction to Quantify of Material Requirements................................................................ 188
3.2.2.5 Self-Assessment ...................................................................................................................... 193
3.2.2.7 References ............................................................................................................................... 195
3.2.3 Learning Outcome 3: Use masonry tools and equipment ................................................................. 198
3.2.3.1 Introduction to the Use masonry tools and equipment ............................................................ 198
3.2.3.5 Self-Assessment ...................................................................................................................... 213
3.2.3.7 References ............................................................................................................................... 216
3.2.4 Learning Outcome 4: Set out a Building .......................................................................................... 219
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3.2.4.1 Introduction to Setting out a Building..................................................................................... 219
3.2.4.5 Self-Assessment ...................................................................................................................... 239
3.2.4.7 References ............................................................................................................................... 241
3.2.5 Learning Outcome 5: Lay building foundation................................................................................. 244
3.2.5.1 Introduction to Laying a Building Foundation........................................................................ 244
3.2.5.5 Self-Assessment ...................................................................................................................... 268
3.2.5.7 References ............................................................................................................................... 273
3.2.6 Learning Outcome 6: Construct Foundation Wall ............................................................................ 277
3.2.6.1 Introduction to Constructing Foundation Wall ....................................................................... 277
3.2.6.5 Self-Assessment ...................................................................................................................... 285
3.2.6.7 References ............................................................................................................................... 287
3.2.7 Learning Outcome 7: Construct a Ground Floor Slab ...................................................................... 289
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3.2.7.1 Introduction to Constructing a Ground Floor Slab ................................................................. 289
3.2.7.5 Self-Assessment ...................................................................................................................... 295
3.2.7.7 References .............................................................................................................................. 297
CHAPTER 4: CONSTRUCTION OF SIMPLE 1 LEVEL MASONRY SUPERSTRUCTURES .. 299
4.1 Introduction to the unit of learning. ................................................................................................... 299
4.2.1 Learning outcome 1: interpret working drawings .............................................................................. 299
4.2.1.5 Self-Assessment ...................................................................................................................... 307
4.2.1.7 References ............................................................................................................................... 309
4.2.2 Learning outcome 2. Quantify material requirements ....................................................................... 312
4.2.2.5 Self-Assessment ...................................................................................................................... 329
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4.2.2.7 References ............................................................................................................................... 331
4.2.3 Learning Outcome 3 .Use Masonry Tools and Equipment ................................................................ 334
4.2.3.5 Self-Assessment ...................................................................................................................... 353
4.2.3.7 References ............................................................................................................................... 355
4.2.4 Learning Outcome 4: Set-Out Simple Building Superstructure ........................................................ 358
4.2.4.5 Self-Assessment ...................................................................................................................... 365
4.2.4.7 References ............................................................................................................................... 367
4.2.5 Learning Outcome 5: Construct Reinforced Concrete Columns And Ring Beam ............................ 370
4.2.5.5 Self-Assessment ...................................................................................................................... 384
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4.2.5.7 References ............................................................................................................................... 386
4.2.6 Learning Outcome 6: Construct Masonry Wall with Opening .......................................................... 389
4.2.6.5 Self-Assessment ...................................................................................................................... 411
4.2.6.7 References ............................................................................................................................... 413
CHAPTER 5: MASONRY WORK FINISHING ............................................................................. 417
5.2.1 Learning Outcome 1: Interpret working drawings ............................................................................ 417
5.2.1.2 Performance Standards ........................................................................................................... 418
5.2.1.5 Self-Assessment questions ...................................................................................................... 427
5.2.1.6 Tools, Equipment, Supplies, and Materials ............................................................................ 427
5.2.1.7 References ............................................................................................................................... 430
5.2.2 Learning Outcome 2: Quantify materials requirement ..................................................................... 434
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5.2.2.4 Learning activities ................................................................................................................... 451
5.2.2.5 Self-Assessment ...................................................................................................................... 451
5.2.2.7 References ............................................................................................................................... 454
5.2.3 Learning outcome 3: Use masonry tools and equipment ................................................................... 457
5.2.3.7 References ............................................................................................................................... 478
5.2.4 Learning outcome 4: Apply wall plaster with key and point ............................................................. 482
5.2.4.3 Information sheet .................................................................................................................... 482
5.2.4.5 Self-Assessment ...................................................................................................................... 491
5.2.4.7 References ............................................................................................................................... 494
5.2.5 Learning Outcome 5: Lay floor screed .............................................................................................. 498
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5.2.5.5 Self-assessment ....................................................................................................................... 503
5.2.5.1 References ............................................................................................................................... 504
5.2.6 Learning outcome 6: Face and render masonry walls........................................................................ 505
5.2.6.5 Self-Assessment ...................................................................................................................... 514
5.2.6.7 References ............................................................................................................................... 516
CHAPTER 6: PRODUCTION OF SIMPLE MASONRY PRODUCTS ......................................... 519
6.2.1 Learning Outcome 1: Identify and locate raw materials ................................................................... 519
6.2.1.7 References ............................................................................................................................... 532
6.2.2 Learning Outcome 2: Use masonry tools and equipment .................................................................. 535
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6.2.2.7 References ............................................................................................................................... 557
6.2.3 Learning Outcome 3: Produce masonry clay units ............................................................................ 560
6.2.3.1 Introduction to the learning outcome.................................................................................. 560
6.2.3.2 Performance Standard ......................................................................................................... 560
6.2.3.1 Learning Activities ................................................................................................................ 576
6.2.3.1 References ............................................................................................................................... 578
6.2.4 Learning Outcome 4: Produce concrete masonry products ............................................................... 581
6.2.4.7 References ............................................................................................................................... 588
6.2.5 Learning Outcome 5: Produce hand dressed stones........................................................................... 591
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6.2.5.7 References ............................................................................................................................... 598
6.2.6 Learning Outcome 6: Produce stabilized soil masonry units ............................................................. 601
6.2.6.1 References ............................................................................................................................... 614
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List of Figures
Figure 1: Scalene triangle ....................................................................................................................................5
Figure 2: Isosceles Triangle .................................................................................................................................6
Figure 3: Equilateral triangles ..............................................................................................................................6
Figure 4: Acute Triangle ......................................................................................................................................6
Figure 5: Right Angled triangle ...........................................................................................................................6
Figure 6: Obtuse triangle .....................................................................................................................................7
Figure 7: Rectangle ..............................................................................................................................................7
Figure 8: Square ...................................................................................................................................................7
Figure 9: parallelogram ........................................................................................................................................8
Figure 10: Rhombus.............................................................................................................................................8
Figure 11: Trapezium ...........................................................................................................................................9
Figure 12: Pentagon .............................................................................................................................................9
Figure 13: hexagon ........................................................................................................................................... 10
Figure 14: Heptagon ......................................................................................................................................... 10
Figure 15: Octagon ........................................................................................................................................... 11
Figure 16: Length.............................................................................................................................................. 11
Figure 17: Area ................................................................................................................................................. 12
Figure 18: Volume ............................................................................................................................................ 12
Figure 19: Mass................................................................................................................................................. 13
Figure 20: Temperature..................................................................................................................................... 13
Figure 21: Time................................................................................................................................................. 13
Figure 22: Calculator ........................................................................................................................................ 20
Figure 23: T-Square .......................................................................................................................................... 21
Figure 24: Compass .......................................................................................................................................... 22
Figure 25: Divider ............................................................................................................................................. 23
Figure 26: Protactor .......................................................................................................................................... 24
Figure 27: Set square ........................................................................................................................................ 24
Figure 28: vernier caliper .................................................................................................................................. 25
Figure 29: straight edge .................................................................................................................................... 27
Figure 30: try square ......................................................................................................................................... 28
Figure 31: marking gauge ................................................................................................................................. 29
Figure 32: cutting edge ..................................................................................................................................... 30
Figure 33: mortise gauge .................................................................................................................................. 30
Figure 34: tape measure .................................................................................................................................... 30
Figure 35: pictogram ......................................................................................................................................... 35
Figure 36: drawing board .................................................................................................................................. 82
Figure 37: Lettering stencil ............................................................................................................................... 87
Figure 38: scale rule .......................................................................................................................................... 88
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Figure 39: Curves.............................................................................................................................................. 89
Figure 40: paper sizes ....................................................................................................................................... 90
Figure 41: title block ......................................................................................................................................... 90
Figure 42: folding of drawing papers ................................................................................................................ 92
Figure 43: Lettering .......................................................................................................................................... 96
Figure 44: Dimensioning .................................................................................................................................. 98
Figure 45: Dimensioning 2 ............................................................................................................................... 98
Figure 49: Chain dimensioning ....................................................................................................................... 100
Figure 50: parallel dimensioning .................................................................................................................... 101
Figure 51: combined dimensioning................................................................................................................. 101
Figure 52: floor plan ....................................................................................................................................... 117
Figure 53: elevations ....................................................................................................................................... 117
Figure 54: sections .......................................................................................................................................... 118
Figure 55: site plan.......................................................................................................................................... 119
Figure 56: detail drawings .............................................................................................................................. 119
Figure 57: construction symbols ..................................................................................................................... 120
Figure 58: architectural drawings ................................................................................................................... 121
Figure 59: structural drawings ........................................................................................................................ 122
Figure 60: Civil drawings ............................................................................................................................... 122
Figure 61: electrical drawings ......................................................................................................................... 123
Figure 62: plumbing drawings ........................................................................................................................ 124
Figure 63: mechanical drawings ..................................................................................................................... 124
Figure 64: Difference between isometric projection and view ....................................................................... 132
Figure 65: principles of isometric projection .................................................................................................. 133
Figure 66: isometric projection ....................................................................................................................... 134
Figure 67: developing isometric projection .................................................................................................... 134
Figure 68: isometric drawing .......................................................................................................................... 134
Figure 69: plain scales .................................................................................................................................... 151
Figure 70: principles of diagonal scale ........................................................................................................... 153
Figure 71: diagonal scale ................................................................................................................................ 155
Figure 72: forward reading vernier scale ........................................................................................................ 157
Figure 73: metric and imperial system ............................................................................................................ 172
Figure 74: symbols on architectural drawing .................................................................................................. 182
Figure 75:substructures .................................................................................................................................. 189
Figure 76: helmet ............................................................................................................................................ 200
Figure 77: safety glasses ................................................................................................................................. 201
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Figure 78: ear muffs and plugs ....................................................................................................................... 201
Figure 79: Dust masks .................................................................................................................................... 202
Figure 80: gloves............................................................................................................................................. 202
Figure 81: safety shoes.................................................................................................................................... 203
Figure 82: safety jackets ................................................................................................................................. 204
Figure 83: scutch hammer ............................................................................................................................... 204
Figure 84: Trowel ........................................................................................................................................... 205
Figure 85: handsaw ......................................................................................................................................... 205
Figure 86: power saw ...................................................................................................................................... 206
Figure 87: masons level .................................................................................................................................. 207
Figure 88: straight edge .................................................................................................................................. 208
Figure 89: jointers ........................................................................................................................................... 208
Figure 90: masons hammer ............................................................................................................................. 209
Figure 91: blocking chisel ............................................................................................................................... 209
Figure 92: masons line .................................................................................................................................... 210
Figure 93: tape measure .................................................................................................................................. 210
Figure 94: brushes ........................................................................................................................................... 211
Figure 95: mixer.............................................................................................................................................. 211
Figure 96: frontage line ................................................................................................................................... 220
Figure 97: setting out ...................................................................................................................................... 221
Figure 98: levelling a wall .............................................................................................................................. 223
Figure 99: plumbing a wall ............................................................................................................................. 224
Figure 100: setting out instruments................................................................................................................. 226
Figure 101: orientation of a building .............................................................................................................. 227
Figure 102: taking measurements ................................................................................................................... 228
Figure 103: using a plumb bob ....................................................................................................................... 229
Figure 104: using a marking block ................................................................................................................. 230
Figure 105: testing accuracy of setting out ..................................................................................................... 233
Figure 106: Marking the Width of a Foundation Trench ................................................................................ 234
Figure 107: Batter boards................................................................................................................................ 235
Figure 108: How to Level Batter Boards ........................................................................................................ 236
Figure 109: Leveling of batter boards ............................................................................................................. 237
Figure 110: Transferring marks to batter board from corner peg ................................................................... 238
Figure 111: stay bracing.................................................................................................................................. 247
Figure 112: box sheeting ................................................................................................................................. 248
Figure 113: vertical sheeting and runner system ............................................................................................ 249
Figure 114: undisturbed earth ......................................................................................................................... 251
Figure 115: hard earth ..................................................................................................................................... 252
Figure 116: formwork for footings ................................................................................................................. 253
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Figure 117: Formwork for Stepped Foundations ............................................................................................ 255
Figure 118: strip foundation............................................................................................................................ 257
Figure 119: Testing of Sand ............................................................................................................................ 259
Figure 120: mixing platform ........................................................................................................................... 260
Figure 121: gauge box .................................................................................................................................... 262
Figure 122: mixing ingredients ....................................................................................................................... 263
Figure 123: reinforcement bars ....................................................................................................................... 266
Figure 124: hooked ends ................................................................................................................................. 267
Figure 125: bottoming of trenches .................................................................................................................. 268
Figure 126: Concrete foundation wall ............................................................................................................ 278
Figure 127: Leveling the site and laying of Drainage Pipes ........................................................................... 293
Figure 128: Concrete Floor Slab Construction ............................................................................................... 294
Figure 129: cement ......................................................................................................................................... 313
Figure 130: sand sample ................................................................................................................................. 315
Figure 131: sand sieving screen ...................................................................................................................... 316
Figure 132: bricks ........................................................................................................................................... 317
Figure 133: solid concrete block ..................................................................................................................... 318
Figure 134: dressed stones .............................................................................................................................. 320
Figure 135: stone dressing stones ................................................................................................................... 321
Figure 136: DPM ............................................................................................................................................ 324
Figure 137: hoop iron 20kg roll ...................................................................................................................... 326
Figure 138: googles......................................................................................................................................... 335
Figure 139: safety boots .................................................................................................................................. 336
Figure 140: gloves........................................................................................................................................... 336
Figure 141: helmet .......................................................................................................................................... 337
Figure 142: ear plugs ...................................................................................................................................... 338
Figure 143: dust mask ..................................................................................................................................... 338
Figure 144: reflector jacket ............................................................................................................................. 339
Figure 145: mason square ............................................................................................................................... 340
Figure 146: spirit level .................................................................................................................................... 340
Figure 147: plumb bob .................................................................................................................................... 341
Figure 148: margin trowel .............................................................................................................................. 342
Figure 149: v or square notch trowel .............................................................................................................. 343
Figure 150: cold chisel .................................................................................................................................... 343
Figure 151: spade ............................................................................................................................................ 344
Figure 152: wheel barrow ............................................................................................................................... 344
Figure 153: timber float .................................................................................................................................. 345
Figure 154: vibrator ........................................................................................................................................ 346
Figure 155: brick hammer or masons hammer ............................................................................................... 347
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Figure 156: mashing hammer ......................................................................................................................... 347
Figure 157: tape measure ................................................................................................................................ 348
Figure 158: straight edge ................................................................................................................................ 348
Figure 159: blocking chisel ............................................................................................................................. 349
Figure 160: masons line .................................................................................................................................. 350
Figure 161: care and storage of tools .............................................................................................................. 351
Figure 162: Setting out superstructure walls and columns on the floor slab .................................................. 359
Figure 163: Pythagoras Method ( triangle method) ........................................................................................ 360
Figure 164 ground floor plan for setting out ................................................................................................... 361
Figure 165: squareness .................................................................................................................................... 362
Figure 166: plumbness .................................................................................................................................... 363
Figure 167: Beam reinforcement bar marking for BBS Crossection .............................................................. 374
Figure 168: column formwork ........................................................................................................................ 377
Figure 169: architecture scale ......................................................................................................................... 420
Figure 170: geodetic survey datum ................................................................................................................. 422
Figure 171: symbols used in drawing ............................................................................................................. 426
Figure 172: hollow concrete block.................................................................................................................. 446
Figure 173: checking wall plumbness ............................................................................................................. 483
Figure 174: soil profiles .................................................................................................................................. 521
Figure 175: sedimentary rocks ........................................................................................................................ 522
Figure 176: Metamorphic rock ....................................................................................................................... 523
Figure 177: Igneous rock ................................................................................................................................ 524
Figure 178: excavator ..................................................................................................................................... 525
Figure 179: open excavation ........................................................................................................................... 527
Figure 180: Earthenware Clay ........................................................................................................................ 561
Figure 181: ball clay ....................................................................................................................................... 562
Figure 182: stoneware clay ............................................................................................................................. 563
Figure 183: porcelain clay .............................................................................................................................. 564
Figure 184: hand molding clay ....................................................................................................................... 567
Figure 185: molding using machine................................................................................................................ 568
Figure 186: firing of clay ................................................................................................................................ 569
Figure 187: brick manufacturing flow chart ................................................................................................... 570
Figure 188: stacking of bricks ......................................................................................................................... 571
Figure 189: absorption test of bricks............................................................................................................... 572
Figure 190: crushing test ................................................................................................................................. 573
Figure 191: hardness of bricks ........................................................................................................................ 573
Figure 192: soundness test of bricks ............................................................................................................... 575
Figure 193: structure test of bricks ................................................................................................................. 575
Figure 194: efflorescence test on bricks ......................................................................................................... 576
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Figure 195: stabilisation mixer ....................................................................................................................... 605
Figure 196: curing stabilized blocks ............................................................................................................... 610
List of tables
Table 1:Units of learning .....................................................................................................................................2
Table 2: types of triangles ....................................................................................................................................5
Table 3: field visit to construction site ............................................................................................................ 183
Table 4:materials schedule .............................................................................................................................. 192
Table 5: field study to construction site .......................................................................................................... 193
Table 6: masonry units measurements ............................................................................................................ 327
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BACKGROUND INFORMATION
This learning guide will enable the trainee to acquire competencies to undertake various processes in
plumbing. It provides practical and theoretical learning activities, simplified content, illustrations and
self-assessment items to guide the trainee in the learning process. It also provides links and references
for further reading.
Layout of the Trainee Guide
Performance standards: These are obtained from the performance criteria statements in the related
unit of competency of the Occupational Standards (OS).
Information Sheet: This section covers information relating to the specific learning outcome. This
information should include but not limited to meaning of terms, methods, processes/ procedures/
guidelines, Illustrations (photographs, pictures, videos, charts, plans, digital content links, simulations
links) and case studies. This section also provides additional information sources relevant to the
learning outcome e.g. books, web links.
Learning activities: This section covers practical activities related to the Performance Criteria
statements, Knowledge in relation to Performance Criteria as given under content in the curriculum
Special instructions related to learning activities.
Self-Assessment: This section must be related to the Performance Criteria, Required Knowledge and
Skills in the Occupational Standards. This section requires the trainee to evaluate their acquisition of
skills, knowledge and attitude in relation to the learning outcome. A variety of assessment items such
as written and practical tests which emphasizes on the application of knowledge, skills and attitude is
recommended.
The self-assessment items should be valid, relevant and comprehensive to the level of qualification in
the learning outcome.
Tools, equipment, materials and supplies: This section should provide for the requirements of the
learning outcome in terms of tools, equipment, supplies and materials. The section should be adequate,
relevant and comprehensive for the learning outcome.
References: Information sources should be quoted and presented as required in the APA format
The units of learning covered in this learning guide are as presented in the table below:
Table 1: Common units of learning
Unit of Learning Code Unit of Learning Title

CON/CU/PL/CC/01/3 Mensuration and Calculation
CON/CU/PL/CC/02/3 Interpretation of Working Drawings
Total 2
Table 2: Core Units of Learning
Unit of Learning Code Unit of Learning Title

CON/CU/PL/CR/01/3 Installation of Pipes in Buildings
CON/CU/PL/CR/02/3 Installation of Sanitary Appliances
CON/CU/PL/CR/03/3 Installation of Storage and Pumping System
CON/CU/PL/CR/04/3 Maintenance of Plumbing Systems

Total 4
Grand Total 6
Table 1:Units of learning
2
CHAPTER 1: MENSURATION AND CALCULATION
Unit of learning code: CON/CU/MA/CC/01/3/A
Related Unit of Competency in Occupational Standard: Measure and calculate objects’

parameters
1.1 Introduction to the unit of learning

This Unit describes the competencies required to measure and calculate various parameters of an
object. It involves Measuring and calculating objects’ parameters. This unit of learning will entail
taking measurements on given objects and making calculations of a variety of parameters using
measuring and calculation tools. It also involves maintenance of measuring and calculation tools
1.2 Summary of Learning Outcomes

1. Distinguish objects to be measured and calculated
2. Use and care of measuring and calculation instruments
3. Calculate parameters of a given object
1.2.1 Learning Outcome 1: Distinguish objects to be measured and calculated
1.2.1.1 Introduction to the learning outcome

This learning outcome specifies the content of competencies required to distinguish objects to be
measured and calculated. It includes definition of terms related to mensuration, objects to be
measured and objects to be calculated.
1.2.1.2 Performance Standard

1.1 Object or component to be measured is identified, classified and interpreted according to
the appropriate regular geometric shapes.
1.2 Measuring and calculation tools are selected and gathered as per object to be measured
or job requirements.
1.3 Specifications for measurement and calculations are obtained from relevant sources.
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1.2.1.3 Information Sheet
DIMENSIONS
GEOMETRICAL SHAPES
Geometric Shapes can be defined as figure or area closed by a boundary which is created by
combining the specific amount of curves, points, and lines.
Properties of quadrilaterals
Polygon
A polygon is a closed plane figure bounded by straight lines. A polygon which has:
i. 3 sides is called a triangle
ii. 4 sides is called a quadrilateral
iii. 5 sides is called a pentagon
iv. 6 sides is called a hexagon
v. 7 sides is called a heptagon
vi. 8 sides is called an octagon
There are five types of quadrilateral, these being:

i. rectangle
ii. square
iii. parallelogram
iv. rhombus
v. trapezium
If the opposite corners of any quadrilateral are joined by astraight line, two triangles are produced. Si
nce the sum of the angles of a triangle is 180◦, the sum of the angles of a quadrilateral is 360◦.
PROPERTIES
1. Triangle
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The properties of the triangle are:
i. The sum of all the angles of a triangle(of all types) is equal to 180°.
ii. The sum of the length of the two sides of a triangle is greater than the length of the third side.
iii. In the same way, the difference between the two sides of a triangle is less than the length of
the third side.
iv. The side opposite the greater angle is the longest side of all the three sides of a triangle.
v. The exterior angle of a triangle is always equal to the sum of the interior opposite angles.
This property of a triangle is called an exterior angle property.
vi. Two triangles are said to be similar if their corresponding angles of both triangles are
congruent and lengths of their sides are proportional.
• Area of a triangle = ½ × Base × Height

• The perimeter of a triangle = sum of all its three sides
Types of triangles:
Based on the Sides Based on the Angles

Scalene Triangle Acute angled Triangle
Isosceles Triangle Right angle Triangle
Equilateral Triangle Obtuse-angled Triangle
Table 2: types of triangles
Scalene Triangle: All the sides and angles are unequal.
Figure 1: Scalene triangle
Isosceles Triangle: It has two equal sides. Also, the angles opposite these equal sides are equal.
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Figure 2: Isosceles Triangle
Equilateral Triangle: All the sides are equal and all the three angles equal to 60°.
Figure 3: Equilateral triangles
Acute Angled Triangle: A triangle having all its angles less than 90°.
Right Angled Triangle: AFigure 4: having

triangle Acute Triangle
one of the three angles exactly 90°.
Figure 5: Right Angled triangle
Obtuse Angled Triangle: A triangle having one of the three angles more than 90°.
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Figure 6: Obtuse triangle
2. Quadrilaterals
Rectangle
i. All four angles are right angles
ii. opposite sides are parallel and equal in length
iii. diagonals AC and BD are equal in length and bisect one another
Figure 7: Rectangle
Square
i. all four angles are right angles,
ii. opposite sides are parallel,
iii. all four sides are equal in length, and
iv. diagonals PR and QS are equal in length and bisect one another at right angles.
Figure 8: Square
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Parallelogram
i. opposite angles are equal,
ii. opposite sides are parallel and equal in length, and
iii. diagonals WY and XZ bisect one another.
Figure 9: parallelogram
Rhombus
i. opposite angles are equal
ii. opposite angles are bisected by a diagonal
iii. opposite sides are parallel
iv. all four sides are equal in length
v. diagonals AC and BD bisect one another at right angles.
Figure 10: Rhombus

Trapezium
i. only one pair of sides is parallel
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Figure 11: Trapezium
3. Pentagon
Some properties of the pentagon are as follows:
i. In the pentagon, the sum of the interior angles is equal to 540°.

ii. If all the sides are equal and all the angles are of equal measure, then it is a regular polygon.
Otherwise, it is irregular.
iii. In the regular pentagon, the interior angle is 108°, and the exterior angle is of 72°.
iv. An equilateral pentagon has 5 equal sides.
v. The sum of the interior angles of a rectangular pentagon is 540°
Figure 12: Pentagon

4. Hexagon
Some properties of the hexagon are as follows:
i. All the sides are equal in length.

ii. All the interior angles measure 120°.
iii. The sum of all the interior angles of a regular hexagon is 720°.
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Figure 13: hexagon
5. Heptagon
Some properties of heptagons are as follows:
i. In heptagon, the sum of the interior angles is equal to 900 degrees

ii. The sum of exterior angles of a heptagon is 360 degrees
iii. For regular heptagon, the measure of the interior angle is about 128.57 degrees
iv. The measure of the central angle of a regular heptagon is approximately 51.43 degrees
v. The number of diagonals in a heptagon is 14
vi. Regular heptagons are also known as convex heptagons
vii. The number of triangles formed in a heptagon is 5
Figure 14: Heptagon

6. Octagon
In the case of properties, we usually consider regular octagons.
i. These have eight sides and eight angles.

ii. All the sides and all the angles are equal, respectively.
iii. There is a total of 20 diagonals in a regular octagon.
iv. The total sum of the interior angles is 1080°, where each angle is equal to 135°(135×8 =
1080)
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v. Sum of all the exterior angles of the octagon is 360°, and each angle is 45°(45×8=360).
Figure 15: Octagon

Measurements
Measurement: the process of associating numbers with physical quantities and phenomena.
Length
Length is how far from end to end. It is also called distance. E.g., the length of the guitar below is 1
meter.
The most common measurements are:
• Millimeters
• Centimeters
• Meters
• Kilometers
Figure 16: Length

Area
Area is the size of a surface: how much is inside a boundary of a flat (2-dimensional) object such as
a triangle or circle.
e.g., the area the dog is waiting patiently inside is 1 m²
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Figure 17: Area
Volume
Volume is the amount of 3-dimensional space an object occupies. Also called capacity.
e.g., the jug has exactly 1 liter of water.
Figure 18: Volume

Mass
Mass is how much matter something contains. E.g., the bar below has a mass of 1 kilogram. (Weight
is heaviness i.e., the downward force caused by gravity on an object)
The most common measurements are:
• Kilogram
• Gram
• Milligram
• Tones
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Figure 19: Mass
Temperature
Temperature is how hot or cold a thing is. It is measured using a thermometer, usually in the Celsius
or Fahrenheit scale.
e.g., the block below of ice would measure 0˚ Celsius.
Figure 20: Temperature
Time
Time is the ongoing sequence of events taking place.
We measure time using seconds, minutes, hours, days, weeks, months and years.
Figure 21: Time
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1.2.1.4 Learning activities
You are required to complete the following tasks:
a. Identify and list any five objects in the workshop with the following shapes:
• Rectangular
• Circular
• Trapezoidal
• Square
b. Identify and list the type of mensuration that can be obtained from each.
1.2.1.5 Self-Assessment
1. Which of the following is not a property of a rectangle?
a. All four angles are right angles
b. opposite sides are parallel and equal in length
c. diagonals are equal in length and bisect one another
d. all four sides are equal in length
2. is how much matter something contains.

a. mass
b. Volume
c. Length
d. Area
3. The following are quadrilaterals except:

a. rectangle
b. square
c. circle
d. rhombus
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4. Measurement is the process of associating numbers with physical quantities and phenomena.
a. False
b. True
5. Which five appropriate regular geometric shapes of objects or components can are used in
masonry?
6. State the types of quadrilateral shown in the figure below and determine the angles marked a
to L.
1.2.1.6 Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

Tools and Equipment
• Micrometer gauge (In-out, depth)
• Vernier calipers (out, inside)
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• Straight edge
• Try-square
• Protractor
• Steel rule
• Gauges
• Tape measure
• Pair of compass
• Pair of dividers
• Calculator
• T-Square
• SMP table
Supplies
• Stationery
• A work station (desk)
• Display board
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1.2.1.7 References
Jonathan Bostic., Erin Krupa., Jeffrey Shih., 2019 Quantitative Measures of Mathematical
Knowledge Researching Instruments and Perspectives
John Bird., 2005. Basic Engineering Mathematics - 4th Ed.
K.A. Stroud., with additions by Dexter. J. Booth., Engineering mathematics. Fifth edition.
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Responses
1. Which of the following is not a property of a rectangle?
a. All four angles are right angles
b. opposite sides are parallel and equal in length
c. diagonals are equal in length and bisect one another
d. all four sides are equal in length
2. is how much matter something contains.

a. mass
b. Volume
c. Length
d. Area
3. The following are quadrilaterals except:
a. rectangle
b. square
c. circle
d. rhombus
4. Measurement is the process of associating numbers with physical quantities and phenomena.
a. False
b. True
5. Which five appropriate regular geometric shapes of objects or components can are used in
masonry?
a. Square
b. Rectangular
c. Triangle
d. Sphere
e. Conical
f. Round
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6. State the types of quadrilateral shown in the figure below and determine the angles marked a
to L.
i. ABCD is a square
ii. EFGH is a rectangle
iii. JKLM is a rhombus
iv. NOPQ is a parallelogram
v. RSTU is a trapezium
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1.2.2 Learning Outcome 2: Use and care of measuring and calculation instruments

This learning outcome specifies the content of competencies required to use and care of
measuring and calculation instruments. It includes definition of terms related to measuring and
calculation instruments, use of measuring and calculation instruments and their care.

2.1 Measurements are obtained according to job requirements.
2.2 Measuring and calculation instruments are checked to the limit of accuracy of the
tool.
2.3 Measuring and calculation instruments are maintained as per manufacturer’s
instructions.
2.4 Personal Protective Equipment is used in line with occupational safety and health
regulations.

Measurement Tools
• Calculator
The most modern aid to calculations is the pocket-sized electronic calculator. With one of
these, calculations can be quickly and accurately performed, correct to about 9 significant
figures.
The scientific type of calculator has made the use of tables and logarithms largely redundant.
To help you to become competent at using your calculator check that you agree with the
answers to the following problems:
Figure 22: Calculator

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Problem: Evaluate the following, correct to 4 significant figures:
(a) 4.7826 + 0.02713
(b) 17.6941 − 11.8762
(c) 21.93 × 0.012981
Solutions:
(a) 4.7826 + 0.02713 = 4.80973 = 4.810, correct to 4 significant figures.
(b) 17.6941 − 11.8762 = 5.8179 = 5.818, correct to 4 significant figures.
(c) 21.93 × 0.012981 = 0.2846733 . . = 0.2847, correct to 4 significant figures.
Care:
i. It should be stored in a case, since the case protects it from damage from falls or
unnecessary pressures.
ii. Don't let the calculator fall on the floor.
• T square
It is used primarily to draw horizontal lines and for guiding the triangles when drawing
vertical and inclined lines. It is manipulated by sliding the working edge (inner face) of the
head along the left edge of the board until the blade is in the required position.
Figure 23: T-Square

Care:
i. Take care not to damage the ruling edge of the T-square.
ii. Dents will make it unusable.
iii. Always clean the T-square before use.
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iv. Don't use the T-square as a hammer - or an axe!
v. Don't let the T-square fall on the floor.
• Pair of compass
It is used to draw circles and arcs both in pencil and ink. It consists of two legs pivoted at the
top. One leg is equipped with a steel needle attached with a screw, and other shorter leg is,
provided with a socket for detachable inserts.
When you select compasses, test them for alignment by bending the joints and bringing the
points together.
Figure 24: Compass

Care:
i. Care should be taken never to force the adjusting nut.
ii. Threads must be kept free from rust or dirt.
iii. If possible, it is best to keep drawing instruments in a case, since the case protects
them from damage from falls or unnecessary pressures. Then, too, the lining of the
case is usually treated with a chemical that helps prevent the instruments from
tarnishing or corroding.
iv. To protect instruments from rusting when they are not in use, clean them frequently
with a soft cloth and apply a light film of oil to their surface
v. Joints on compasses and dividers should not be oiled.
vi. When the surface finish of instruments becomes worn or scarred, it is subject to
corrosion; therefore, a knife edge or an abrasive should never be used to clean
drafting instruments.
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Used chiefly for transferring distances and occasionally for dividing spaces into equal parts.
i.e. for dividing curved and straight lines into any number of equal parts, and for
transferring measurements.
When you select compasses dividers, test them for alignment by bending the joints and
bringing the points together.
Figure 25: Divider

Care:
i. Divider points should be straight and free from burrs.
ii. When the dividers are not in use, the points may be protected by sticking them into a
small piece of soft rubber eraser or cork.
iii. When points become dull or minutely uneven in length, make them even by holding
the dividers vertically, placing the legs together, and grinding them lightly back and
forth against a whetstone.
iv. The inside of the leg should remain flat and should not be ground on the stone. The
outside of the point should not be ground so that a flat surface result. In shaping the
point, be careful to avoid shortening the leg.
v. Needles on compasses and dividers should be kept sharpened to a fine taper. When
they are pushed into the drawing, they should leave a small, round hole in the paper
no larger than
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• Protractor
A protractor is a handy tool used to measure and draw angles. Generally, semi-circular in shape,
protractors are also available in full-circle, 360-degree versions.
Figure 26: Protactor

Care:
i. Take care not to damage the angling edge of the protractor.
iii. Always clean the protractor before use.
iv. Don't let the protractor fall on the floor
• Set square
They are used to construct the most common angles (i.e. 30˚, 45˚, 60˚) in technical drawings.
The 45˚ x 45˚ and 30˚ x 60˚ triangles are the most commonly used for ordinary work. They
are shown below.
Figure 27: Set square

Care:
v. Take care not to damage the edges of the set square.
vi. Dents will make it unusable.
vii. Always clean the set square before use.
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viii. Don't let the set square fall on the floor
A Vernier caliper is an instrument that measures internal or external dimensions and distances. It
allows you to take more precise measurements than you could with regular rulers.
Figure 28: vernier caliper

Using the caliper
i. Slide one of the jaws against the object.
The caliper has two types of jaws. The larger ones tighten around an object, to
measure the distance across it. The smaller jaws fit into an opening, and can then be
pushed outward to measure its internal diameter. You can adjust either pair of jaws by
sliding the smaller scale. Once you've got one of the jaws in position, tighten the
locking screw if there is one.
ii. Read the main scale where it lines up with the sliding scale's zero.
The main scale on a Vernier caliper typically tells you the whole number plus the first
decimal. Read this just as you would a ruler, measuring to the zero mark on the
sliding (Vernier) scale.
• For example, if the 0 on the sliding scale lines up with the 2 inch mark, your
measurement is 2 inches. If it lines up past 2 inches by six tenth-inch marks,
your measurement is 2.6 inches.
• If the result is between two lines, just use the smaller value. Do not try to
estimate a value between the two lines.
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iii. Read the Vernier scale.
Find the first mark on the Vernier scale that lines up perfectly with any line on the
main scale. That mark tells you the value of the additional digits.
• For example, the 14 on the Vernier scale aligns with a line on the main scale.
Let's say the scale represents 0.01-inch increments, so the 14 represents
0.014".
• It makes no difference which line on the main scale it aligns with. We've
already taken our reading from the main scale; don't take another one
iv. Add the numbers together. Add the main scale and Vernier scale results together to
get the final answer. Make sure you use the correct units as labeled on each scale, or
you won't get the right answer.
• In our example, we measured 2.6 inches on the main scale, and 0.014 inches
on the Vernier scale. Our final measurement is 2.614 inches.
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• The digits don't always line up this neatly. For example, if the main centimeter
scale reads 0.85, and the Vernier 0.01 cm scale reads 12, adding them together
results in 0.85 + 0.012 = 0.862 cm.
Care
i. Brush off any dirt.
ii. Do not pair vernier caliper with other tools.
iii. Use it for the purpose it serves.
iv. Do not expose it to temperature changes.
v. Be careful with your location of taking measurement.
vi. Do not try to repair it yourself.
vii. Clean Up After Every Use.
• Straight edge
A straightedge or straight edge is a tool used for drawing straight lines, or checking their
straightness. If it has equally spaced markings along its length, it is usually called a ruler.
Keep rulers and tapes clean and dry.
Figure 29: straight edge
Care:
i. Keep rulers and tapes clean and dry.
ii. Store rulers and tapes where they will not become bent or damaged.
• Try square
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A try square is special purpose square in wood- and metal working used to mark or measure
material. The name ‘try square’ comes from the concepts of ‘trying a surface’ (to check a
surface’s straightness or correspondence to an adjacent surface) and ‘square’ (a 90°, or right,
angle).
Try squares generally consist of two parts. The ‘blade’ is the longer portion, usually made of
metal. The ‘handle’ (or ‘stock’) is usually made of wood, plastic or metal.
Figure 30: try square

How to Use a Try Square
• Place the try square blade across the material you want to test or mark. The thicker part of the
handle should extend over the edge of the surface, allowing the blade to lie flat across the
surface.
• Hold the handle against the edge of the material. The blade is now positioned at a 90° angle
compared to the edge.
• Find where you want to mark the material by adjusting the blade. Using the blade’s edge,
draw a line across the material. To check the board’s square, align the blade with the end of
the material. Make sure the corner of the material lines up with the corner of the try square. If
there’s a gap between the try square and the material, the material isn’t square
Try and miter square maintenance and care

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Step 1 – Mark along outer edge. To ensure the angle is accurate at 90°, place the try square flush
along a flat piece of scrap (paper or wood) and use a marking knife or pencil to mark the outer
edge.
Step 2 – Flip try square. Flip the try square over the edge you have just marked.
Step 3 – Check right angle
• Gauges
There are three basic types of gauges:
1. marking gauge
2. mortise gauge
3. cutting gauge.
A marking gauge is used for marking lines parallel to the face edge and side of a surface. It
consists of a stock that slides up and down the stem, allowing various measurements to be set.
Checking accuracy:
The gauge should be set using a steel rule that has a zero end. The spur (sharp point) is pushed
into the wood as the gauge is pushed or pulled along the length of the timber.
Figure 31: marking gauge
A cutting gauge: It is used in the same way as a marking gauge, but has a blade instead of a
spur. It is important that the knife tip is kept sharp to make an accurate marking.
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Figure 32: cutting edge
A mortise gauge has two pins; one pin is fixed and the other is adjustable. It is used for marking
two parallel lines. The process of marking out is exactly the same as with the other two gauges.
Figure 33: mortise gauge
• Tape measure
A tape measure or measuring tape is a flexible ruler used to measure size or distance
Figure 34: tape measure
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Care
i. Control the blade. It is never a smart idea to let the tape measure blade whip back into the
case.
ii. Keep your tape measure clean and cool.
iii. Perform routine maintenance.
Instrument Accuracy Checks and Calibration

Step 1: Identify the Measuring Devices/Instruments
Assign a procedure number for the method of certification, calibration, and accuracy checks used for
each instrument. Documented procedures should include:
• How to conduct the check.

• Acceptable deviations/deviation range.
• Corrective action if the results are not within the accepted deviation range.
• Frequency of the checks for each instrument.
Step 2: Determine Certification, Calibration, and Accuracy Check Requirements
Calibration: Calibration involves testing the device with two different measurements or standards,
typically just above and below the range of actual use.
Accuracy Checks: Accuracy checks determine if the instrument is reading a true or correct value at a
single point. For example, routine accuracy checks of a thermometer could involve immersing the
probe into ice to determine if the thermometer measures a temperature of 32ºF.
Frequency Determination: The frequency of conducting each type of accuracy check depends on
multiple factors, including:
• Regulatory requirements.
• Manufacturer’s recommendations.
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• Industry standards.
• Level of risk to product safety if the device is inaccurate.
• Inherent reliability.
• Environment of use. Is the measuring device moved (e.g., a measuring scale moved daily)
• Potential abuse, such as receiving thermometers that may be put into pockets.
• Historic information about accuracy/past performance.
Step 3: Methodology
A key resource for accuracy checks or calibration procedures is the equipment manufacturer.
Step 4: Corrective Action

Clearly defined corrective action is needed when a device is identified as being out of the accepted
range.
A second and often overlooked corrective action is to determine if product safety (such as
measurement of a critical control point) or quality has been compromised.
Step 5: Verification
Verification encompasses at least four activities, including:
• A scheduled, periodic review of the associated records should be conducted.
• Ensure the individual(s) doing the check/calibration are following the procedures and are
questioned about what they would do if the device was inaccurate.
• Ensure the procedures and acceptable deviation range remains valid.
• At a minimum, ensure the list of devices to be calibrated remains accurate.
Step 6: Documentation and Record Keeping

A number of documents have been identified, including the procedures for conducting the accuracy
check/calibration, the accuracy check/calibration findings and potential corrective action, and record
verification.
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Personal protective equipment (PPE)
PPE means personal protective equipment or equipment you use to guarantee your (own) safety.
1. Safety for the head
Wearing a helmet offers protection and can prevent head injuries. Select a sturdy helmet that is
adapted to the working conditions.
2. Protect your eyes
The eyes are the most complex and fragile parts of our body. Welding goggles or a shield offer the
ideal protection.
3. Hearing protection
In an environment with high sound levels, it is very important to consider hearing protection.
Earplugs are very comfortable, but earmuffs are convenient on the work floor as you can quickly
put these on or take them off.
4. Maintain a good respiration
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Wearing a mask at work is necessary when coming into contact with hazardous materials. Dust
masks offer protection against fine dust and other dangerous particles. If the materials are truly toxic,
use a full-face mask. This adheres tightly to the face, to protect the nose and mouth against harmful
pollution.
5. Protect your hands with the right gloves
Hands and fingers are often injured, so it is vital to protect them properly. Depending on the sector
you work in, you can choose from gloves for different applications:
• protection against vibrations
• protection against cuts by sharp materials
• protection against cold or heat
• protection against bacteriological risks
• protection against splashes from diluted chemicals.
6. Protection for the feet
Your feet need solid protection. Safety shoes and boots are the ideal solution to protect the feet
against heavy weights. An antiskid sole is useful when working in a damp environment.
On slippery surfaces, such as snow and ice, shoe claws are recommended. Special socks can provide
extra comfort.
7. Wear the correct work clothing
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Preventing accidents is crucial in a crowded workshop. That is why a good visibility at work is a
must: a high-visibility jacket and pants made of a strong fabric can help prevent accidents. Just like
the hand protection, there are versions for different applications.
Preventing accidents: Pictograms

Not only is preparing the workshop for accidents a smart thing to do, it is even smarter to organize
the workshop in such a way that no serious accidents can take place. A simple way to make your
workshop safer is to use pictograms: indicating flammable materials, the necessary use of hearing
protection, indicating emergency exits etc.
Figure 35: pictogram
1.2.2.4 Learning Activities

a. Carry out instrument accuracy checks and calibration on the following tools:
• Vernier caliper
• Tape measure
b. Make a pictorial chart on safety within the workshop.
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1. The accuracy of the drawing depends on the quality of the instruments used.
a) True
b) False
2. Which of the following drawing tool is used to transfer dimensions when there is a repetition
of the dimensions?
a) Compass
b) Protractor
c) Divider
d) Mini – Drafter
3. For marking angles, which of the following drawing tool is used?
a) Protractor
b) Divider
c) Compass
d) French curve
4. Using 30˚ – 60˚ – 90˚ and 45˚ – 45˚ – 90˚ set squares, which of the following angle is not
possible to draw?
a) 45˚
b) 30˚
c) 10˚
d) 90˚
5. Which is the most common tool used for drawing circles?

a) French curve
b) Mini – drafter
c) Divider
d) Compass
6. Which of the following tools is used to draw horizontal lines?
a) Divider
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b) Protractor
c) T-square
d) Compass
7. _________ is used to draw curves which are not circular.

a) Compass
b) Protractor
c) French curves
d) Pro circle
8. Which instruments would one use to check the plumbness of a wall?

9. In what ways can measuring and calculating instruments be maintained?
10. Of the following regulations, which one is not required when using PPE’s?
a) It should be properly assessed before use to ensure it is suitable.
b) It should be maintained and stored properly.
c) It should not be provided with instructions on how to use it.
d) The correct PPE should be used for the correct purpose.
11. Using a calculator, evaluate the following, expressing the answers in standard form, correct
to 4 significant figures.
(a) (0.00451) ²
(b) 631.7 − (6.21 + 2.95) ²
(c) 46.27² − 31.79²

Tools and Equipment
• Straight edge
• Try-square
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• Protractor
• Steel rule
• Gauges
• Tape measure
• Pair of compass
• Calculator
• T-Square
• SMP table
Supplies
• Stationery
• Display board
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1.2.2.7 References
Adedeji B. Badiru., LeeAnn Racz., 2017 Handbook of Measurements Benchmarks for Systems
Accuracy and Precision - 1st Edition.
Resources in education, Volume 22, Issue 8
Jonathan Bostic., Erin Krupa., Jeffrey Shih., 2019 Quantitative Measures of Mathematical
Knowledge Researching Instruments and Perspectives
39
Responses
1. The accuracy of the drawing depends on the quality of the instruments used.
a) True
b) False
2. Which of the following drawing tool is used to transfer dimensions when there is a repetition
of the dimensions?
a) Compass
b) Protractor
c) Divider
d) Mini – Drafter
3. For marking angles, which of the following drawing tool is used?
a) Protractor
b) Divider
c) Compass
d) French curve
4. Using 30˚ – 60˚ – 90˚ and 45˚ – 45˚ – 90˚ set squares, which of the following angle is not
possible to draw?
a) 45˚
b) 30˚
c) 10˚
d) 90˚
5. Which is the most common tool used for drawing circles?
a) French curve
b) Mini – drafter
c) Divider
d) Compass
6. Which of the following tools is used to draw horizontal lines?
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a) Divider
b) Protractor
c) T-square
d) Compass
7. _________ is used to draw curves which are not circular.

a) Compass
b) Protractor
c) French curves
d) Pro circle
8. Which instruments would one use to check the plumbness of a wall?
i. plumb bob
ii. spirit level
iii. trowel
iv. straight edge
9. In what ways can measuring and calculating instruments be maintained?

a) Replacement of poorly and fade calibrated tools
b) Repair worn out parts
c) Cleaning of instruments after use
d) Grease the movable parts
10. Of the following regulations, which one is not required when using PPE’s?
a) It should be properly assessed before use to ensure it is suitable.
b) It should be maintained and stored properly.
c) It should not be provided with instructions on how to use it.
d) The correct PPE should be used for the correct purpose.
41
11. Using a calculator, evaluate the following, expressing the answers in standard form, correct
to 4 significant figures.
(a) (0.00451) ²
(b) 631.7 − (6.21 + 2.95) ²
(c) 46.27² − 31.79²
Solutions
(a) (0.00451)² = 2.03401 × 10−5 = 2.034 × 10− 5, correct to 4 significant figures.
(b) 631.7 − (6.21 + 2.95)² = 547.7944 = 5.477944 × 10² = 5.478 × 10², correct to 4 significant fig
ures.
(c) 46.272 − 31.792 = 1130.3088 = 1.130 × 103, correct to 4 significant figures.
42
1.2.3 Learning Outcome 3: Calculate parameters of a given object

This learning outcome specifies the content of competencies required to calculate parameters of
a given object. It includes definition of terms related to calculating parameters, and calculation of
parameters of a given parameter.

3.1 Object is measured and readings recorded based on the specification of the job.
3.2 Systems of measurement are identified and converted according to job requirements/ISO.
3.3 Calculations needed to complete work tasks are performed based on job specifications.
3.4 Numerical computation is self-checked and corrected for accuracy as per workplace
policy.
3.5 Measurements and calculations are documented as per workplace policy.

RATIO AND PROPORTIONS
The ratio of one quantity to another is a fraction, and is the number of times one quantity is
contained in another quantity of the same kind. If one quantity is directly proportional to another,
then as one quantity doubles, the other quantity also doubles.
When a quantity is inversely proportional to another, then as one quantity doubles, the other quantity
is halved.
1. Divide 126 in the ratio of 5 to 13.
Solution:
Because the ratio is to be 5 parts to 13 parts, then the total number of parts is 5+13, that is 18.
Then,
18 parts correspond to 126
Hence 1 part corresponds to 126 = 7,
43
18
5 parts correspond to 5×7=35 and 13 parts correspond to 13×7=91
(Check: the parts must add up to the total 35+91=126=the total.)
2. Apiece of timber 273 cm long is cut into three pieces in the ratio of 3 to 7 to 11. Determine
the lengths of the three pieces.
Solution:
The total number of parts is 3+7+11, that is, 21. Hence 21 parts correspond to 273 cm
1 part corresponds to 273 = 13 cm

21
3 parts correspond to 3 × 13 = 39 cm
i.e. the lengths of the three pieces are 39 cm,91 cm and 143 cm.
(Check: 39+91+143=273)
Algebraic Equations
Basic operations
Algebra is that part of mathematics in which the relations and properties of numbers are investigated
by means of general symbols.
For example, the area of a rectangle is found by multiplying the length by the breadth; this is
expressed algebraically as;
A=l ×b, where A represents the area, l the length and b the breadth.
The basic laws introduced in arithmetic are generalized in algebra.

Let a, b, c and d represent any four numbers. Then:
44
i. a + (b + c) = (a + b) + c
ii. a (bc) = (ab) c
iii. a+b=b+a
iv. ab = ba
v. a+b=a+b
c b c
vi. (a + b)(c + d)=ac + ad+bc + bd
Examples:
1. Evaluate 3ab−2bc+abc when a=1, b=3 and c=5
Solution:
Replacing a, b and c with their numerical values gives:
3ab − 2bc + abc = 3 × 1 × 3 − 2 × 3 × 5 + 1 × 3 × 5

= 9 − 30 + 15 = −6
2. Find the sum of 4a, 3b, c, −2a, −5b and 6c
Solution:
Each symbol must be dealt with individually.
For the ‘a’ terms: +4a−2a=2a
For the ‘b’ terms: +3b−5b=−2b
For the ‘c’ terms: +c+6c=7c
Thus 4a+3b+c+(−2a)+(−5b)+6c
=4a+3b+c−
3. Multiply 2a+3b by a+b
45
Solution:
4. Simplify x³ +y³
x+y
Solution:
5. Simplify 2p÷8pq
Solution:
46
Area and Volume
Area: The amount of space covered by a two-dimensional object.
Perimeter: The distance around a two-dimensional object.
Volume: The amount of three-dimensional space inside an object or that is enclosed within a
container.
Surface area: The total area of the surface of a three-dimensional object.
Description Formula Variables

1. Area of a rectangle A=l·w l = length, w = width
2. Perimeter of a rectangle P = 2(l + w) l = length, w = width
3. Area of a circle A = € r2 r = radius of circle
4. Circumference of a circle C = 2πr r = radius of circle
5. Volume of a rectangular solid V=l·w·h l = length, w = width, h = height
6. Volume of a cylinder V = € r²h r = radius; h = height
7. Surface area of a cube SA = 6l² l = length of side
Equation 1: Surface Formulas
TRIANGLE
47
Area = ½ × b × h
Equation 2: Area of a triangle
b = base
h = vertical height
Examples:
1. Find the area of an acute triangle with a base of 13 cm and a height of 5 cm.
Solution:
A = (½)× b × h sq.units
A = (½) × (13 cm) × (5 cm)
A = (½) × (65 cm²)
A = 32.5 cm²
2. Find the area of a right-angled triangle with a base of 7 cm and a height of 8 cm.
Solution:
A = (½) × b × h sq.units
A = (½) × (7 cm) × (8 cm)
48
A = (½) × (56 cm²)
A = 28 cm²
3. Find the area of an obtuse-angled triangle with a base of 4 cm and a height 7 cm.
Solution:
A = (½) × b × h sq.units
A = (½) × (4 cm) × (7 cm)
A = (½) × (28 cm2)
SQUARE
Area = a²
Equation 3: area of a square
a = length of side
Examples
49
1. Find the area of the square of side 16 cm.
Solution:
Side of the square = a = 16 cm
Area of the square = a²
= 16² cm²
= 256 cm²
2. Find the length of the square whose area is 529 cm².
Solution:
Area of the square = A = 529 cm2

Side of the square = a =?
Area of the square = A = a²

⇒ 529 cm² = a²
⇒ a = 23 cm
Hence, the length of the side of this square is 23 cm
Parallelogram
50
Area = b × h
Equation 4: area of a parallelogram
b = base
h = vertical height
Examples:
1. Find the area of a parallelogram with base 24 m and height 17 m.
Solution:
A = bh
A =24 X 17
A = 408 m2
2. The base of a parallelogram is 15 cm and the height is 10cm. What are the area and perimeter
of this parallelogram?
Solution:
A = bh
A = 15 X 10
A = 150cm2
51
3. A parallelogram has a base of 3x, a height of x, and the other side of the parallelogram is 2x.
If the area of this parallelogram is 15, what is its perimeter?
Solution:
A = bh = (3x)x = 3x2
A = 15
3x2 = 15
x2 = 5
x = √5
Since x = √5, we know the height h = √5, the base b = 3x = x√5 and the other side is 2x =
2√5.
The perimeter is the sum of the four sides, namely the two bases and two other sides.
Perimeter = 2 * (3 * √5) + 2 * (2 *√5 ) = 10√5
Circle
52
Area = π × r2
Equation 5: area of a circle
Circumference = 2 × π × r
r = radius
Examples:
1. Find the area of a circle with a radius of 5 meters.
Solution:
Apply the formula: A=πr2 with radius r=5. Remember that π is about 3.14.
A=π (5)² = 25π

= 75.5m²
2. The area of a circle is 81π square units. What is the radius of this circle?
Solution:
A = πr² Substitute in A=81π Since you know this is the area.
81π = πr²
Divide both sides by π
81= r²
This can also be written as: r² = 81
53
Take the square root to find r. Since this is a radius, the value of r must be positive.
R = √ 81 = 9
Therefore, the radius must be 9.
Trapezium
Area = ½(a+b) × h
h = vertical height
Equation 6: area of a trapezium
Examples
1. Find the area of the trapezium ABCD shown below.
Solution:
Area of trapezium = (1/2) (a + b)h
Substitute a = 5, b = 12 and h = 4.
= (1/2) (5 + 12)4
54
= (1/2) (17)4
= 34 cm²
2. In a trapezium the measurement of one parallel side two more than the other parallel side and
the height is 4 cm. The area of the trapezium is 64 cm2. Find the lengths of the two parallel
sides.
Solution:
Let 'a' and 'b' be the two parallel sides.

One parallel side is two more than the other parallel side.
Then,
a=b+2
Area of the trapezium = 64 cm²
(1/2) (a + b) h = 64
Substitute h = 4 and a = b + 2.
(1/2) (b + 2 + a) 4 = 64
(2b + 2) 2 = 64
Divide each side by 2.
2b + 2 = 32
Subtract 2 from each side.
2b = 30
Divide each side by 2.

b = 15
Then,
55
a=b+2
a = 15 + 2
a = 17
So, the lengths of the two parallel sides are 15 cm and 17 cm.
3. The shape of the top surface of a table is a trapezium. Find its area, if its parallel sides are 1
m and 1.2 m and perpendicular distance between 0.8 m.
Solution:
Area of a the top of surface of the table (trapezium) is
= (1/2) (a + b) h
= (1/2) (1.2 + 1) 0.8
= (1/2) (2.2) 0.8
= 1.1 (0.8)
= 8.8 m²
56
Rectangle
Area = w × h
w = width
h = height
Equation 7: area of a triangle
Examples
1. Find the area of the rectangle of length 17 cm and breadth 13 cm.
Solution:
Area of rectangle = length × breadth
= (17 × 13) cm²
= 221 cm²
2. Find the area of the rectangle if its perimeter is 48 cm and its breadth is 6 cm.
Solution:
P = 2 (l + b)
Here, P = 48 cm; b = 6 cm
Therefore, 48 = 2 (l + 6)
= 48 = l + 6
2
= 24 = l + 6
= 24 - 6 = l
= 18 = l
57
Therefore, length = 18 cm
Now, area of rectangle = l × b = 18 × 6 cm² = 108 cm²
3. Find the breadth and perimeter of the rectangle if its area is 96 cm² and the length is 12 cm.
Solution:
Given, A = 96 cm² and l = 12 cm

A=l×b
Therefore, 96 = 12 × b
= 96 = b
12
b = 8 cm
Now, P = 2 (l + b)
= 2 (12 + 8)
= 2 × 20
= 40 cm
4. The breadth of the rectangle is 8 cm and A its diagonal is 17 cm. Find the area of the
rectangle and its perimeter.
Solution:
58
Using Pythagoras theorem,
BD2 = DC2 + BC2

= 172 = DC² + 8²
= 289 - 64 = DC²
= 225 = DC²
= 15 = DC
Therefore, length of rectangle = 15 cm

So, area of rectangle = l × b
= 15 × 8 cm²
= 120 cm²
Perimeter of rectangle = 2 (15 + 8) cm

= 2 × 23 cm
= 46 cm
Cube
V=a³ a = edge
Equation 8: Volume of a cube
Prism
59
volume of a prism is V=Bh b = base
h = height
Equation 9: Volume of a prism
Find the volume of the prism shown below;
Solution:
The formula for the volume of a prism is V=Bh , where B is the base area and h is the height.
The base of the prism is a rectangle. The length of the rectangle is 9 cm and the width is 7 cm.
The area A of a rectangle with length l and width w is A=lw .
So, the base area is 9×7 or 63 cm2 .

60
The height of the prism is 13 cm.
Substitute 63 for B and 13 for h in V=Bh .
V=(63)(13)
Multiply.
V=819
Therefore, the volume of the prism is 819 cm³
Cylinder
V=πr²h r = radius
h = height
Equation 10: volume of a cylinder
A = 2πr2 + 2πrh
Equation 11: Area of a cylinder
Question 1: Calculate the volume of a given cylinder having height 20 cm and base radius of 14 cm.
(Take pi = 22/7)
61
Solution:
Given:
Height = 20 cm
radius = 14 cm
we know that;
Volume, V = πr2h cubic units
V=(22/7) × 14 × 14 × 20
V= 12320 cm3
Therefore, the volume of a cylinder = 12320 cm³
Question 2: Calculate the radius of the base of a cylindrical container of volume 440 cm3. Height of
the cylindrical container is 35 cm. (Take pi = 22/7)
Solution:
Given:
Volume = 440 cm3
Height = 35 cm
We know from the formula of cylinder;
Volume, V = πr2h cubic units
So, 440 = (22/7) × r2 × 35
62
r2 = (440 × 7)/(22 × 35) = 3080/770 = 4
Therefore, r = 2 cm
Therefore, the radius of a cylinder = 2 cm.
Pyramid
V = lwh l = base length

3 w = base width
h = pyramid height
Equation 12: Volume of a pyramid
1. A pyramid has a square base of side 4 cm and a height of 9 cm. Find its volume.
2. Find the volume of a rectangular-based pyramid whose base is 8 cm by 6 cm and height is 5

cm.
63
3. Find the volume of the following triangular pyramid, rounding your answer to two decimal
places.
Cone
64
V=πr² h r = radius
3 h = height
Equation 13: Volume of a cone
Find the volume of the cone shown.
Solution:
From the figure, the radius of the cone is 8 cm and the height is 18 cm.
The formula for the volume of a cone is,
V=1πr²h
3
Substitute 8 for r and 18 for h.
V=1π (8)² (18)
65
3
Simplify.
V=1π(64)(18) = 384π ≈ 1206.4

3
Therefore, the volume of the cone is about 1206.4 cm³

Practical task:
1. Assemble the following objects and find their area and volume:
a. A plumb bob
b. A standard clay brick
c. Boning rod
d. Mallet
1. If 3 people can complete a task in 4 hours, find how long it will take 5 people to complete the
same task, assuming the rate of work remains constant.
2. An alloy is made up of metals A and B in the ratio 2.5:1 by mass. How much of A has to be
added to 6 kg of B to make the alloy?
3. Find:
i. the cross-sectional area of the girder shown in figure a
ii. the area of the path shown in figure b
66
4. The figure below shows the gable end of a building. Determine the area of brickwork in the
gable end.
5. A wire in the shape of rectangle of length 25 cm and breadth 17 cm is rebent to form a

square. What will be the measure of each side?
6. How many envelopes can be made out of a sheet of paper 100 cm by 75 cm, supposing 1
envelope requires 20 cm by 5 cm piece of paper?
7. If one can of paint covers 0.5 how many cans of paint will be needed, if only one coat of
paint is applied?
67
8. Calculate the volume (in cubic centimeters) of a prism that is 5 m long, 40 cm wide and
2,500 mm high.
9. How many square tiles (20 cm x 20 cm) are needed to coat the sides and base of a pool which
is 10 m long, 6 meters wide and 3 m deep?
10. A cylindrical container with a radius of 10 cm and a height of 5 cm is filled with water. If the
total mass of the filled container is 2 kg, what is the mass of the empty container?
11. For a party, Louis has made about 10 conical hats out of cardboard. How much cardboard
was used in total if each cap has a radius of 15 cm and a slant height of 25 cm?
12. A cube with an edge of 20 cm is filled with water. Would this amount of water fit in a sphere
with a 20 cm radius?
13. A rectangular prism of volume 3200 mm³ has a rectangular base of length 10 mm and width
8 mm. Find the height h of the prism.
14. The area of one square face of a cube is equal to61 cm². Find the volume of the cube.
68
15. The triangular base of a prism is a right triangle of sides a and b = 2a. The height h of the
prism is equal to 10 mm and its volume is equal to 40 mm3, find the lengths of the sides a
and b of the triangle.
16. Find the thickness x of the hollow cylinder of height 100 cm if the volume between the inner
and outer cylinders is equal to11000 mm³ and the outer diameter is 12 mm.
17. Find the volume of the hexagonal prism whose base is a regular hexagon of side x = 10 cm.

Tools and Equipment
69
• Straight edge
• Try-square
• Protractor
• Steel rule
• Gauges
• Tape measure
• Pair of compass
• Calculator
• T-Square
• SMP table
Supplies
• Stationery
• Display board
70
1.2.3.7 References
John Bird., 2005., Basic Engineering Mathematics - 4th Ed.
K.A. Stroud., with additions by Dexter. J. Booth., Engineering mathematics., fifth edition.
71
Responses
1. If 3 people can complete a task in 4 hours, find how long it will take 5 people to complete the
same task, assuming the rate of work remains constant.
The more the number of people, the more quickly the task is done, hence inverse
proportion exists.
3 people complete the task in 4 hours,
1 person takes three times as long, i.e. 4×3=12 hours,
5 people can do it in one fifth of the time that one person takes, that is
12 hours or 2 hours 24 minutes.
5
2. An alloy is made up of metals A and B in the ratio 2.5:1 by mass. How much of A has to be
added to 6 kg of B to make the alloy?
Ratio A: B 2.5:1 i.e. A = 2.5 = 2.5
B 1
When B=6 kg, A= 2.5 from which, A=6×2.5=15 kg

6
Solution:
3. Find:
iii. the cross-sectional area of the girder shown in figure a
iv. the area of the path shown in figure b
72
Solution:
a. The girder may be divided into three separate rectangles as shown.
Area of rectangle A = 50 × 5 = 250 mm²
Area of rectangle B = (75 − 8 − 5) × 6 = 62 × 6 = 372 mm²
Area of rectangle C = 70 × 8 = 560 mm²
Total area of girder = 250 + 372 + 560 = 1182 mm² or 11.82 cm²
b. Area of path = area of large rectangle − area of small rectangle
= (25 × 20) − (21 × 16) = 500 − 336 = 164 m2
4. The figure below shows the gable end of a building. Determine the area of brickwork in the
gable end.
73
Solution:
The shape is that of a rectangle and a triangle.
Area of rectangle = 6 × 8 = 48 m²
Area of triangle = 12 × base × height.
CD = 4 m, AD = 5 m, hence AC = 3 m (since it is a 3, 4, 5 triangle).

Hence, area of triangle ABD = 12 × 8 × 3 = 12 m²
Total area of brickwork = 48 + 12 = 60 m²
5. A wire in the shape of rectangle of length 25 cm and breadth 17 cm is rebent to form a

square. What will be the measure of each side?
Solution:
Perimeter of rectangle = 2 (25 + 17) cm

= 2 × 42
= 84 cm
Perimeter of square of side x cm = 4x
Therefore, perimeter of rectangle = Perimeter of Square
74
84 cm = 4x
⇒ x = 21
Therefore, each side of square = 21 cm
6. How many envelopes can be made out of a sheet of paper 100 cm by 75 cm, supposing 1
envelope requires 20 cm by 5 cm piece of paper?
Solution:
Area of the sheet = 100 × 75 cm² = 7500 cm²

Area of envelope = 20 × 5 cm = 100 cm²
Number of envelopes that can be made = Area of sheet
Area of envelope
= 7500
100
= 75 envelopes
7. The wall is in the shape as shown below has to be painted. If one can of paint covers 0.5 m2,
how many cans of paint will be needed, if only one coat of paint is applied?
Solution :
In the figure shown above, the perpendicular distance between the two sides BC and AB at any
point is same, which is 5 cm.
75
Then, the sides BC and AD are parallel.
In the quadrilateral above, because the two sides BC and AD are parallel, ABCD is a
trapezium.
Let 'a' and 'b' be the lengths of two parallel sides and.
a = BC = 5cm
b = AD = AF + FE + ED = 3 + 5 + 4 = 12 cm
Height (h) = 5 cm
Area of the trapezium ABCD is
= (1/2) (a + b)h
Substitute a = 5, b = 12 and h = 5.
= (1/2) (5 + 12)5
= 42.5 m²
One can of paint covers 0.5 m².
Number of cans of paint required 42.5 m² is = 42.5 / 0.5
= 425 / 5 = 85
So, 85 cans of paint required to cover the above wall.
76
8. Calculate the volume (in cubic centimeters) of a prism that is 5 m long, 40 cm wide and
2,500 mm high.
9. How many square tiles (20 cm x 20 cm) are needed to coat the sides and base of a pool which
is 10 m long, 6 meters wide and 3 m deep?
10. A cylindrical container with a radius of 10 cm and a height of 5 cm is filled with water. If the
total mass of the filled container is 2 kg, what is the mass of the empty container?
11. For a party, Louis has made about 10 conical hats out of cardboard. How much cardboard
was used in total if each cap has a radius of 15 cm and a slant height of 25 cm?
77
12. A cube with an edge of 20 cm is filled with water. Would this amount of water fit in a sphere
with a 20 cm radius?
13. A rectangular prism of volume 3200 mm³ has a rectangular base of length 10 mm and width
8 mm. Find the height h of the prism.
14. The area of one square face of a cube is equal to 64 cm2. Find the volume of the cube.
78
15. The triangular base of a prism is a right triangle of sides a and b = 2a. The height h of the
prism is equal to 10 mm and its volume is equal to 40 mm3, find the lengths of the sides a
and b of the triangle.
16. Find the thickness x of the hollow cylinder of height 100 cm if the volume between the inner
and outer cylinders is equal to 11000 Pi mm3 and the outer diameter is 12 mm.
79
17. Find the volume of the hexagonal prism whose base is a regular hexagon of side x = 10 cm.
80
CHAPTER 2: INTERPRETATION OF WORKING DRAWINGS
Unit of learning code: CON/CU/MA/CC/02/3
Related Unit of Competency in Occupational Standard: Interpret working drawings.

This Unit describes the competencies required to interpret construction working drawings. It
involves interpreting architectural and engineering drawings. This unit of learning will entail
identification of symbols, differentiation of drawings, identification of parts of a drawing and
sketching out details of different elements of a drawing.

1. Use drawing instruments, supplies and materials
2. Differentiate parts of a drawing
3. Apply isometric drawings
4. Apply different types of scales
2.2.1 Learning Outcome 1: Use drawing instruments, supplies and materials

This learning outcome specifies the content of competencies required to use drawing instruments,
supplies and materials. It includes definition of terms related to drawings, use and care of drawing
instruments and use of drawing materials.

1.1 Drawing instruments are identified and gathered based on job requirements.
1.2 Drawing supplies and materials are identified and gathered based on the job
specifications.
1.3 Drawing instruments are used and maintained as per manufacturer’s instructions.
1.4 Supplies and materials are used as per workplace policy.
1.5 Waste supplies and materials are disposed in due regard to environmental protection and
conservation.
81
1.6 Personal Protective Equipment is used in line with occupational safety and health
regulations.
DRAWING INSTRUMENTS, SUPPLIES AND MATERIALS

Introduction
To record information on paper instruments and equipment are needed. Engineering drawing is
entirely a graphic language hence instruments are essentially needed. A drawing must be clear, neat
and legible in order to serve its purpose. Hence it is extremely important for engineers to have good
speed, accuracy, legibility and neatness in the drawing work.
Drawing instruments
1. Drawing boards
It is a board whose top surface is perfectly smooth and level on which the drawing paper is
fastened.
Figure 36: drawing board

Care of drawing board
i. It should always be in good (drawing) working condition.
82
ii. It must always be clean on or before using.
iii. Do not leave any kind of marks on your board to retain its smoothness.
Care of a drawing sheet

i. It should be stored in rolled form.
ii. It should not be crumpled or wet or kept in a moist or cold place.
iii. Should be kept together with other supplies to avoid losing it.
2. T square
It is used primarily to draw horizontal lines and for guiding the triangles when drawing
vertical and inclined lines. It is manipulated by sliding the working edge (inner face) of the
head along the left edge of the board until the blade is in the required position.
Care:
i. Take care not to damage the ruling edge of the T-square.
iii. Always clean the T-square before use.
iv. Don't use the T-square as a hammer - or an axe!
v. Don't let the T-square fall on the floor.
3. Set square
They are used to construct the most common angles (i.e. 30˚, 45˚, 60˚) in technical drawings.
The 45˚ x 45˚ and 30˚ x 60˚ triangles are the most commonly used for ordinary work. They
are shown below.
83
Care:
i. Take care not to damage the edges of the set square.
iii. Always clean the set square before use.
iv. Don't let the set square fall on the floor
4. Compass
It is used to draw circles and arcs both in pencil and ink. It consists of two legs pivoted at the
top. One leg is equipped with a steel needle attached with a screw, and other shorter leg is,
provided with a socket for detachable inserts.
Care:
i. Care should be taken never to force the adjusting nut.
ii. Threads must be kept free from rust or dirt.
iii. If possible, it is best to keep drawing instruments in a case, since the case protects
them from damage from falls or unnecessary pressures. Then, too, the lining of the
case is usually treated with a chemical that helps prevent the instruments from
tarnishing or corroding.
84
iv. To protect instruments from rusting when they are not in use, clean them frequently
with a soft cloth and apply a light film of oil to their surface
v. Joints on compasses and dividers should not be oiled.
vi. When the surface finish of instruments becomes worn or scarred, it is subject to
corrosion; therefore, a knife edge or an abrasive should never be used to clean
drafting instruments.
5. Divider
Used chiefly for transferring distances and occasionally for dividing spaces into equal parts.
i.e. for dividing curved and straight lines into any number of equal parts, and for
transferring measurements.
Care:
i. Divider points should be straight and free from burrs.
ii. When the dividers are not in use, the points may be protected by sticking them into a
small piece of soft rubber eraser or cork.
iii. When points become dull or minutely uneven in length, make them even by holding
the dividers vertically, placing the legs together, and grinding them lightly back and
forth against a whetstone.
iv. The inside of the leg should remain flat and should not be ground on the stone. The
outside of the point should not be ground so that a flat surface result. In shaping the
point, be careful to avoid shortening the leg.
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v. Needles on compasses and dividers should be kept sharpened to a fine taper. When
they are pushed into the drawing, they should leave a small, round hole in the paper
no larger than
6. Protractor
A protractor is a handy tool used to measure and draw angles. Generally, semi-circular in
shape, protractors are also available in full-circle, 360-degree versions.
Care:
i. Take care not to damage the angling edge of the protractor.
iii. Always clean the protractor before use.
iv. Don't let the protractor fall on the floor
7. Straight edge
A straightedge or straight edge is a tool used for drawing straight lines, or checking their
straightness. If it has equally spaced markings along its length, it is usually called a ruler.
Keep rulers and tapes clean and dry.
Care:
i. Keep rulers and tapes clean and dry.

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8. Lettering stencil
In practice, the (object) stencil is usually a thin sheet of material, such as paper, plastic, wood or
metal, with letters or a design cut from it, used to produce the letters or design on an underlying
surface by applying pigment through the cut-out holes in the material.
Figure 37: Lettering stencil
Care:
Wash with warm soap and water immediately after use. Wash before using with food or
cosmetics. Do not use with ammonia-based cleaners, as it may damage the stencil. Do not
expose to excessive heat or flame.
9. Scale rule
A number of kinds of scales are available for varied types of engineering design. Scales with
beveled edges graduated in mm are usually used.
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Figure 38: scale rule
Care:
i. Ensure the rule is clean and dry before storing. They can usually be cleaned with soap
and water or a mild solvent.
ii. Metal rules can have a little bit of oil rubbed onto them, occasionally, to help prevent
rust.
iii. They should be stored flat in a drawer or toolbox, so they won’t get bent and the
edges won’t get damaged.
10. French curves
French curves are available in different shapes. First a series of points are plotted along the
desired path and then the most suitable curve is made along the edge of the curve. A flexible
curve consists of a lead bar inside rubber which bends conveniently to draw a smooth curve
through any set of points.
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Figure 39: Curves
Care:
i. Keep them clean and dry.

Drawing supplies and materials

• Drawing papers
Drawing paper is the paper, on which drawing is to be made. All engineering drawings are
made on sheets of paper of strictly defined sizes. The use of standard size saves paper and
ensures convenient storage of drawings.
Description of sizes of drawing paper

Size designation 11 12 22 24 44
Sheet dimensions in mm 297x210 297x420 594x420 594x841 1,189x841
Corresponding designation A4 A3 A2 A1 A0
of paper sheets according to
the U.S.S.R Standard (for
references)
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Figure 40: paper sizes
Title Block
A title block is a rectangular frame that is located at the bottom of the sheet. It is recommended that
space should be provided in all title blocks for such information as description of title of the
drawing, dates, designer (drawer), and name of enterprise or educational institute, size (scale).
Figure 41: title block
Sample for title block
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TITLE:
DRAWN BY:
CHECKED BY:
ASSIGN. NO.
SCALE: INSTITUTION:
DATE: 17/11/2020
Folding of drawing papers:
Two methods of folding of drawing sheets, one suitable for filing or binding and the other method
for keeping in filing cabinets are specified by BIS. In both the methods of folding, the Title Block is
always visible.
Folding of drawing sheet for filing or binding
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Figure 42: folding of drawing papers
• Drawing pencils
Pencils with leads of different degrees of hardness or grades are available in the market. The
hardness or softness of the lead is indicated by 3H, 2H, H, HB, B, 2B, 3B, etc. The grade HB
denotes medium hardness of lead used for general purpose. The hardness increases as the
value of the numeral before the letter H increases. The lead becomes softer, as the value of
the numeral before B increases
HB (Soft grade): for Border lines, lettering and free sketching
H (Medium grade): for Visible outlines, visible edges and boundary lines
2H (Hard grade): for construction lines, Dimension lines, Leader lines, Extension lines,
Centre lines, Hatching lines and Hidden lines.
• Masking tape
The tape that is used to hold paper on the drawing board
• Rubber or eraser
Extra lines or curves which are not required in the drawing are to be rubbed out or erased. Hence
a rubber or eraser are required in the drawing work. Erasers are available in many degrees of
hardness, size and shape.
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Lettering and Lines
Lines
Types of lines and their applications:
• Visible Outlines, Visible Edges (Continuous wide lines): The lines drawn to represent the
visible outlines/ visible edges / surface boundary lines of objects should be outstanding in
appearance.
• Dimension Lines (Continuous narrow Lines): Dimension Lines are drawn to mark
dimension.
• Extension Lines (Continuous narrow Lines): There are extended slightly beyond the
respective dimension lines.
• Construction Lines (Continuous narrow Lines): Construction Lines are drawn for
constructing drawings and should not be erased after completion of the drawing.
• Hatching / Section Lines (Continuous Narrow Lines): Hatching Lines are drawn for the
sectioned portion of an object. These are drawn inclined at an angle of 45° to the axis or to
the main outline of the section.
• Guide Lines (Continuous Narrow Lines): Guide Lines are drawn for lettering and should not
be erased after lettering.
• Break Lines (Continuous Narrow Freehand Lines): Wavy continuous narrow line drawn
freehand is used to represent break of an object.
• Dashed Narrow Lines (Dashed Narrow Lines): Hidden edges / Hidden outlines of objects
are shown by dashed lines of short dashes of equal lengths of about 3 mm, spaced at equal
distances of about 1 mm. the points of intersection of these lines with the outlines / another
hidden line should be clearly shown.
• Center Lines (Long-Dashed Dotted Narrow Lines): Center Lines are drawn at the center of
the drawings symmetrical about an axis or both the axes. These are extended by a short
distance beyond the outline of the drawing.
• Cutting Plane Lines: Cutting Plane Line is drawn to show the location of a cutting plane. It
is long-dashed dotted narrow line, made wide at the ends, bends and change of direction. The
direction of viewing is shown by means of arrows resting on the cutting plane line.
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• Border Lines: Border Lines are continuous wide lines of minimum thickness 0.7 mm
Precedence of Lines
• When a Visible Line coincide with a Hidden Line or Center Line, draw the Visible Line.
Also, extend the Center Line beyond the outlines of the view.
• When a Hidden Line coincides with a Center Line, draw the Hidden Line.
• When a Visible Line coincides with a Cutting Plane, draw the Visible Line.
• When a Center line coincides with a Cutting Plane, draw the Center Line and show the
Cutting Plane line outside the outlines of the view at the ends of the Center Line by thick
dashes.
Lettering
Lettering is defined as writing of titles, sub-titles, dimensions, etc., on a drawing.
Importance of Lettering
To undertake production work of an engineering components as per the drawing, the size and other
details are indicated on the drawing. This is done in the form of notes and dimensions.
Main Features of Lettering are legibility, uniformity and rapidity of execution. Use of drawing
instruments for lettering consumes more time. Lettering should be done freehand with speed.
Practice accompanied by continuous efforts would improve the lettering skill and style. Poor
lettering mars the appearance of an otherwise good drawing.
BIS and ISO Conventions

IS 9609 (Part 0) : 2001 and SP 46 : 2003 (Lettering for technical drawings) specify lettering in
technical product documentation. This BIS standard is based on ISO 3098-0: 1997.
Single Stroke Letters

The word single-stroke should not be taken to mean that the lettering should be made in one stroke
without lifting the pencil. It means that the thickness of the letter should be uniform as if it is
obtained in one stroke of the pencil.
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Types of Single Stroke Letters
i. Lettering Type A: (i) Vertical and (ii) Sloped (at 75°to the horizontal)
ii. Lettering Type B : (i) Vertical and (ii) Sloped (at 75° to the horizontal)
In Type A, height of the capital letter is divided into 14 equal parts, while in Type B, height of the
capital letter is divided into 10 equal parts. Type B is preferred for easy and fast execution, because
of the division of height into 10 equal parts.
Vertical letters are preferred for easy and fast execution, instead of sloped letters.
Note: Lettering in drawing should be in CAPITALS (i.e., Upper-case letters).

Lower-case (small) letters are used for abbreviations like mm, cm, etc.
Size of Letters
• Size of Letters is measured by the height h of the CAPITAL letters as well as numerals.
• Standard heights for CAPITAL letters and numerals recommended by BIS are given below:
1.8, 2.5, 3.5, 5, 6, 10, 14 and 20 mm
Note: Size of the letters may be selected based upon the size of drawing.
Guide Lines
In order to obtain correct and uniform height of letters and numerals, guide lines are drawn, using
2H pencil with light pressure. HB grade conical end pencil is used for lettering.
Procedure for Lettering

1. Thin horizontal guide lines are drawn first at a distance ' h' apart.
2. Lettering Technique: Horizontal lines of the letters are drawn from left to right. Vertical,
inclined and curved lines are drawn from top to bottom.
3. After lettering has been completed, the guidelines are not erased.
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Lettering practice
Practice of lettering capital and lower - case letters and numerals of type B are shown below
Figure 43: Lettering
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The following are some of the guidelines for lettering
• Drawing numbers, title block and letters denoting cutting planes, sections are written in
10 mm size.
• Drawing title is written in 7 mm size.
• Hatching, sub-titles, materials, dimensions, notes, etc., are written in 3.5 mm size.
• Space between lines = ~ h.
• Space between words may be equal to the width of alphabet M or 3/5 h.
Dimensioning
The expression of features on a drawing, using lines, symbols, figures and notes is called
dimensioning.
Dimensioning should follow these guidelines:
• Accuracy: correct values must be given.
• Clearness: dimensions must be placed in appropriate positions.
• Completeness: nothing must be left out, and nothing duplicated.
• Readability: the appropriate line quality must be used for legibility.
Principles of Dimensioning
Some of the basic principles of dimensioning are given below.
1. All dimensional information necessary to describe a component clearly and completely shall
be written directly on a drawing.
2. Each feature shall be dimensioned once only on a drawing, i.e., dimension marked in one
view need not be repeated in another view.
3. Dimension should be placed on the view where the shape is best seen
4. As far as possible, dimensions should be expressed in one unit only preferably in millimeters,
without showing the unit symbol (mm).
5. As far as possible dimensions should be placed outside the view.
6. Dimensions should be taken from visible outlines rather than from hidden lines.
7. No gap should be left between the feature and the start of the extension line.
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8. Crossing of centre lines should be done by a long dash and not a short dash.
Figure 44: Dimensioning
Placing the Dimensions where the Shape is Best Shown
Figure 45: Dimensioning 2
Placing Dimensions Outside the View
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Marking the dimensions from the visible outlines
Marking of Extension Lines
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Crossing of Centre Lines
Arrangement of Dimensions
The arrangement of dimensions on a drawing must indicate clearly the purpose of the design of
the object. They are arranged in three ways.
1. Chain dimensioning
2. Parallel dimensioning
3. Combined dimensioning.
1. Chain dimensioning
Chain of single dimensioning should be used only where the possible accumulation of tolerances
does not endanger the fundamental requirement of the component.
2. Parallel dimensioning
In parallel dimensioning, a number of dimension lines parallel to one another and spaced out,
are used. This method is used where a number of dimensions have a common datum feature.
Figure 49: Chain dimensioning
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Figure 50: parallel dimensioning
Figure 51: combined dimensioning
Waste disposal
Waste disposal is defined as the collection, transportation, and disposal of garbage, sewage, and
other waste products.
Waste can be disposed in the following various ways:
• Reuse
Reuse of waste means any operation by which products or components that are not waste are used
again for the same purpose for which they were conceived.
• Recycle
Recycling is the process of converting waste products into new products to prevent energy usage and
consumption of fresh raw materials.
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• Composting
Composting is an easy and natural bio-degradation process that takes organic wastes i.e. remains of
plants and turns into nutrient-rich food for your plants.
• Incineration/Combustion
Incineration or combustion is a type disposal method in which municipal solid wastes are burned at
high temperatures. The process eventually converts them into residues and gaseous products.
Personal protective equipment (PPE)
PPE means personal protective equipment or equipment you use to guarantee your (own) safety.
1. Safety for the head
adapted to the working conditions.
2. Protect your eyes
The eyes are the most complex and fragile parts of our body. Welding goggles or a shield offer the
ideal protection.
3. Hearing protection
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In an environment with high sound levels, it is very important to consider hearing protection.
Earplugs are very comfortable, but earmuffs are convenient on the work floor as you can quickly
put these on or take them off.
4. Maintain a good respiration
Wearing a mask at work is necessary when coming into contact with hazardous materials. Dust
masks offer protection against fine dust and other dangerous particles. If the materials are truly toxic,
use a full-face mask. This adheres tightly to the face, to protect the nose and mouth against harmful
pollution.
5. Protect your hands with the right gloves
• protection against splashes from diluted chemicals.
6. Protection for the feet
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Your feet need solid protection. Safety shoes and boots are the ideal solution to protect the feet
against heavy weights. An antiskid sole is useful when working in a damp environment.
On slippery surfaces, such as snow and ice, shoe claws are recommended. Special socks can provide
extra comfort.
7. Wear the correct work clothing
the hand protection, there are versions for different applications.
Preventing accidents: Pictograms

Not only is preparing the workshop for accidents a smart thing to do, it is even smarter to organize
the workshop in such a way that no serious accidents can take place. A simple way to make your
workshop safer is to use pictograms: indicating flammable materials, the necessary use of hearing
protection, indicating emergency exits etc.
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Demonstration
1. I am a new student in your class and your trainer has asked you to orient me on how to draw
an outline and title block. How would you achieve this?
2. Following the lettering rules, clearly print the workshop rules and regulations to be followed
in a workshop in an A3 paper.
3. Write freehand the following, using single stroke vertical CAPITAL letters of 5 mm (h) size.
1. The angle which we can’t make using a single Set-square is ________

a) 45°
b) 60°
c) 30°
d) 75˚
2. Which grade of pencil is used for drawing arrowheads?

a) 2H
b) 2B
c) 7H
d) H
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3. Which is not the use of divider?
a) To divide curved or straight lines into the desired number of equal parts
b) To draw circles
c) To transfer dimensions from one part of the drawing to another part
d) To set-off given distances from the scale to the drawing
4. The sizes from A0 to A5 increases.

a) True
b) False
5. The increase in hardness is shown by the value of the figure put in front of the letter H, 2H,
3H, and 4H etc.
a) True
b) False
6. The preferred size of the drawing sheets is recommended by the ______

a) B.I.S.
b) ASME
c) ASTM
d) NIST
7. Name the different types of lines labeled below
106
8. What does the “Single-Stroke” lettering mean?
a) Cursive writing
b) uniformity in letters obtained as one stroke of the pencil
c) Writing in one stroke without lifting the pencil
d) Writing only with hard, small diameter lead-pencil
9. Which line is drawn to make the section evident?

a) Long-break line
b) Chain thick
c) Border line
d) Hatching line
10. What is the general application of the line shown below?
a) Hidden edges
b) Extension
c) Cutting planes
d) Projection
11. Guidelines for dimensions at international level on a drawing is controlled by __________

a) Bureau of Indian Standards
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b) Corporate drafting standards
c) ANSI
d) ISO
12. The symbol shown below is _________

a. Radius
b. Depth
c. Diameter
d. Angle
13. What is the slope of inclined letters with the horizontal?

a. 75 degree
b. 65 degree
c. 45 degree
d. 85 degree
14. Dimensioning doesn’t represent _____

a. height
b. length
c. depth
d. material
15. Which is the wrong statement regarding dimensions?

a. Every dimension must be given, but none should be given more than once
b. Every dimension should be writtejn to the left side of the drawing
c. Dimensions should be placed outside the views
d. A centre line should not be used as a dimension line
108
Recommended Resources
• Technical drawing room
• Computer room
Tools and Equipment

• Calculator
• T-Square
• Steel rule
• Lettering stencil
• Scale rule
• Drawing boards
• T-Square
• Set square
• Blue print machine
Supplies
• Drawing papers
• Drawing pencils
• Drawing sets
• Masking tape
• Construction drawing
109
2.2.1.7 References
K. Venkata Reddy., 2008. Textbook of Engineering Drawing second edition.
K. Morling (Elsevier, 2010) BBS., Geometric and Engineering Drawing 3rd ed
Bhatt N D., 2006., “Elementary Engineering Drawing”
Gieseke Mitchel Spencer., 2009., Technical Drawing 4rd edition.
110
Responses
1. The angle which we can’t make using a single Set-square is ________
a) 45°
b) 60°
c) 30°
d) 75˚
2. Which grade of pencil is used for drawing arrowheads?

a) 2H
b) 2B
c) 7H
d) H
3. Which is not the use of divider?

i. To divide curved or straight lines into the desired number of equal parts
ii. To draw circles
iii. c) To transfer dimensions from one part of the drawing to another part
b) To set-off given distances from the scale to the drawing
4. The sizes from A0 to A5 increases.

i. True
ii. False
5. The increase in hardness is shown by the value of the figure put in front of the letter H, 2H,
3H, and 4H etc.
a) True
b) False
6. The preferred size of the drawing sheets is recommended by the ______
111
a) B.I.S.
b) ASME
c) ASTM
d) NIST
7. Name the different types of lines labeled below
i.
ii. A – Centre line
iii. B – short break line
iv. C – outer line
8. What does the “Single-Stroke” lettering mean?
a) Cursive writing
b) uniformity in letters obtained as one stroke of the pencil
c) Writing in one stroke without lifting the pencil
d) Writing only with hard, small diameter lead-pencil
9. Which line is drawn to make the section evident?

a) Long-break line
b) Chain thick
c) Border line
d) Hatching line
10. What is the general application of the line shown below?

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1.
b) Hidden edges
c) Extension
d) Cutting planes
e) Projection
i. Answer: c
ii. Explanation: Cutting plane lines represents a plane or planes in which a
sectional view is taken. The arrow indicates the direction of cutting the
section. Here the upper or front portion of the section will be visible (in the
diagram above).
11. Guidelines for dimensions at international level on a drawing is controlled by __________

a) Bureau of Indian Standards
b) Corporate drafting standards
c) ANSI
d) ISO
12. The symbol shown below is _________

a) Radius
b) Depth
c) Diameter
d) Angle
13. What is the slope of inclined letters with the horizontal?

a) 75 degree
b) 65 degree
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c) 45 degree
d) 85 degree
14. Dimensioning doesn’t represent _____

a) height
b) length
c) depth
d) material
15. Which is the wrong statement regarding dimensions?

a) Every dimension must be given, but none should be given more than once
b) Every dimension should be writtejn to the left side of the drawing
c) Dimensions should be placed outside the views
d) A centre line should not be used as a dimension line
114
2.2.2 Learning Outcome 2: Differentiate parts of a drawing

This learning outcome specifies the content of competencies required to differentiate parts of a
drawing. It includes definition of terms related to drawings and parts of a drawing.

2.1 Different parts of architectural and engineering drawings are identified based on international
standards.
2.2 Symbols in construction drawings are identified based on international standards.
2.3 Types of drawings in a construction site are identified based international standards.

Architectural Drawings
Architectural drawings consist of a set of defined views used to illustrate a 3D object. These are
typically plan, elevational and sectional views.
These views are presented on drawing sheets which also incorporate additional key information that
assists in their use and interpretation including;
• The project title, site location and Client’s name.

• The name and contact details of the architectural practice and drawing author
• The drawing title or description.
• The project number or code.
• The drawing number and issue version
• A revision schedule to identify any changes made between issues.
• The scale of the drawing at a specified sheet size.
• The date the drawing was produced or revise
Parts of architectural drawings
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The major views in detailed drawings are:
i. Floor Plan – scale 1:50

ii. Elevation- scale 1:50
iii. Section – scale 1:50
iv. Detail – scale 1:20 or 1:10
v. Site plan- scale 1:200
i. Floor Plan: This shows an aerial view of the layout, wall lengths and size of rooms in square
footage as well as fittings and appliances. Length and width of rooms are shown in the plan.
Thickness of walls, width of doors, windows, sunshades, steps etc. are shown in the plan.
Designers make use of scaled line types to show walls and their recommended width while
symbols combined with standard abbreviations are used to indicate fittings and appliances.
116
Figure 52: floor plan
ii. Elevation: It shows the width and height of a structure. Front and side views are drawn to
give frontal and side look of the structures. The shapes of windows, doors, verandah
openings, sunshades and parapets are shown in true look.
Front elevation Rear elevation
Figure 53: elevations
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iii. Section: the structure is supposed to be cut by a vertical plane, and the view of the cut-
section is drawn, which is termed as a section. It shows height of rooms and depth
of foundations, type of roofs, floors, thickness of walls and plinth height etc. Section also
shows type of materials used for construction.
Figure 54: sections
iv. Site Plan: This is an overhead view of the site and the house location in reference to the
boundaries of the plot. The plan should indicate location of fencing, gates, utility services,
driveways and walkways and it may include geographical details that define the site’s
topography.
The scale of a site plan is determined by the size of the site and the ability to fit it onto a
specific sheet size.
118
Figure 55: site plan
v. Detail drawings: Detail drawings show a small part of the construction at a larger scale, to
demonstrate how the component parts fit together or where certain finishes are applied.
They typically show more detail of construction techniques that the builder may not be
familiar with and which cannot be shown in enough detail in building sections or elevations.
Construction details can be shown in plan, elevation or as sections and are typical produced
at larger scales varying from 1:20 to full size 1:1
Figure 56: detail drawings

Symbols in construction drawings
119
Figure 57: construction symbols
Types of Building Drawings
In construction, building drawings are of various types. They include the following:
i. Architectural Drawings
An architectural drawing is a schematic representation of a building that offers a complete view of
the building This shows an aerial view of the layout, wall lengths and size of rooms in square
footage as well as fittings and appliances. It encompasses different drawings such as elevation,
section and floor plan.
120
Figure 58: architectural drawings
ii. Structural Drawing
This is a line work drawing that provides information on strength of various structural components,
grade, size, structural materials and placement of reinforcement.
Structural drawings emphasize load-carrying members (e.g., steel beams, joists, framing materials,
and so forth) of the structure.
121
Figure 59: structural drawings
iii. Civil Drawing

A civil drawing shows information about grading, landscaping, or other site details.
Figure 60: Civil drawings
122
iv. Electrical Drawing
This type of technical drawing illustrates information about lighting, wiring, power, and circuits for
communication within the commercial construction project.
Electrical construction drawings are meant to illustrate the physical layout of the wires and
components they connect inside the building as well as the outside power grid.
Standard schema symbols in electrical drawings represent circuit breakers, transformers, capacitors,
bus bars, conductors, and many other details on drawings.
Figure 61: electrical drawings

v. Plumbing and Sanitary Drawings
A plumbing drawing is used to show clearly the location of fixtures, sanitary ware, pipework, valves
and illustrates how fresh water is to be supplied into a building and waste water removed.
123
Figure 62: plumbing drawings
vi. Mechanical Drawing
Mechanical drawings show information about heating, ventilating, air conditioning and
transportation around the building i.e., Elevators or Lifts and Escalators.
Figure 63: mechanical drawings

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1. Differentiate parts of a drawing
a. gather the required tools and prepare for the task
b. Design a simple two-bedroom house (Include a living room and a kitchen)
c. Provide its elevations and section
1. Which of the following is not a structural element found in structural drawings?
a. Slabs
b. Beams
c. Columns
d. Walls
2. Of the following, which one is not a building code used in construction industry?
a. BS 8110
b. Euro codes
c. Kenya Building Codes, 1968
d. NCA
3. Why are symbols and abbreviations used when preparing drawings?
4. Which of the following is not a mechanical component used in structural designs?

a. Fire fighting
b. Ventilation systems
c. Lighting systems
d. Refrigeration
5. Why is a site plan necessary in architectural drawing?
6. What is the main role of dimensions in the preparation of building drawings?

7. Why is the use of scale important in architectural drawing?
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8. A ______________ is a set of rules that specify the standards for constructed objects such as
buildings and non-building structures.
a) Building code
b) Building bye-laws
c) IS code
d) Procedure

• Computer room
Tools and Equipment

• Calculator
• T-Square
• Steel rule
• Scale rule
• Drawing boards
• T-Square
• Set square
Supplies
• Drawing papers
• Drawing pencils
• Drawing sets
126
• Masking tape
127
2.2.2.7 References
128
Responses
1. Which of the following is not a structural element found in structural drawings?
a. Slabs
b. Beams
c. Columns
d. Walls
2. Of the following, which one is not a building code used in construction industry?
a. BS 8110
b. Euro codes
c. Kenya Building Codes, 1968
d. NCA
3. Why are symbols and abbreviations used when preparing drawings?

• To avoid congestion in a drawing (eliminate wordy statements).
• For clear representation and understanding the details in a drawing
4. Which of the following is not a mechanical component used in structural designs?

a. Fire fighting
b. Ventilation systems
c. Lighting systems
d. Refrigeration
5. Why is a site plan necessary in architectural drawing?

A site plan gives a summary/layout of components of features on site. This enables one to
identify the suitable location of a project based on the level and nature of the ground
6. What is the main role of dimensions in the preparation of building drawings?

• To indicate measurements used
129
• For representation (to ensure a clear understanding)
7. Why is the use of scale important in architectural drawing?

• Some measurements may be given in meters or kilometers hence unable to fit in a
drawing paper. Under such cases, scale is required.
• To ensure consistency and uniformity in drawing
8. A ______________ is a set of rules that specify the standards for constructed objects such as
buildings and non-building structures.
a) Building code
b) Building bye-laws
c) IS code
d) Procedure
130
2.2.3 Learning Outcome 3: Apply isometric drawings

This learning outcome specifies the content of competencies required to apply isometric drawings.
It includes definition of terms related to isometric drawings and how to apply isometric drawings.

3.1 Types of isometric drawings are identified based on international standards.
3.2 Various objects are drawn isometric.
3.3 Principles of isometric drawing are applied in construction working drawings.

ISOMETRIC PROJECTION
Definition of terms
• Isometric Drawing: it is a type of 3D drawing that is set out using 30-degree angles. It's a
type of axonometric drawing in which the same scale is used for every axis, resulting in a
non-distorted image.
• Isometric projection: An isometric projection is one type of pictorial projection in which the
three dimensions of a solid are not only shown in one view, but also their dimension can be
scaled from this drawing.
• Isometric axes: The lines AB, AD and AE meeting at a point A and making an angle
of 120˚with each other and are termed “isometric axes”
131
• Isometric lines: The lines parallel to the isometric axes are termed isometric lines. The lines
CD, CB are examples of isometric lines.
• Non-isometric Lines: The lines which are not parallel to isometric axes are termed non-
isometric lines. The BD is an example.
• Isometric planes: The planes representing the faces of the rectangular prism as well as
other planes parallel to these planes are termed isometric planes.
• Isometric scale: Isometric projection is drawn using isometric scale, which
converts true lengths into isometric lengths (foreshortened).
Difference between isometric view and isometric projection
Isometric view Isometric projection

Drawn to actual scale Drawn to isometric scale
When linesare drawn parallel to isometric When lines are drawn parallel to isometric axes,
axes, the true lengths are laid off. the lengths are foreshortened to 0.81 time the
actual lengths
Figure 64: Difference between isometric projection and view

Principle of Isometric Projections
The front view of this cube, resting on one of its corners (G), is the isometric projection of the cube.
The isometric projection of the cube is reproduced shown in the below.
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Figure 65: principles of isometric projection
Lines in Isometric Projection
The following are the relations between the lines in isometric projection:
1. The lines that are parallel on the object are parallel in the isometric projection.
2. Vertical lines on the object appear vertical in the isometric projection.
3. Horizontal lines on the object are drawn at an angle of 30° with the horizontal in the
isometric projection.
4. A line parallel to an isometric axis is called an isometric line and it is fore shortened to
82%.
5. A line which is not parallel to any isometric axis is called non-isometric line and the
extent of fore-shortening of non-isometric lines are different if their inclinations with the
vertical planes are different.
Isometric Projection
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Figure 66: isometric projection
The figures below show a rectangular block in pictorial form and the steps for drawing an isometric
projection using the isometric scale.
Figure 67: developing isometric projection
Isometric drawing
Figure 68: isometric drawing

Steps to be followed to make an Isometric drawing from orthographic views are given below:
1. Study the given views and note the principal dimensions and other features of this object.
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2. Draw the isometric axes (a).
a - orthographic view
3. Mark the principal dimensions to-their true values along the isometric axes (b).
b - isometric view
4. Complete the housing block by drawing lines parallel to the isometric axes and passing
Through the above markings (c).
c – isometric view
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5. Locate the principal corners of all the features of the object on the three faces of the Housing
block (d).
d - isometric view
6. Draw lines parallel to the axes and passing through the above points and obtain the isometric
Drawing of this object by darkening the visible edges (e).
e -isometric view
Methods of Constructing Isometric Drawing

The methods used are:
1. Box method.
2. Four-center method
3. Off-set method.
Box method.
The isometric projection of solids like cube, square and rectangular prisms are drawn directly when
their edges are parallel to the three isometric axes. The isometric projection of all other types of
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prisms and cylinders are drawn by enclosing them in a rectangular box. This method is called Box
method
In this method, the object is imagined to be enclosed in a rectangular box and both isometric and
non-isometric lines are located by their respective points of contact with the surfaces and edges of
the box. The box technique is the most common construction technique.
Example:
Using the box method, draw an isometric of a Pentagonal prism of base 1.5and length 2.5resting on
one of its rectangular faces on H.P.
Four centered Method

EXAMPLE:
Using the four centre method, draw an isometric of a cylinder of base 10 mm diameter and height 30
mm lying on H.P
Drawing procedure:
• Join P with B and C which are the mid-points of the opposite sides of the rhombus. Similarly
join R with A and D.
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• With P as center and PC as radius draw an arc CB. Similarly, with R as center and RA as
radius draw an arc AD.
• The lines PC and RD intersect at O1. With O1as center and O1D as radius draw an arc DC.
• Similarly with O2(intersection of RA and PB) as center and O2B as radius draw an
arc BA. Thus complete the ellipse
Off-set Method
Off-set method of making an isometric drawing is preferred when the object contains irregular
curved surfaces. In the off-set method, the curved feature may be obtained by plotting the points
on the curve, located by the measurements along isometric lines. The figure below illustrates the
application of this method.
EXAMPLE:
Using the off-set method, draw the isometric view of a hexagonal pyramid of side of base 30 mm
and height 75 mm, when it is resting on H.P such that an edge of the base is parallel to V.P
Procedure:
• Draw the top and front views of the hexagonal pyramid.
• Enclose the hexagon in a rectangle PQRS in the top view.
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• Draw the isometric vies of the base of the pyramid in the parallogram PQRS.
• Note that FC is an isometric line on which O₁ lies. Hence mark O₁ on the isometric line FC
such that FO₁= y.
• From O₁ erect a vertical line and mark the apex O such that O₁O = length of the axis = 75
mm.
• Join O with all the corners of the base of the pyramid and complete the isometric as shown

Practical
You are provided with a wooden isometric block as shown below. (All measurements are in mm)
i. Produce a freehand sketching of the wooden block

ii. Draw the isometric drawing
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140
1. The lines parallel to isometric axes are called ________ lines.

a) parallel
b) auxiliary
c) isometric
d) oblique
2. The true length of line is 40 cm and isometric view of it is drawn the length would decrease
to _____
a) 28.28 cm
b) 32.6 cm
c) 34.6 c
d) 38.63 cm
3. Identify the front view of the below isometric view.
4. Produce the isometric drawing provided below. All dimensions are given in mm.
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5. Draw the isometric view of a pentagonal prism of base 60mm side, axis l00mm long and
resting on its base with a vertical face perpendicular to V.P.
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• Computer room
Tools and Equipment

• Calculator
• T-Square
• Steel rule
• Scale rule
• Drawing boards
• T-Square
• Set square
Supplies
• Drawing papers
• Drawing pencils
• Drawing sets
• Masking tape
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2.2.3.7 References

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Responses
1. The lines parallel to isometric axes are called ________ lines.
a) parallel
b) auxiliary
c) isometric
d) oblique
2. The true length of line is 40 cm and isometric view of it is drawn the length would decrease
to _____
a) 28.28 cm
b) 32.6 cm
c) 34.6 c
d) 38.63 cm
Answer: b
Explanation: The ratio of isometric length to true length is 0.815 so here it is
given true length of 40 cm. 0.815 = isometric length / 40 cm => isometric
length = 40 cm x 0.815 = 32.6 cm. Every time the true length is more than
isometric length.
3. Identify the front view of the below isometric view.
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a. b. c. d.
4. Produce the isometric drawing provided below. All dimensions are given in mm.
5. Draw the isometric view of a pentagonal prism of base 60mm side, axis l00mm long and
resting on its base with a vertical face perpendicular to V.P.
Construction
1. The front and top views of the prism are as shown
2. Enclose the prism in a rectangular box and draw the isometric view as shown using the
box method.
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2.2.4 Learning Outcome 4: Apply different types of scales

This learning outcome specifies the content of competencies required to apply different types of
scales. It includes definition of terms related to scales, types of scales and use of scales.

4.2 Scaled measurements are interpreted in accordance with international standards.
4.3 Scales are used in sketching details of drawings.
4.4 Measurements are transferred to the ground according to the drawings.
Definition of terms
Scale: It is the proportion or ratio between the dimensions adopted for a drawing and the
corresponding dimensions of an object.
Representative Fraction: The ratio of the dimension of the object shown on the drawing to its actual
size is called the Representative Fraction (RF).
Plain scales: A plain scale is simply a line which is divided into a suitable number of equal parts.
Diagonal scales: They are used to represent either three units of measurements such as meters,
decimeters, centimeters or to read to the accuracy correct to two decimals.
Vernier scales: It is a short auxiliary scale constructed along the plain or main scale, which can read
up to two decimal places.
Reducing and Enlarging Scales

Objects which are very big in size can’t be represented in drawing to full size. In such cases the
object is represented in reduced size by making use of reducing scales. Reducing scales are used to
represent objects such as large machine parts, buildings, town plans etc. A reducing scale, say 1: 10
means that 10 units length on the object is represented by 1 unit length on the drawing.
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Similarly, for drawing small objects such as watch parts, instrument components etc., use of full
scale may not be useful to represent the object clearly. In those cases enlarging scales are used.
An enlarging scale, say 10: 1 means one unit length on the object is represented by 10 units on the
drawing.
The designation of a scale consists of the word. SCALE, followed by the indication of its ratio
as follows:
Scale 1: 1 for full size scale
Scale 1: x for reducing scales (x = 10, 20 ...... etc.,)
Scale x: 1 for enlarging scales.
Representative Fraction
The ratio of the dimension of the object shown on the drawing to its actual size is called the
Representative Fraction (RF).
RF = Drawing size of an object (in same units)

Its actual size
For example, if an actual length of 3 meters of an object is represented by a line of 15mm length on
the drawing.
RF = 15mm = 15mm = 1 or 1:200

3m (3x1000) mm 200
If the desired scale is not available in the set of scales it may be constructed and then used.
Types of Scales
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The types of scales normally used are:
1. Plain scales.
2. Diagonal Scales.
3. Vernier Scales.
Plain Scales
A plain scale is simply a line which is divided into a suitable number of equal parts, the first of
which is further sub-divided into small parts. It is used to represent either two units or a unit and its
fraction such as km and bm, m and dm, cm and mm etc.
Examples
1. On a survey map the distance between two places 1 km apart is 5 cm. Construct
the scale to read 4.6 km.
Solution:
RF = 5 = 1
1X1000X100cm 20000
If x is the drawing size required x = 5(1000) (100) x 1

20000
Therefore, x = 25 cm
Note: If 4.6 km itself were to be taken x = 25 cm. To get 1 km divisions this length has to be
divided into 4.6 parts which is difficult. Therefore, the nearest round figure 5 km is
considered.
When this length is divided into 5 equal parts each part will be 1 km.
1. Draw a line of length 25 cm.
2. Divide this into 5 equal parts. Now each part is 1 km.
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3. Divide the first part into 10 equal divisions. Each division is 0.1 km.
4. Mark on the scale the required distance 4.6 km.
Figure 69: plain scales
2. Construct a scale of 1:50 to read metres and decimetres and long enough to
measure 6 m. Mark on it a distance of 5.5 m.
Solution:
1. Obtain the length of the scale as: RF x 6m = 1 x 6 x 100 = 12 cm
50
2. Draw a rectangle strip of length 12 cm and width 0.5 cm.
3. Divide the length into 6 equal parts, by geometrical method each part representing 1m.
4. Mark O(zero) after the first division and continue 1,2,3 etc., to the right of the scale.
5. Divide the first division into 10 equal parts (secondary divisions), each representing 1 cm.
6. Mark the above division points from right to left.
7. Write the units at the bottom of the scale in their respective positions.
8. Indicate RF at the bottom of the figure.
9. Mark the distance 5.5 m as shown.
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3. Construct a plain scale of convenient length to measure a distance of 1 cm and
mark on it a distance of 0.94 cm.
Solution:
This is a problem of enlarged scale.
1. Take the length of the scale as 10 cm
2. RF = 1011, scale is 10:1
3. The construction is shown below
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Diagonal Scales
Plain scales are used to read lengths in two units such as meters and decimeters, centimeters and
millimeters etc., or to read to the accuracy correct to first decimal.
Diagonal scales are used to represent either three units of measurements such as meters, decimeters,
centimeters or to read to the accuracy correct to two decimals.
Principle of Diagonal Scale

1. Draw a line AB and erect a perpendicular at B.
2. Mark 10 equi-distant points (1,2,3, etc.) of any suitable length along this perpendicular and
mark C.
3. Complete the rectangle ABCD
4. Draw the diagonal BD.
5. Draw horizontals through the division points to meet BD at l' , 2' , 3' etc.
Figure 70: principles of diagonal scale
Thus, the lines 1-1', 2 - 2', 3 - 3' etc., measure 0.l CD, 0.2CD, 0.3CD etc. respectively. Thus,
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CD is divided into 1/10 the divisions by the diagonal BD, i.e., each horizontal line is a multiple of
1/10 CD.
.
Note: B C must be divided into the same number of parts as there are units of the third dimension in
one unit of the secondary division.
Examples
1. Construct a diagonal scale 1/50, showing metres, decimetres and centimetres,
to measure upto 5 metres. Mark a length 4.75 m on it.
Solution:
1. obtain the length of the scale as 1 x 5 x 100 = 10 cm

50
2. Draw a line A B, 10 cm long and divide it into 5 equal parts, each representing 1 m.
3. Divide the first part into 10 equal parts, to represent decimetres.
4. Choosing any convenient length, draw 10 equi-distant parallel lines above AB and
complete
the rectangle ABC D.
5. Erect perpendiculars to the line A B, through 0, 1, 2, 3 etc., to meet the line C D.
6. Join D to 9, the first sub-division from A on the main scale AB, forming the first diagonal.
7. Draw the remaining diagonals, parallel to the first. Thus, each decimetre is divided into
I/10th division by diagonals.
8. Mark the length 4.75m as shown.
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2. On a plan, a line of 22 cm long represents a distance of 440 meters. Draw a diagonal scale for
the plan to read upto a single metre. Measure and mark a distance of 187m on the scale.
Solution:
Figure 71: diagonal scale
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1. RF = 22 = 1
440 x 100 2000
2. As 187 m are required consider 200 m.
Therefore drawing size = R F x actual size = 1 x 200 x 100 = 10 cm

2000
When a length of 1 0 cm representing 200 m is divided into 5 equal parts, each part
represents 40 m as marked in the figure.
3. The first part is sub-divided into 4 divisions so that each division is 10 cm
4. On the diagonal portion 10 divisions are taken to get 1 m.
5. Mark on it 187 m as shown.
Vernier scales.
The vernier scale is a short auxiliary scale constructed along the plain or main scale, which can read
up to two decimal places.
Example:
Construct a forward reading vernier scale to read distance correct to decameter on a map in which
the actual distances are reduced in the ratio of 1:40,000. The scale should be long enough to measure
up to 6 km. Mark on the scale a length of 3.34 km and 0.59 km.
Solution:
1. RF = 1 ; length of drawing = 6 x 1000 x 100 = 15 m
40000 40000
2. 15 cm is divided into 6 parts and each part is 1 km

3. This is further divided into 10 divisions and each division is equal to 0.1 km = 1 hectometre.
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4. 9 m are taken and divided into 10 divisions as shown. Thus 1 = 9/10 = 0.09 km
5. Mark on it by taking 6vsd = 6 x 0.9 = 0.54km, 28msd (27 + 1 on the LHS of 1) =2.8 km and
Tota1 2.8 + 0.54 = 3.34 km.
6. Mark on it 5 msd = 0.5 km and add to it one vsd = 0.09, total 0.59 km as marked.
Figure 72: forward reading vernier scale

1. What is the length of AB in the following scale?
2. If the given scale is 1: 60, what is the length of the scale?
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1. When drawings are drawn smaller than the actual size of the objects the scale used is said to be
_________
a) Enlarging scale
b) Reducing scale
c) Small scale
d) Decreasing scale
2. The ratio of the length of the drawing of the object to the actual length of the object is called
___________
a) Resulting fraction
b) Representative figure
c) Representative fraction
d) Representative index
3. If the measurement required is in three units, which scale would you prefer?
a) Plain
b) Comparative
c) Diagonal
d) Vernier
4. Vernier scale consists of two important parts, vernier scale and _________
a) Secondary scale
b) Initial scale
c) Main scale
d) Large scale
5. A room of 1728 m ³ volume is shown as 216 cm³ volume on a drawing sheet. What is the R.F?
a) 1/20
b) 1/200
c) 1/250
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d) 1/186
6. The area of field is 25,000 m². Length and breadth of the field, on the map is 5cm and 5cm
respectively. What is the Representative Fraction of the scale?
a) 1/1200
b) 1/3100
c) 1/3162
d) 1/3200
7. The length of the drawing is 50 mm, the scale is given as 1:5. Find the actual length.
a) 15
b) 0.15
c) 1.5
d) 1/15
8. What is the representative factor if sides of a square measuring 4cm in the drawing sheet while
the actual length of the side of the square is 3m?
a) 1:0.75
b) 4:3
c) 1: 75
d) 3:4
9. A machine part is drawn two times with different scales. The ratio of 1st drawing’s R.F. to 2nd
drawing R.F. with respect to the actual object is found to be 2. The length of the second drawing is
10 mm. Find the 1st drawing length.
a) 5 mm
b) 200 mm
c) 5 cm
d) 2 cm
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10. Which scale you prefer if there is a need to measure most accurately.
a) Plain Scale
b) Vernier scale
c) Ordinary scale
d) Comparative scale
11. We need a scale which has to show dm, cm and mm. Which scale do you prefer?
a) Diagonal scale
b) Plain scale
c) Vernier scale
12. What is the scale ratio of full-size scales?

a) 1:2
b) 1:3
c) 1:10
d) 1:1
13. Given, below are the steps related to constructing a scale of 1:50 to show meters and decimeters
and the maximum length is 5 meters. Arrange the steps
i. Then divide the 1st part into 10 equal divisions
ii. Determining the length of scale 1/50 x 500 cm = 10 cm
iii. Determining R.F. here it is 1/50
iv. Draw a line 10 cm long and divide it to 5 equal parts
a) i, ii, iii, iv
b) iii, ii, iv, i
c) ii, iv, i, iii
d) iv, i, ii, iii
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14. A plain scale is made to show 8 meters and sub division is decimeters. To measure7 meters and 3
decimeters how many divisions is to take on the right side of origin and how many it is to take on the
left side of origin?
a) 7, 3
b) 3, 7
c) 6, 4
d) 4, 6
15. What is the length of the scale? (R.F. = 1/5)
a) 2.4 cm
b) 21 cm
c) 240cm
d) 0.24cm
• Computer room
Tools and Equipment

• Calculator
• T-Square
• Steel rule
161
• Scale rule
• Drawing boards
• T-Square
• Set square
Supplies
• Drawing papers
• Drawing pencils
• Drawing sets
• Masking tape
162
2.2.4.7 References
163
Responses
1. When drawings are drawn smaller than the actual size of the objects the scale used is said to be
_________
a) Enlarging scale
b) Reducing scale
c) Small scale
d) Decreasing scale
2. The ratio of the length of the drawing of the object to the actual length of the object is called
___________
a) Resulting fraction
b) Representative figure
c) Representative fraction
d) Representative index
3. If the measurement required is in three units, which scale would you prefer?
a) Plain
b) Comparative
c) Diagonal
d) Vernier
4. Vernier scale consists of two important parts, vernier scale and _________
a) Secondary scale
b) Initial scale
c) Main scale
d) Large scale
5. A room of 1728 m3 volume is shown as 216 cm3 volume on a drawing sheet. What is the R.F?
a) 1/20
b) 1/200
c) 1/250
d) 1/186
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Answer: b
Explanation: Since volume is given, formula will turn as
R.F = (drawing volume/original volume)3
R.F = (216 cm3 / 1728 * (100)3 cm3)3
= 1/200.
6. The area of field is 25,000m2. Length and breadth of the field, on the map is 5cm and 5cm
respectively. What is the Representative Fraction of the scale?
a) 1/1200
b) 1/3100
c) 1/3162
d) 1/3200
Answer: c
Explanation: Area of the field = 25,000m2
Area of field on the map = 5cm*5cm = 25cm2
1cm2 = 25000/25 = 1000m2
1 cm = 31.62 m
Now Representative Fraction = 1cm /31.62m = 1/3162.
7. The length of the drawing is 50 mm, the scale is given as 1:5. Find the actual length.
a) 15
b) 0.15
c) 1.5
d) 1/15
Answer: a
Explanation: The scale of the drawing is given as 15:1 that is an enlarging scale, this means
dimensions are increased to 15 times of actual ones. So the representative factor is that
dimension in drawing to actual dimension. R.F. = 15/1 = 15.
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8. What is the representative factor if sides of a square measuring 4cm in the drawing sheet while
the actual length of the side of the square is 3m?
a) 1:0.75
b) 4:3
c) 1:75
d) 3:4
Answer c
Explanation: The length of the drawing is 4cm and the actual length of the drawing is
3m. By using the formula for calculating the representative factor we get the value of
R.F. as 1:75. R.F. = 4 ÷ 300. The units of both the quantities should be the same.
9. A machine part is drawn two times with different scales. The ratio of 1st drawing’s R.F. to 2nd
drawing R.F. with respect to the actual object is found to be 2. The length of the second drawing is
10 mm. Find the 1st drawing length.
a) 5 mm
b) 200 mm
c) 5 cm
d) 2 cm
Answer: d
Explanation: 2 = 1st drawing R.F/2nd drawing R.F. = (length of 1st drawing/actual
length)/(length of 2nd drawing/ actual length) = length of first drawing/length of
second drawing = length of first drawing/ 10 mm. 2 x 10 mm = 20 mm. So therefore
the length of first drawing is 20 mm = 2 cm.
10. Which scale you prefer if there is a need to measure most accurately.
a) Plain scale
b) Vernier scale
c) Ordinary scale
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Answer: b
Explanation: The plain scale gives only up to a single decimal. Comparative scales
are just used to represent two different units. The vernier scale gives up to 2 decimal
values.
11. We need a scale which has to show dm, cm and mm. Which scale do you prefer?
a) Diagonal scale
b) Plain scale
c) Vernier scale
12. What is the scale ratio of full-size scales?

a) 1:2
b) 1:3
c) 1:10
d) 1:1
Answer: d
Explanation: As the name suggests it does not make any changes in the scale, no
increment or decrement to the figure is done. The dimensions for drawing will be full,
same in proportion and size as the actual object dimensions.
13. Given, below are the steps related to constructing a scale of 1:50 to show meters and decimeters
and the maximum length is 5 meters. Arrange the steps
i. Then divide the 1st part into 10 equal divisions
ii. Determining the length of scale 1/50 x 500 cm = 10 cm
iii. Determining R.F. here it is 1/50
iv. Draw a line 10 cm long and divide it to 5 equal parts
a) i, ii, iii, iv
b) iii, ii, iv, i
c) ii, iv, i, iii
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d) iv, i, ii, iii
14. A plain scale is made to show 8 meters and sub division is decimeters. To measure7 meters and 3
decimeters how many divisions is to take on the right side of origin and how many it is to take on the
left side of origin?
a) 7, 3
b) 3, 7
c) 6, 4
d) 4, 6
Answer: a
Explanation: Origin is at 1st division ending. 1st division is made to sub-divisions. From
origin, it is divided into divisions on the right side and towards left 1st division is divided
into sub-divisions. Here it is asked to measure how many divisions do 7 meters takes. It is 7
from origin to right. And 3 from origin to left.
15. What is the length of the scale? (R.F. = 1/5)
a) 2.4 cm
b) 24 cm
c) 240cm
d) 0.24cm
Answer: b
Explanation: The length of the scale is calculated by the formula, length of the scale =
R.F. x maximum length to be measured. Hence, length of centimeter scale = 1 ÷ 5 x
12 x 10 = 24 cm. Here, the representative factor is 1/5.
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CHAPTER 3: CONSTRUCT SIMPLE 1 LEVEL MASONRY SUBSTRUCTURES
Unit of learning code: CON/CU/MA/CR/01/3/A
Related Unit of Competency in Occupational Standard: Construct Simple 1 Level Masonry

Substructures

This unit specifies the competencies required to construct masonry substructure. It entails setting out
the building, laying of foundation, construction of foundation walling and ground floor slab. It
applies in the construction industry.

1. Interpret working drawings
2. Quantity Materials requirements
3. Use masonry tools and equipment
4. Set-out building
5. Lay building foundation
6. Construct foundation walls
7. Construct ground floor slab
3.2.1 Learning Outcome 1: Interpret Working Drawings

This learning outcome specifies the content of competencies required in Interpreting Working
Drawings. It includes identification of the correct working drawing using the title block, studying the
scales applied for various drawings, converting the measurements correctly using the scales,
identifying the various symbols and reference points as per working drawing standards.
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1.1.Working drawings are identified based on their features and title block.
1.2.Scale of the drawing is read based on the drawing.
1.3.Measurements are converted based on best practice.
1.4.Symbols are identified based on working drawings standards.

Definition of terms:
Design is the process of developing a plan or specification for the construction or implementation of
a System.
Working drawings are a dimensioned graphical representation of a structure that can be used to
construct, supply materials or prepared components for the structure
Metric system uses units such as meter, liter, and gram to measure length, liquid volume, and mass
Imperial system uses feet, inches, gallons, miles and pounds to measure length, liquid volume, and
mass respectively
CAD means Computer Aided Design which denotes the soft wares that are used in design. Examples
include: Archi-CAD, Auto-CAD
A scale is an instrument that is used to enlarge or reduce the size of an object in engineering
drawing.
Working Drawings
Working drawings provide dimensioned, graphical information that can be used; by a contractor to
construct the works, or by suppliers to fabricate components of the works or to assemble or install
components. They may include architectural drawings, structural drawings, civil drawings,
mechanical drawings, electrical drawings, and so on.
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Traditionally, working drawings consist of two-dimensional orthogonal projections of the building or
component they are describing, such as plans, sections and elevations. These may be drawn to scale
by hand, or prepared using Computer Aided Design (CAD) software.
Working drawings may include title blocks, dimensions, notation and symbols. It is important that
these are consistent with industry standards so that their precise meaning is clear and can be
understood. Specification information can be included on working drawings or in a separate
specification, but information should not be duplicated as this can become contradictory and may
cause confusion.
https://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Working_drawing
Scales
Scales are applied in engineering to reduce or enlarge objects. In working drawings, a scale is mainly
used to reduce the actual measurements of a building on the ground to a size that can fit on the available
drawing paper. Such scales include: 1:5, 1:10, 1:20, 1:50, 1:100 etc. Enlarging scales on the other hand
are mainly applied in electronics to enlarge the sizes of transistors and diodes during the design of
prototypes. The sizes are then compressed during the manufacture of the actual object. Such scales
include: 2:1, 5:1, 10:1, 20:1 etc. The scales are normally placed in the title block or against each
individual drawing where different scales are applied.
Metric and Imperial Systems of Measurement
171
Figure 73: metric and imperial system
Imperial and Metric system
There are two main systems for measuring distances and weight, the Imperial System of Measurement
and the Metric System of Measurement. Most countries use the Metric System, which uses the
measuring units such as meters and grams and adds prefixes like kilo, milli and centi to count orders
of magnitude. In the United States, people use the older Imperial system, where things are measured
in feet, inches and pounds. The Metric and Imperial systems are both systems of measurement. That
is, they are not just one unit of measure, but are inter-related systems of many units of measure –
measuring length and area, weight and mass, volume, force, energy, power, time, temperature,
luminosity, etc.
Metric and imperial differ in almost all of the particular units used in the two systems (metres vs. feet,
kilograms vs. pounds, etc.). However, they share units measuring time (seconds, minutes, hours) and
electricity (volts, amperes, watts, ohms, etc.) — Time, because no one was successful in decimalizing
it, and electricity because it is newer than either the Metric or Imperial system.
Here are some more handy conversions for temperature:
0 degrees Celsius is equal to 32 degrees Fahrenheit. (The freezing point)

24 degrees Celsius is equal to 75 degrees Fahrenheit. (A very pleasant day)
To convert Celsius (c) to Fahrenheit, use the formula (c * 1.8) + 32
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If you need to convert from Imperial or US Standard units to Metric, or the other way around, one of
the tables of difference between imperial and metric below should help.
LENGTH
Metric US or Imperial
1 millimeter
0.03937 in
[mm]
1 centimeter [cm] 10 mm 0.3937 in
1 meter [m] 100 cm 1.0936 yd
1 kilometer [km] 1000 m 0.6214 mile
US or Imperial Metric
1 inch [in] 2.54 cm
1 foot [ft] 12 in 0.3048 m
1 yard [yd] 3 ft 0.9144 m
1 mile 1760 yd 1.6093 km
1 int nautical mile 2025.4 yd 1.853 km
AREA
1 sq cm [cm2] 100 mm2 0.1550 in2
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1 sq m [m2] 10,000 cm2 1.1960 yd2
1 hectare [ha] 10,000 m2 2.4711 acres
1 sq km [km2] 100 ha 0.3861 mile2
1 sq inch [in2] 6.4516 cm2
1 sq foot [ft2] 144 in2 0.0929 m2
1 sq yd [yd2] 9 ft2 0.8361 m2
1 acre 4840 yd2 4046.9 m2
1 sq mile [mile2] 640 acres 2.59 km2
VOLUME/CAPACITY
Metric US Measure Imperial
1 cu cm
3
0.0610 in3
[cm ]
1 cu
decimeter 1,000 cm3 0.0353 ft3
[dm3]
1 cu meter
3
1,000 dm3 1.3080 yd3
[m ]
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2.113 fluid
1 liter [l] 1 dm3 1.7598 pt
pt
US Measure Imperial Metric
1 cu inch [in3] 16.387 cm3
1 cu foot [ft3] 0.02832 m3
1 fluid ounce 1.0408 UK fl oz 29.574 ml
1 pint (16 fl oz) 0.8327 UK pt 0.4732 liters
1 gallon (231 in3) 0.8327 UK gal 3.7854 liters
MASS
1 milligram [mg] 0.0154 grain
1 gram [g] 1,000 mg 0.0353 oz
1 kilogram [kg] 1,000 g 2.2046 lb
1 tonne [t] 1,000 kg 1.1023 short ton
1 tonne [t] 1,000 kg 0.9842 long ton
1 ounce [oz] 437.5 grain 28.35 g
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1 pound [lb] 16 oz 0.4536 kg
1 stone 14 lb 6.3503 kg
1 hundredweight [cwt] 112 lb 50.802 kg
1 short ton (US) 0.9072 t
1 long ton (UK) 1.0160 t
Further information can be obtained in the link:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperial_units
Working Drawing Symbols
In the preparation of working drawings for the building-construction industry, architects and
engineers have devised systems of abbreviations, symbols, and keynotes to simplify the work of
those preparing the drawings and to keep the size and bulk of the construction documents to an
acceptable, comprehensible minimum. For example, a circle drawn around an area of a drawing with
an extension to a number would indicate that this portion of the drawing has been drawn to a larger
scale to provide more information than would be possible at the existing scale. Visualizing and
reading construction drawings therefore necessitate knowledge of symbols and abbreviations used in
the construction industry and of their proper use in representing materials and other components and
their locations. Symbols may vary slightly from one locale to another
Symbols on architectural drawings
This article catalogues some of the more commonly used symbols on architectural drawings and
designs.
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Single switched wall socket
Double switched wall socket
Double switched wall socket above worktop level
Single switched fused spur
TV aerial
1 gang light switch
2 gang light switch
2 gang 2 way light switch
Dimmer switch
Pendant light
177
Recessed down light
Adjustable recessed spotlight
Recessed spotlight
Wall light
Telephone point
Consumer unit
Shaver socket
Ethernet socket
Thermostat
Lamp
Passive vent
178
Mechanical fan vent
Radiator
Towel rail
Wash basin
Sink
Bath
Shower tray
wc
Rainwater outlet
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Soil vent pipe
Boiler flue
Block work
Brick
Stonework
Concrete
Hardcore
Sand
Stone
Rubble
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Insulation
Sawn timber
Hardwood
Plywood
Window (plan)
Window (elevation) showing direction of opening -

point of triangle indicates hinged side
Door (plan)
North point
Existing tree
Existing tree to be removed
181
Proposed tree
Incline (steps, stairs or ramp) with arrow head at the

higher side
Stairway with arrow head at the higher side
Figure 74: symbols on architectural drawing
Other important symbols come in form of signage which are located at various points within the site.
Such signs include: Evacuation, fire, mandatory, prohibitive, warning and direction signs.
Further information is obtained in the link:
https://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Symbols_on_architectural_drawings
http://www.egyptarch.gov.eg/sites/default/files/pdf/Books/architecturalpress.pdf

You have been provided with a working drawing of a one bedroomed residential house. You are
required to interpret the drawing by setting out the dimensions of the drawing on a provided piece of
land.
Field/Visit to nearby Construction Site

Visit Objective/Aim Indicators Special Instruction
182
To identify symbols, signs and - prepare a list of symbols -Study the working drawings
reference points available on - identify them on the site and identify the symbols first
site before proceeding to the site
- Must be authorized by site
supervisor
To compare the actual works - identify the respective

and their respective drawings drawings as per title block
Must be authorized by site
- compare the drawings with
supervisor
actual works on site
Table 3: field visit to construction site
1. You have been appointed as a supervisor in a construction company, what are the uses of the
following in the drawing?
a) Scale
b) symbols
2. What is the equivalent of the measurements shown below in metric?
a) 1foot
b) 1000litres
c) 1pound
3. What are the symbols for the following construction materials?
a) Concrete
b) Brick
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3.2.1.6 Tools, Equipment, supplies and materials
• Architectural Drawings
• Structural
• MEP Drawings
• Site Development Drawings
• Survey Maps
• Scientific calculator
• Tape measures
• Stationery
184
3.2.1.7 References
Keith, S. & Andrew, B (2004). Working Drawings Hand Book: Fourth Edition. Linacre House,
Jordan Hill, Oxford OX2 8DP
Ahmed, M & Osman, K. (2008): Introduction to Working Drawings. King Abdul Aziz University
faculty of Environmental Design Architecture Department
185
Responses
1. You have been appointed as a supervisor in a construction company, what are the uses of the
following in the drawing?
i. Scale
ii. symbols
i) Uses of the scale
a) To reduce the actual measurement to a size that fits on a paper
b) To enlarge measurements
ii) Use of symbols
a) To enhance existing information
b) To provide missing information
c) To differentiate the construction elements
d) To fulfill regulations
2. What is the equivalent of the measurements shown below in metric?
i. 1foot
ii. 1000litres
iii. 1pound
Equivalent of:
a) Foot = 25.4mm
b) 1000litres = 1m3
c) 1pound = 0.4536kg
186
3. What are the symbols for the following construction materials?
i. Concrete
ii. Brick
Answer
Symbols of:
i) Concrete
ii) Brickwork
187
3.2.2 Learning Outcome 2: Quantify of Material Requirements
3.2.2.1 Introduction to Quantify of Material Requirements

This learning outcome specifies the content of competencies required in Quantity of Material
Requirements. It includes identifying materials required for substructure, calculating the supplies
and preparing a materials schedule based on the drawing.

2.1.Materials required for masonry substructure are identified based on the drawing.
2.2.Supplies are identified based on drawing.
2.3.A schedule of materials is prepared based on the drawings

Materials/supply is a substance or a mixture of substances that are used in the construction of

buildings and structures.
Substructure is a construction element from the foundation to the ground floor slab
Materials schedule is a list of materials used in constructing an element including the quantities,
units of measurements and description.
188
Substructure Details and Materials Calculation Of A Simple Building
150mm thick floor slab
200mm wide DPC 25mm floor screed

1.000
25mm thick murram blinding

200mm thick
stone walling 500 gauge polythene sheeting DPM
200mm thick hardcore
10.00 600X200mm Mass

concrete strip foundation
8.00
Figure 75:substructures
Substructure components and materials include:
• Strip concrete Foundation
• Foundation wall
• Hardcore
• Blinding
• Damp proof membrane
• Over site concrete/ground floor slab
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• Damp proof course
a) Strip foundation
Obtain the volume of concrete in m3, i.e. L x B x D. NB: Lengths are measured along the centre of
the foundation.
Length of the foundation = 2(10.0 less 2/0.2+8.00 less2/0.2) =2(9.6+7.6) = 34.40m
Width of the foundation = 0.60m
Depth of the foundation = 0.20m
Therefore amount of concrete required = 34.4x0.6x0.2= 4.128m3
b) Concrete in floor slab (M2)
Volume of concrete = 10.0x8.0x0.15 = 12.0m3

Total amount concrete = 4.128+12.0 = 16.128m3
To convert the concrete materials into kg.
Density of concrete = 2400kg/m3 Density of ballast = 2400kg/m3
Density of sand = 1600kg/m3 Density of cement = 1400kg/m3
Convert volume of concrete into kg.
Weight of concrete in 16.128m3 = 16.128x2400 = 38,707.2kg
Add waste at 20% = 20/100 x 38,707.2kg = 7,741.44
46,448.64kg
The ratio for mass concrete is 1:3:6
Therefore amount of ballast = 6/10 x 46,448.64kg = 46,448.64kg = 46.45 tons
Amount of sand = 3/10 x 46,448.64kg = 13,934.58kg =
Allow 25% for bulking of sand = 3,483.65 = 17,418.225kg = 17.50 tons
Amount of cement = 1/10 x 46,448.64 kg = 4,644.864kg = 92.9bags of 50kg
= 93 bags
c) Foundation wall (m2)
Area = L x H = 34.40m x I.0m= 34.4m2
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Add 10% for waste = 3.44
Total =37.84m2
Therefore no. of stones size 400x200x200 = 37.84/.4x.2 = 473 stones
Hardcore (m2 up to 300mm thick)
Area = 10x8 = 80m2 less all the walls
= 80-(34.4x.2) = 73.12m2
= 102.368m2
Blinding (m2)
Area =102.368m2
200mm wide Damp proof course (LM)

Length of wall along the centre = 2(10.0 less 2/0.2+8.00 less2/0.2) =2(9.6+7.6) = 34.40m (add 10%
for laps and waste) = 3.44
= 37.84m
Damp proof membrane (m2)
Area = 10x8 = 80m2

Add 10% for waste and laps = 8
= 88m2
Materials schedule
MATERIALS UNIT QTY COST (SH)
1. Damp proof course (bituminous felt) lm 37.84
2. Foundation wall (stone walling - stone sizes m2 37.84

400x200x200mm)
3. Hardcore m2 102.34
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4. Blinding (Murram) m2 102.34
5. Damp proof membrane (1000g. polythene) m2 88
6. Cement Bags 93
7. Sand tons 17.50
8. Ballast tons 46.45
9. Formwork for Slabs lm 36
Table 4:materials schedule

Practical activity
Study the drawing below and calculate the quantity of walling materials for the partition foundation
wall. Assume mortar mix 1:3; height of wall is 1.2m and size of blocks is 450x225x150mm
Density of sand =1600kg/m3 Density of cement = 1400kg/m3
10.00
8.00
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To identify the substructure Prepare a list of substructure Seek authorization
materials from the working materials from the working
drawings drawings
To calculate the quantities of Prepare a materials schedule

substructure materials
Table 5: field study to construction site
1. What are the parts of substructure in construction of a building?
2. Which are the materials used for construction of a ground floor slab?
3. Which are most likely ratios to be used to mix the materials for a ground floor slab?
4. What materials are used to prevent ground water from penetrating into the building after
construction?
193
• Structural
• MEP Drawings
• Survey Maps
• Tape measures
• Stationery
194
3.2.2.7 References
Mortem M. (2009). Building Material Estimates and Rates Build Up: Second Edition.
Shan S. (2001). Civil Engineering Materials. Technology & Engineering Prentice Hall
195
Responses
1. What are the parts of substructure in construction of a building?
• Strip concrete Foundation
• Foundation wall
• Hardcore
• Blinding
• Over site concrete/ground floor slab
2. Which are the materials used for construction of a ground floor slab?
• Cement
• Sand
• Ballast
• Water
3. Which are most likely ratios to be used to mix the materials for a ground floor slab?
• 1:3:4 for plain concrete
• 1:2:4 for reinforced concrete
4. What materials are used to prevent ground water from penetrating into the building after
construction?
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Practical answer
Study the drawing below and calculate the quantity of walling materials for the partition foundation
wall. Assume mortar mix 1:3; height of wall is 1.2m and size of blocks is 450x225x150mm
Density of sand =1600kg/m3 Density of cement = 1400kg/m3
10.00
8.00
Blocks
Length of the wall=8.0m, height of the wall=1.2m
Therefore the area=8x1.2=9.6m2
Number of blocks =9.6/(.225x.45)= 94.815
Add 10% for waste and cuttings = 9.482
Total number of blocks = 104.297 =105 blocks
Mortar
The size of joints are assumed to be 20mm and each block carries two joints
Length of joint for each block = 400+225+20+20 = 665mm
Volume of mortar for each block = .665x.225x.02 = 0.0029925m3
Total volume of mortar = 0.0029925m3x94.815 = 0.2837m3
Add 40% for waste during batching and mixing = 0.1135
Total volume = 0.3972m3
3.
Density of mortar = 1600kg/m
Thus quantity of mortar in kg = 0.3972x1600 = 635.52kg
Amount of sand = 635.52x3/4 = 476.64kg
Add 30% for bulking = 142.992kg
Total amount of sand = 619.632kg
Amount of cement = 635.52x1/4 = 158.88kg
Total amount of cement = 174.768kg
= 3.495 bags = 4bags.
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3.2.3 Learning Outcome 3: Use masonry tools and equipment
3.2.3.1 Introduction to the Use masonry tools and equipment

This learning outcome specifies the content of competencies required in the use masonry tools and
equipment. It includes identifying the tools and equipment for a specific job including personal
protective equipment, cleaning and maintenance and proper storage after use.

3.1.Personal Protective Equipment is used in line with occupational safety and health
regulations.
3.2.Masonry tools and equipment are identified based on the requirements of the job.
3.3.Masonry tools and equipment are cared for and maintained based on manufacturer’s manual
and workplace place policy.
3.4.Masonry tools and equipment are used based on manufacturer’s instructions.
3.5.Masonry tools and equipment are stored based on manufacturer’s instructions.

Inventory is a well maintained list of all tools and equipment. It indicates total quantities, faulty and
those in usable conditions.
Maintenance is a deliberate activity intended to repair a tool or equipment. It can also be carried out
periodically to prevent breakdowns
Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) are those equipment intended to protect the worker from
bodily harm or injury; equipment you use to guarantee your (own) safety.
Masonry Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)
Introduction
198
Careful consideration should be given to personal safety before performing any masonry work.
Serious injuries can be avoided when the proper clothing and personal protective equipment are
worn. PPE will protect the worker from sunburn, scrapes, cuts, chemical burns, or inhalation of toxic
fumes. Wear safety glasses or goggles when working around saws and chisels to avoid injuries.
Always ask for safety information when not sure. Seek medical attention immediately if injured or
exposed to any chemicals. Utilize these safety guidelines to ensure safe masonry operations.
Safety glasses, goggles, or face shields: should be worn when working around tools and powered
equipment like masonry saws and chisels. Eye protection will stop any objects from entering the
eyes causing serious eye injury or even blindness.
Hard hats: should always be worn when on the job, or when visiting the work site. Brightly colored
hats are best (because they are easily seen), and should be made of reinforced fiberglass. For the best
protection, wear the hat in a level position, and adjust the inner lacing so that the hat is raised
slightly. This will cushion and absorb any impact that might occur while working. Do not wear
aluminum or metal hard hats; they are highly conductive and could carry an electrical current to the
wearer.
Gloves: when handling rough materials, gloves should be worn to protect the hands. Gloves will
prevent blistering, cuts, and scrapes. Gloves should be made of leather (or leather palmed), snug
fitting, but not constricting.
Rubber knee pads/guards: will protect and add comfort to the knees when kneeling is required.
Dust mask/ Respirators: Always wear a dust mask when working around dry mortar, and when
using a dry saw. A personal respirator should be used when working around chemicals or wet saws.
Respirators offer protection against inhalation of toxic fumes. If inhalation should occur, seek
medical attention immediately. Personal respirators should only be used by one person, unless there
are provisions available to sanitize them.
Rubber aprons, gloves, pants, boots, or overshoes: will help protect the body from chemicals and
water. Check the Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS) or the container’s label for instructions on
199
what to do should the chemical be swallowed, or come in contact with the skin. Wear chemical
safety goggles.
Boots or work shoes: Wear boots or work shoes that come above the ankles, have good traction,
and hard soles. The proper boots or work shoes protect the ankles and prevent sharp objects from
penetrating the feet. Steel toed boots or work shoes should be worn when working where a heavy
object could fall onto the toes or feet. Do not wear sneakers or soft shoes that offer no protection,
unless permitted to do so. Make sure the laces are tied and not left to drag the ground. Loose laces
can lead to a fall, causing serious injury.
Helmet
Figure 76: helmet
adapted to the working conditions. These days you can find many elegant designs and you can
choose extra options such as an adjustable interior harness and comfortable sweatbands.
Safety glasses
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Figure 77: safety glasses
The eyes are the most complex and fragile parts of our body. A good pair of safety glasses prevent
injuries to the eyes. If you come into contact with bright light or infrared radiation then welding
goggles or a shield offer the ideal protection.
Earmuffs and Earplugs
Earmuffs Earplugs
Figure 78: ear muffs and plugs
If you work in an environment with high sound levels it is very important to consider hearing
protection. Earplugs are very comfortable, but earmuffs are convenient on the work floor as you can
quickly put these on or take them off.
201
Dust masks
Figure 79: Dust masks
Dust masks offer protection against fine dust and other dangerous particles. If the materials are truly
toxic, use a full-face mask. This adheres tightly to the face, to protect the nose and mouth against
harmful pollution.
Gloves
Figure 80: gloves
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• Protection against splashes from diluted chemicals.
Safety shoes
Figure 81: safety shoes
Feet need solid protection. Safety shoes and boots are the ideal solution to protect the feet against
heavy weights. An antiskid sole is useful when working in a damp environment,
Safety jackets
203
Figure 82: safety jackets
the hand protection, there are versions for different applications
Masonry Tools
There are three main types of Tools & Equipment: hand tools, machine or powered tools, measuring
tools.
1. Scutch Hammer
A masonry hammer is shaped like a claw hammer, having a longer handle and a head, but that is
where the similarity stops. The masonry hammer’s head is also two-sided, like the claw hammer, but
one side has a square face on it, made for pounding in nails. The other side of the head has a long
chisel-like tip that is very sharp. This side is used to split bricks or break small pieces off rocks.
Figure 83: scutch hammer

2. Trowel
A trowel is a small pie-shaped tool that is attached to a small handle. It is used to pick up mortar and
spread it onto the brick you are about to put in place. Sometimes the brick may get set down a little
out of alignment. The butt end of the handle can be used to tap it into place. Trowels come in all
shapes and sizes. The one that you use depends on how big or how special the job is.
204
Figure 84: Trowel
Masonry Saws
There are two different kinds of masonry saws:
1. Hand Saw
The masonry hand saw looks a lot like a standard hand saw, but it has longer blades and larger teeth.
The blade on this saw is only six to seven inches tall, and a standard brick is eight inches tall. That
means that you can’t cut all the way through the brick with the saw, but by cutting as far as you can
and breaking the rest away with your masonry hammer, you get the job done much faster and more
efficiently than if you had done the whole thing with the hammer.
Figure 85: handsaw
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2. Power Saw
Masons use a circular saw with a diamond blade to cut brick because it is the hardest. They don’t cut
all the way through the brick because doing so may damage the surface underneath the brick.These
saws can either be handheld or mounted to a table and used like a table saw. The table saw makes
the cleanest cuts that you can get.
Figure 86: power saw

Masonry Square
The masonry square looks like a standard square, but it is usually made of wood or plastic. The
square is used at the corner of two perpendicular walls to make sure the bricks are set at an exact 90°
angle.
206
Mason’s Level
The mason’s level looks like a standard level, but it is usually made out of wood or plastic and is
very lightweight. These levels, like standard levels, have vials in them set at different angles, and
each vial has an air bubble. There are two lines marking the center of each vial. When the bubble is
in between the two center lines, the mason knows that the surface is level.
Figure 87: masons level
Masons establish two different kinds of lines with a level:
• A plumb line: a line that is perfectly vertical

• A level line: a line that is perfectly horizontal
Straight Edges
207
A straight edge is used to make level or plumb lines longer. It is generally about 1 ½ inches thick,
six to ten inches wide, and up to 16 feet long. It is extremely important that the top and bottom edges
of a straight edge are perfectly parallel. Even the slightest warp can throw everything off.

Jointers
Jointers are made to make mortar joints, the spaces between bricks where the mortar is seen. Many
jointers look like a long, flat metal bar that has been bent in the middle. They may be round, flat, or
pointed. The shape that masons use is determined by the type of joint they need to make.
Figure 89: jointers

Masons Hammer
The mashing hammer weighs between 2 to 4 pounds and has a double-sided pounding head. This
hammer is used to hit chisels to split brick or stone.
208
Figure 90: masons hammer
Blocking Chisel
A blocking chisel is made from heavy-duty steel and can be as large as 8 inches long. It is made
specifically to split large numbers of blocks. Using a mashing hammer and blocking chisel is more
efficient than a masonry hammer because you place the chisel exactly where you want to make your
split, and then hit it. There is no guarantee that a masonry hammer will land exactly where you want
it to.
Figure 91: blocking chisel

Mason’s Line
A mason’s line is a heavy twine that is used to mark out a complete wall in one shot. The line is
wrapped around blocks that are placed at each corner of the wall. The blocks are securely in the
ground and the twine is tight, giving you a straight line to follow.
209
Figure 92: masons line
Tape Measure
Tape measures are used to measure out where your walls begin and end, or how large an opening is
meant to be.

Brushes
Soft-bristled brushes are used to remove any excess mortar.
210
Figure 94: brushes
Mixing Tools and Equipment
There are several different tools that can be used to mix mortar. You can get an electric mixer, or
you can use a standard shovel and/or hoe. Just add water, mix well, and you are ready to go.
Figure 95: mixer

For further information http://diymasonry.blogspot.com/2011/09/masonry-tools-and-their-uses.html
Maintenance Tips and Techniques
The best way to keep the tools in good condition is to just clean them. If mortar builds up on the
tools, special cleaners may be needed. Water is the best cleaning agent for small and larger tools. If
mortar has hardened on the tools, and water is not sufficient to remove it, muriatic acid can be used
to clean the tools. If the mortar sits too long and builds up on the mortarboard, any kind of concrete
dissolve will work to clean it. A non-porous, smooth surface with a concave at the middle portion
211
helps the mortar board to keep water for greater workability. Masonry mortar does not bond to the
working surfaces.
Advantages of proper usage and maintenance:
1. Efficiency of the work
2. High quality of the work
3. Speed of accomplishment
4. Accuracy
Preventive Maintenance
Preventive maintenance using preservatives can keep wooden tools in top shape by preventing the
wood from splitting. Linseed oil is recommended for wooden levels and wooden handles. It protects
against splitting and spilling when the wooden part gets wet repeatedly due to constant use.
However, some metal tools like trowels are prone to rust. But if they are used almost every day, rust
and other unwanted elements will wear off naturally which keeps them clean always.
Routine Service
If a hammer handle becomes loose, it should be replaced immediately. The hammers should be
sharpened by a blacksmith. Good maintenance of your carbon chisel lets you cut faster and
accurately. If you need to tighten up a wooden handle, insert another wedge into the end of the
handle or immerse the hammer head into a bucket of water overnight to expand the wood. For
striking tools with carbide tips, storing properly is important.
Maintain and Service Motorized Product
Frequently used equipment also needs a squirt of grease. They require minimum and periodic
maintenance. You have to change the engine oil occasionally. Tire pressure should be checked
regularly for safety reason as well.
212
Store Tools and Equipment
Inventory – detailed list of all the items in stock. Depending on the company, owners or managers
may require employees to use own tools for certain jobs. For example, construction companies may
require employees to have their own items such as a hammer, painting equipment or welding
supplies. This reduces inventory management. Whatever is the type of company or shop, inventory
taking is very important.
Reason for Maintaining Tools and Equipment Inventory
The most important point to consider is to purchase top-grade tools. Special consideration is given to
balance so that the tool, equipment will be properly maintained and prevent loses. The initial cost of
a minimum number of tools is high but there is accompanying warranties and guarantees satisfaction
and many years of service.
Points to consider in Inventory Control
• Create a sign out sheet for all shop tools.
• Conduct an audit for long-term jobs.
• Restrict shop tool access to one individual.
• Use a barcode system to track inventory.

Practical
You have been taken to a workshop and tools are gathered together without any order. Select the
tools given according to their use and store them as required in the provided tools store.
Visit the Tool/equipment store
Identify the tools and equipment required in constructing substructure masonry works
Prepare a list of PPEs required for masonry works
1. Which hand tools are used in masonry works?
213
2. What is meant by:
a) Preventive maintenance
b) Breakdown maintenance
3. What are the safety precautions one should observe when using a machinery?
4. Which are some of the classifications of masonry tools?
5. What are the safety measures one should adhere to in a workshop?
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• Club hammer
• Mason's hammer ,Chisel
• Trowels (Brick, pointing, window, corner and finishing trowels)
• Spirit level
• Brick bat gauge
• Bolster
• Cold chisel
• Hawk (Hand board)
• Sandpaper/Sponge
• Jointing knife/rod
• Stepping ladder
• Mason's line
• Plumb bob
• Measuring tools (Tape measure)
• Power tools
• PPE’s
• Sieve
• Brush
• Straight edge
• Sputter dash
• Vibrator Mixer
• Tamper
• Wheelbarrow
• Mason’s Square
• Helmet
• Dumper
• Sledge Hammer
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3.2.3.7 References
Chudley R. (2005). Construction Technology. 4th edition, Prentice Hall
Michael Y. C. (2017). Construction Technology for Tall Buildings. 5th Edition, World Scientific
Publishing Co. Ltd
Edward A. & Joseph I. (2019). Fundamentals of Building Construction: Materials and Methods 7th
Edition. Wiley Publishers Ltd
216
Responses
1. Identify five hand tools used in masonry works

• Hand Tools:
• Masons Hammer
• Masons trowel
• Steel square
• Tape measure
• Masons line
• Straight edge
2. What is meant by:
Preventive maintenance: It’s that maintenance done to prevent any unforeseen breakdowns
that may occur. This may include washing and oiling tools before storage
Breakdown maintenance: This is the maintenance that is carried out when the tool has broken
down. This is usually an emergency and can lead to loses due to stoppage of work, spoilage of
materials or injury of operator
3. What are the safety precautions one should observe when using a machinery?
Ensure that the machine is in good working condition
Never use a machine that you don’t know how to operate
Don’t use a machine that has no safety guard
Always switch of a machine when not in use.
4. Which are some of the classifications of masonry tools?

• Cutting tools
• Pointing tools
• Measuring tools
• Driving tools
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5. What are the safety measures one should adhere to in a workshop?
• Do not run in the workshop
• Do not wear loose fitting cloths
• Wear safety cloths in the workshop
• Use the right tool for the right job
• Do not eat in the workshop
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3.2.4 Learning Outcome 4: Set out a Building
3.2.4.1 Introduction to Setting out a Building

This learning outcome specifies the content of competencies required in setting out a building. It
includes identifying the reference points including the frontage line, establishing the external
measurements, erecting the profile boards and marking the wall and trench widths on them. Finally
the trench measurements are transferred onto the ground by marking using lime/chalk lines.

4.1 Preliminary preparation activities are carried out as per drawings and standard procedures
4.2 Reference points are located on the ground as per drawings
4.3 Profiles are fixed on the ground according to drawings and standard procedures
4.4 Profile boards are leveled according to standard practice
4.5 Measurement and square-ness are checked based on standard procedure
4.6 Profile lines are fixed based on drawings
4.7 Profile lines are marked on the ground according to the drawings.

Setting out is the actual transfer of the measurements indicated on the drawing to the selected site
where the building will be constructed
Profile or batter boards are setting out elements that are erected at the end of a setting out exercise
to indicate the trench width and wall thickness
Builder’s Lines are strings that stretch from one profile to the other
Frontage line or Building line is an imaginary line that indicates the limit or start of a setting out
exercise. At times it’s along a road and thus it’s established by the County Government and should
be a min of 4.50m from the centre of the road and 2m from the edge or boundary of the road for
building up to 7m in height. For building more than 7m, the min distance is 3m
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Right angle means 90o and its recommended to be established for intersecting walls of a building. In
setting out, right angles are established using various methods: Using the 3:4:5 method, theodolite,
builder’s square and mason’s or steel square
Figure 96: frontage line

Setting out a Building
Introduction
In order to begin digging the trenches required for a building's foundation, the builder must first
transfer the lines and measurements indicated on his or her foundation plan to the building site. That
is, the exact length, width, depth, and position of the foundation trenches must be marked on the
ground. This movement from the plan to the actual site is called setting out. It is probably the most
critical step in the entire construction process.
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Figure 97: setting out
A building is set out in order to clearly define the outline of the excavation and the centre line of the
walls, so that construction can be carried out exactly according to the plan. The centre line method of
setting out is generally preferred and adopted.
The most common setting out method include:
• Setting out using pegging
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• Setting out using blocks.
But here, we will be discussing Setting out using pegging
STEPS
1. Site clearance
2. Obtain the architect or building plan and materials ready
3. Establishing the four corners in relation to the dimension of the building floor plan by
pegging it
4. Insert nails at the centre- top of each peg and then run rope round the 4 pegs.
5. Taking just one side measure the setback from back of fence to the end of building lines in
that particular angle, then come to the front and measure the setback also as given on your
drawing plan.
6. After this go back to the rear or you may use the front as a point mark depending on which
setback is more important to you. Measure the setback from fence establish this two points
with pegs then put a rope to cross both pegs and make them form a right angle or 90 degrees.
7. To determine if your rope are at right angle put a checker popularly called ‘square’ by
bricklayers, this will direct you if you need to shift the other rope that can be varied since one
is already fixed to form a base mark (i.e. the rope running through two pegs from the rear to
the front either on left side or the right side.
8. After establishing a right angle, do your measurement to correspond with what is on plan and
then use the square at the other end to now establish the other two points. When establishing
these points its conscious to place your peg at 1m or 3 ½ ft behind your building line i.e.
where blocks will actually pass through.
9. After this, nails peg at 3m interval round under the rope marking your building line, then nail
tie rods (flat thin wood) on top round the entire area.
10. Establish each room measurement by nails ( you require four nails at each measurement, two
to establish the two sides of block you are going to place later on then the other two at
both ends to serve as the points where you will excavate ,the length of this is usually three
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times the width of the block you are using that is if you are using a 9“ block then expect to
excavate or dig a trench of 27” wide.
11. From the plan details, the width of excavation to be done is also marked by line with pegs at
appropriate positions. However the excavation width is then marked by lime or by with
furrow with spade.
Figure 98: levelling a wall
A building that is set out accurately will be:

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• Level: no part of the floor or foundation higher than another
• Square: walls parallel and the same length
• Plumb: straight up and down, not leaning to one side or the other
Figure 99: plumbing a wall
A building that is set out carelessly will be difficult or impossible to construct according to plan. As
a result, the finished structure may be expensive to maintain and unhealthful. So it is important to
take special care when setting out.
There are three major steps to setting out:
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• Orientation of the building on the site;
• Marking a simple outline of the building's foundation on the ground;
• Placing "batter boards" around the foundation outline and marking the position of
inside walls, doors, and windows on the boards.
The tools shown on this page are needed to set out a building so that it will be level, square, and
accurately measured.
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Figure 100: setting out instruments
Orientation
The orientation of a building is the direction its front walls face: north, east, south, west or
something in between. To mark the orientation on the site, first find north. This is easiest with a
compass. But if no compass is available, finding north is still fairly simple. The builder should stand
at the building position so that his/her right arm points at the spot where the sun rose in the morning
while the left arm points to where the sun set the last night. In this position the builder will be facing
north.
Standing in the same position, if the builder moves his/her arms so they form a straight line to the
sides, they will be pointing due west (left arm) and east (right arm). Once the main compass points
have been established, use a stick to mark out the shape and position of the building. Add about 2
meters to the dimensions of the building on all sides: the extra space will be needed for supplies and
work space during construction.
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Next, clear the ground inside this area of trees, shrubs, and loose plant growth. If the topsoil is loose,
clear away the top 15cm or so to get down to hard earth: loose soil will not support a building.
Figure 101: orientation of a building
If clearing the land at the position outlined proves too difficult, or if it would require felling trees
that are desired for their shade or beauty, consider moving the building a short distance before
clearing the land.
Marking the foundation outline
The next step is to mark the outline of the foundation on the site using string and pegs. Three
measures are very important:
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* The length of each wall must be marked exactly;
* the string must be exactly level;
* the corners must be square: exactly 90°
The length of each wall is easy to set out on level ground. Simply measure it with a tape measure,
making sure to pull the measure tight.
Figure 102: taking measurements
When the site is on uneven ground, care must be taken to measure the length of the wall along a
level line: following the slope of the ground will throw off the measurements.
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Marking the foundation outline
To prevent errors, begin at the highest end of the first wall's length and attach the string to a peg
planted at the end-point. Set a new peg every 2 meters to prevent the string from sagging, and test to
make sure the string is level by using a plumb bob and mason's square as shown: when the plumb
bob stops swinging it will be plumb (straight up and down); the string will be exactly level when it is
a 90° to the bob string.
Repeat this process until the length of string set out is equal to the planned length of the first wall.
Figure 103: using a plumb bob
If the ground is sloped very steeply, it may be easier and more accurate to measure the wall's length
in steps or stages. To do this run a new length of string from the bottom of every second peg (that is,
every 4 meters). Test with a plumb bob to be sure that every peg is straight up and down. In addition,
to be sure there are no gaps or overlaps in the measurement of each new stage, plant a small block
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with a circle on it right next to every other peg: then in measuring the next stage (or step) along the
wall, hold the tape measure to the point in the circle that marks the end of the last stage.
Figure 104: using a marking block
Once the first wall has been set out, the second wall should be set out at right angles to it (90°).
There are several ways to make sure that this angle, and the angles between all the walls set out are
square:
A mason's square is good for distances up to 3 meters. Use it to get started, but don't use it to check
the entire outline.
One of the easiest and most accurate methods of checking large distances for squareness is to
compare the diagonals. Simply measure the diagonal lines from opposite corners of the foundation.
When they are exactly equal in length, all the angles will be 90°. On uneven ground, be sure to use
the tape measure along a level line'
If measuring the diagonals is inconvenient, or if the building is not a simple rectangle, another
method is the 3-4-5 calculation:
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If the wall on one side of a right angle is 3 units long and the wall on the other side is 4 units long, a
line drawn between their ends will always be 5 units long. Here's how to use this rule to test whether
the angle between two walls is square: Along the string set out for one wall, measure and mark off
1.5 meters (3 x .5m). Then, along the string set out for the second wall, measure and mark off 2
meters (4 x .5m). Next, measure and cut a piece of string 2.5 meters long (5 x .5m) and hold its ends
to the points marked off along each wall. When the 2.5 meter string just touches both marks with no
slack left over, the angle between the two wall strings will be exactly square. If the 2.5 meter string
is too short or long, adjust either one of the wall strings until it fits exactly.
Setting out of Foundations
Before Commencement, of the excavation of trenches for foundation, a setting out plan is prepared on
paper. The plan is fully dimensioned at all breaks and openings. One of the methods of setting out of
foundations is to first mark the centre line of the longest outer wall of building by stretching a string
between wooden pegs driven at its ends. This serves as the reference line for marking the centre line
of all the walls of the building. The centre line of the wall, which is perpendicular to the long wall, is
marked by setting up a right angle. Right angle is set up by forming triangles with sides 3,4and5units
long. If we fix the two sides of the right angles triangle to be 3 m, and 4 m, then the third side i.e. the
hypotenuse should be taken a 5 m. The dimensions should be set out with a steel tape. The alternative
method of setting out right angle is by the use of theodolite. This instrument is also helpful in setting
out acute or obtuse angles. Small right-angled Projections are usually set out with mason’s square.
In an accurate method, the centre lines of the building walls are carefully laid by means of small nails
fixed into the head of the wooden pegs driven at the quoins. In case of rectangular buildings, the
diagonal from the opposite corners are checked for their equality. Small brick walls, pillars or
platforms are constructed 90cm clear of the proposed foundation trench. The platforms are about 15
cm wider than the trench width and are plastered at top. The tops of all platforms or pillars should be
at the same level preferably at plinth or floor level of building. The strings are then stretched over the
nails in the pegs and the corresponding lines are marked on the wet plastered platforms top by pressing
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the stretched string on the plastered surface by a trowel. The outside lines of the foundation trench and
the plinth lines are marked on the wet plastered platform top in the similar manner.
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Figure 105: testing accuracy of setting out
Marking the Inside Foundation Lines
233
Once the outside walls of the foundation have been set out with pegs and string, the next step is to
set out a second set of lines to mark the inside of the foundation walls. Use the same procedures to
keep them level, accurate in length, and square.
The easiest way to begin is to measure the width of the foundation wall and mark it along the strings
set out for two opposite walls. Then set out a string between these two points and fasten the ends
with pegs. Use a plumb bob to be sure each peg is directly beneath the outside foundation line.
Next, repeat this process for each of the remaining walls. Place a peg at every point where the new
lines cross: these are the inside corners of the foundation walls.
Figure 106: Marking the Width of a Foundation Trench

Batter boards
Batter boards are like a single rail fence placed around the building position. They should be placed
after the foundation lines have been set out and before any digging for construction begins. Batter
boards are essential for two reasons: They provide permanent reference points for the position of the
foundation walls: these will be needed once the string markings have been removed during
construction;
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They can be used to measure and mark off the exact position of doors, windows, and floors, thus
making it much easier to build the walls accurately.
To be useful, batter boards must be exactly level and should be set about 1 meter back from the
string marking the outside foundation line.
Figure 107: Batter boards
Placing Batter Boards
To place batter boards around the building position, first find the highest point on the site about 1
meter outside the outer foundation line and place a wooden stake firmly in the ground.
Nail the first board to this stake so that the top of the board is at least as high as the top of the
foundation walls will be. Since the foundation walls must be as high as the floor, this will be at least
20-3Ocm. above the ground.
Next, place a second stake 2 meters from the first and 1 meter outside the outer foundation line.
When this stake is secure, nail the other end of the first batter board to it, taking care that the batter
board is level. Nail a second board to this same stake and repeat the process of placing new stakes,
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levelling, and nailing the boards, until the batter boards form a fence that goes completely around the
building position.
Figure 108: How to Level Batter Boards
A commercially made "spirit level" is the easiest leveling device to use. Place it on the surface - in
this case the top edge of the batter board - and keep adjusting the height of the board at the opposite
end until the bubble is in the center. When joining boards to stakes, place the level over the seam of
the board to maintain a continuous level line. An additional check on level can be made at the
corners: use an extra board to provide a surface for the level.
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Figure 109: Leveling of batter boards
Another method is to use a water level: this is a clear plastic hose that is filled with water, Adjust the
first end of the hose to a known level mark. When the other end of the hose is placed at the next
stake, the water inside will be at the same level as at the first end. To prevent spillage the ends may
be plugged until the hose is in position, But all plugs must be removed to get an accurate
measurement.
Transferring Marks to Batter Boards
Once the batter boards are complete, all the measurements shown on the written foundation plans
should be marked on the boards. First, transfer the foundation lines marked by the strings set out
earlier: run a string from one board to the opposite board directly over each foundation line. Use a
plumb bob to make sure this new string is over the corner pegs.
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Next, place nails or saw cuts in the tops of the boards where they intersect the strings. A good
system is to use different marks for the foundation lines than those to be used for other important
measures such as wall lines and the positions of doors and windows. For example, use small notches
cut with a saw to indicate the foundation lines. Then use nails to indicate the wall lines.
Figure 110: Transferring marks to batter board from corner peg
Once the foundation lines and wall lines have been marked on the batter boards, the builder is ready
to start digging the foundation trenches. Note: the digging will be easier if the strings are left in place
until the trenches have been well started.

Practical
Identify the tools and materials for setting out
1. Select a suitable site

2. Set out the simple rectangular building provided in the drawing
238 4.5m
6.0m
Wall thickness
150mm
Field study
Table 1.5: Field visit to nearby Construction Site

To identifying the reference transferred drawing Seek authorization
points including the frontage measurements onto the ground
line, establishing the external by marking using lime/chalk
measurements lines.
To establishing the external

measurements
1. What is the procedure of setting out a simple rectangular building?
2. Draw a sketch of a profile board.
3. What are the uses of a profile board?
4. Which are the methods you could use in setting out a rectangular building
5. How would you ascertain that your setting out is correct.
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• Tape measure
• Builders or mason square
• Mason string
• Pegs
• Hammer
• Spirit level
• Plumb bob
• Trowels
• Spades
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3.2.4.7 References
Publishing Co. Ltd
241
Responses
1. What is the procedure of setting out a simple rectangular building?
Procedure of setting out
Establish the datum and the baseline AB
Establish the length of the building and make a right at A and B
Mark the width at A and B to obtain C and D
Erect profile boards as required
Measure the internal dimensions to get the width of the trench and wall
2. Draw a sketch of a profile board.
3. What are the uses of a profile board?

• Used to indicate the width of the trench and wall
• It’s a reference point during the construction of the wall and excavation of the trench
4. Which are the methods you could use in setting out a rectangular building
• The 3-4-5 method
• Use of a builders square
242
• Use of a sight square
• Use of a theodolite
5. How would you ascertain that your setting out is correct.
• By measuring the diagonals of the set out rectangle
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3.2.5 Learning Outcome 5: Lay building foundation
3.2.5.1 Introduction to Laying a Building Foundation

This learning outcome specifies the content of competencies required in laying a building
foundation. It includes excavation of the foundation trench, compaction at the bottom of trench,
blinding, placing of reinforcement, preparing and casting of the foundation concrete.

5.1 Excavation is done as per structural drawing
5.2 Compaction is done according to standard operating procedure (SOP)
5.3 Blinding is done according to SOP
5.4 Foundation steel reinforcement base is fixed according to structural drawing and
specifications
5.5 Concrete mix is prepared according to engineering specifications
5.6 Concrete is casted according to structural drawings and specifications

Trench Excavation is the digging of the ground to create space that will accommodate the foundation
of the building. It can be done manually or by use of excavators.
Compaction is the process which expels entrapped air from freshly placed concrete and packs the
aggregate particles together so as to increase the density of concrete.
Blinding is the process of pouring a thin layer of concrete over the floor of a new building; this can
be over the hardcore or over the foundation itself. The purpose of this is to seal in underlying
material and prevent dirt and mud from interfering with the structure
Reinforcement are the steel bars that are incorporated in concrete members in order for them to be
able to withstand tensile forces. Concrete is said to be good in resisting compression forces.
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Timbering to Trenches is the temporary support given to the sides of a trench exaction to prevent
them from collapsing
Formwork is the temporary support given to wet concrete
Concrete mix is a ratio that specifies the proportion of ingredients used in the manufacture of
concrete or mortar
Bottoming of trenches is the compaction and leveling of the bottom of a trench in readiness to
receive concrete
Foundation is the lowest part of the building which is in contact with the ground. Its main purpose is
to transmit the loads of the building to the soil
Concrete is a mixture of cement, sand and ballast that is measured to a specified mix
Trench excavation
A trench is an excavation in which the length greatly exceeds the depth. Shallow trenches are usually
considered to be less than 6 m deep, and deep trenches greater than 6 m.
Trench, or footing, excavation is typically used to form strip foundations, buried services, and so on.
The choice of technique and plant for excavating, supporting and backfilling the trench depends on
factors such as; the purpose of the trench, the ground conditions, the trench location, the number of
obstructions, and so on.
The common techniques that are used include:
• Full depth, full length: Suitable for long narrow trenches of shallow depth, such as pipelines
and sewers.
• Full depth, successive stages: Suitable for deep trenches where works can progress in
sequence, reducing the risk of collapse.
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• Stage depth, successive stages: Suitable for very deep trenches in confined areas, deep
foundations and underpinning.
Before starting excavation, the strings are stretched between the outside lines of the foundation
trench marked over the platform top and the cutting lines are marked on the ground by lime powder.
If necessary, the lines may be marked by a pick-axe
Trenches may be dug manually or by mechanical excavators, with spoil typically loaded onto dump
trucks to be taken for disposal, or re-used elsewhere on site. They need to be constructed with care
and must be adequately supported to prevent the sides from caving in, thereby causing a hazard to
life, as well as resulting in unnecessary costs and delays to the project.
For shallow trenches in firm ground, open timbering is usually used – whether made of timber or
steel trench struts – in conjunction with poling boards. For softer ground, the number of poling
boards is increased and they are arranged at closer intervals. Where the trench is deeper than 1.8m,
or in loose soil, the sides are usually close-boarded.
When the depth of trench is large, or when the sub-soil is loose, the sides of the trench may cave in.
The problem can be solved by adopting a suitable method of timbering. Timbering of trenches,
sometimes also known as shoring consists of providing timber planks or boards and struts to give
temporary support to the sides of the trench. Timbering of deep trenches can be done with the help
of the following methods:
• Stay bracing.
• Box sheeting
• Vertical sheeting
• Runner system
• Sheet piling.
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Figure 111: stay bracing
1. Stay bracing. This method (Fig. 111) is used for supporting the sides or a bench excavated in
fairly firm soil, when the depth of excavation does not exceed about 2 metres.
The method consists of placing vertical sheets (called sheathing) or polling boards opposite each
other against the two walls of the trench and holding them in position by one or two rows of struts.
The sheets are placed at an interval of 2 to 4 metres and generally, they extend to the full height of
the trench. The polling boards may have width of about 200 mm and thickness of 44 to 50 mm. The
struts may have size 1OO x 100 mm for trench up to 2 m wide and 200 x 200 mm for trench up to 4
m width.
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Figure 112: box sheeting
2. Box sheeting. This method is adopted in loose soils, when the depth of excavation does not
exceed 4 metres. Fig. 112 (a) shows the box like structure, consisting of vertical sheets placed very
near to each other (sometimes touching each other) and keeping them in position by longitudinal
rows (usually two) of wales. Struts are then provided across the wales.
Another system of box sheeting, shown in Fig. 112 (b), is adopted for very loose soils. In this
system, the sheeting is provided longitudinally, and they are supported by vertical wales and
horizontal struts [Fig. 112 (b)]. If the height is more, braces are also provided along with struts.
248
3. Vertical sheeting. This system is adopted for deep trenches (up to 10 m depth) in soft ground. The
method is similar to the box sheeting [Fig. 112 (a)] except that the excavation is carried out in stages
and at the end of each stage, an offset is provided, so that the width of the trench goes on decreasing
as the depth increases. Each stage is limited to about 3 m in height and the offset may vary from 25
to 50 cm per stage. For each stage, separate vertical sheeting, supported by horizontal wailings and
struts are provided (Fig. 113).
4. Runner system. This system is used in extremely loose and soft ground, which needs immediate
support as excavation progresses. The system is similar to vertical sheeting of box system, except
that in the place of vertical sheeting, runners, made of long thick wooden sheets or planks with iron
shoe at the ends, are provided. Wales and struts are provided as usual (Fig. 4). These runners are
driven about 30 cm in advance of the progress of the work, by hammering
Figure 113: vertical sheeting and runner system
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5. Sheet piling. This method is adopted when (i) soil to be excavated is soft or loose (ii) depth of
excavation is large (iii) width of trench is also large and (iv) there is sub-soil water. Sheet piles are
designed to resist lateral earth pressure. These are driven in the ground by mechanical means (pile
driving equipment). They can be used for excavating to a very large depth.
In deep trenches, especially where they are likely to be left open for any length of time, the pressures
exerted by the trench sides onto the boarding are often considerable and there is the possibility of the
sides caving in if not adequately supported. They may also fill with water following heavy rain
which may cause structural problems and require a pump to evacuate the water.
TRENCHES FOR FOOTINGS POURED WITHOUT FORMS
When wooden forms are not be used, the trenches must be dug very carefully:
• the walls of the trench must be plumb (straight up and down);

• the earth forming the trench walls and bottom must be very firm so that there is no danger of
the trench crumbling when the concrete is poured;
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Figure 114: undisturbed earth
Undisturbed earth
• The earth must be removed carefully so that the earth at the bottom of the trench is smooth,
clear of all trash or debris, and undisturbed (undisturbed means that the earth has not been
moved, loosened, or dislodged by the digging);
• The bottom of the trench must be absolutely level: 6-8 measurements with a straight board
and level should be made along the length of the trench to be certain of the level;
• The trench must be exactly as wide as the concrete footing;
• The trench must be free of standing water.
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Trenches for Footings Poured With Forms
It is much more common to use wooden forms when pouring the concrete footing because the
ground at building sites is rarely hard enough to stay in place when the concrete is poured directly in
the trench.
Like the trenches for non-form footings, trenches in which forms will be used must be level at the
bottom, and hard. The earth at the bottom must also be left smooth, clear of debris, and undisturbed.
However, there is no need to make the side walls of the trench plumb. The only requirement is that
the trench be 30-45 centimeters wider than the footing will be so that there will be room in the trench
for the wooden forms and work space for the builders.
Figure 115: hard earth
Digging Trenches
When digging the trenches, any loose soil, or soil with organic material should be shoveled outside
the foundation lines and discarded.
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Hard earth that is dug up should be spread evenly inside the foundation lines: it will be very useful
as part of the fill under the floor.
Formwork for Footings
The formwork should be made of boards measuring about 5cm x 15cm or 5cm x 30cm. The boards
should be supported by 5cm x 10cm braces called studs. Allow about twice the width of the footing
between the studs (but never more than 1.3 - 1,6 meters); the formwork must be strong because
concrete weighs 2.5 metric tons per cubic meter.
Figure 116: formwork for footings
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• The joints and corners of the formwork must be tight: neither the concrete, nor the water
should be able to leak out. If water leaks out it will weaken the mixture;
• The walls of the forms must be exactly plumb (straight up and down), and the tops of the
forms must be level: any inaccuracies will weaken the foundation;
• Small boards, called spacers, should be nailed to the tops of the formwork to keep the sides
of the forms from leaning toward each other before the concrete is poured;
• The formwork should be built so that it may be removed easily without damage: most forms
can be re-used;
• If part of the footing will be visible and the builder would like its surface to be smooth, the
boards of the formwork must also be smooth: any irregularities in the wood - burrs, bends,
chips, and so on - will leave an impression in the concrete.
Formwork for A Stepped Foundation
The formwork for a stepped foundation is constructed in the same manner described above.
However, if the walls will be made of block or brick, the height of each step of the footing must be
equal to the height of the blocks used, or to a whole number multiple of their height. For example, if
the blocks used in the foundation are 20cm high,: then the steps must be 20cm or 40cm or 60cm
high, and so on.
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Figure 117: Formwork for Stepped Foundations
Foundations: is the lowest part of the building which is in contact with the ground. Its main purpose
is to transmit the loads of the building to the soil
Purpose of a foundation
To distribute the weight of the structure over a large area in order to avoid overloading the
underlying soil (possibly causing unequal settlement).
To anchor the structure against natural forces including earthquakes, floods, frost heaves, tornadoes
and wind.
To provide a level surface for construction
To anchor the structure deeply into the ground, increasing its stability and preventing overloading.
To prevent lateral movements of the supported structure due to soil and snow heave. Tree roots can
also cause unnecessary movement
Four types of strip foundations
• Traditional strip foundation

• Stepped strip foundation
• Wide strip foundation
• Deep strip foundation
Traditional strip foundation
It’s a continuous strip of reinforced concrete resting on the soil. Depth and width must be suitable for
soil type and building load. Walls are placed centrally on foundation. Strip foundations are used on
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average to good bearing capacity soils. Not suitable for very soft clay, silt, or peat, or badly made-up
ground. The concrete thickness must not be less than the amount by which it projects from the base
of the wall. This is as when a strip foundation is compressed between the wall and the subsoil, a
weak foundation will tend to crack at an angle of 45 degrees. If the thickness of the strip is at least
equal to the amount it projects from the wall then the bearing of the strip is not affected.
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Figure 118: strip foundation
Making the concrete for foundation footings
To prepare a strong, durable concrete mixture, the builder must:
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• select, prepare, and store the ingredients (cement, sand, gravel) properly;
• use proportions of these ingredients that are suitable for his or her purpose;
• mix the ingredients properly with each other and with water.
Selecting Ingredients
Cement
The commercial cement most commonly used for 1-story buildings is Portland cement. It is
available from most manufacturers. Portland cement, and most locally made limestone cements, can
be stored for up to 6 months in a cool, shaded, dry, area. If the cement has hard lumps that are
difficult to break or crumble, don't use it.
In humid tropical areas, or areas with heavy rainfall, it may be advisable to purchase "hydrophobic"
cement, since this kind of cement can be stored in damp conditions for long periods of time.
Sand
The sand is possibly the most important ingredient in the concrete mix, since it provides most of the
plasticity: that is, it makes the mixture easy to work with. There should never be more than three
parts sand for every one part cement. Too little sand in a mixture may result in shrinkage cracks
when the concrete dries; too much sand will produce a harsh mortar that will be difficult to work
with and may lead to leaks.
Never use sand from the ocean: the grains in ocean sand are too uniform in size and will not make a
useful concrete. Any other source of sand is fine. But it is crucial that the sand used be clean.
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Figure 119: Testing of Sand
To test whether sand is clean enough to be used:
• put 5cm of sand in a jar and fill the jar with water:
• Shake the jar vigorously for 1 minute and let it stand for 1 hour. The layer of dirt that settles
on top of the sand should be less than 6mm thick. If it is more, wash the sand or find other
sand (but again, do not use ocean sand).
Gravel
Gravel adds strength to concrete because it increases the range of grain sizes in the mixture.
Generally it is also the easiest ingredient to find and prepare locally.
Gravel should be clean, and should range in size from 6-18mm.
Mixing the Best Proportions Of Ingredients
The concrete mixture required for a foundation footing may be very different from the mixture
needed for concrete used for another purpose.
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For example, the average mixture for foundation footings is 1:3:6 (that is, 1 part cement, 3 parts
sand, and 6 parts gravel).
But a typical mixture for fence posts is 1:1:1½. The higher proportions of sand and gravel in the
footing mixture provide maximum strength and resistance to water. Since fence posts do not need to
be as strong or as water resistant as footings, they can be made of a weaker and less expensive
mixture.
Mixing Procedure
Mixing Area
Concrete should be mixed on a flat surface that will not absorb water. Mix it on a wooden platform
about 2 meters by 2 meters. Or, mix it on a cement-sand platform.
Cement-sand platforms must be made a week before concrete can be mixed on them. To build a
platform, mix cement and sand on the ground in a 1:6 ratio, cement to sand. Add water, and spread
the mixture in a circle about 2 meters in diameter.
Figure 120: mixing platform
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Choosing a Measuring Unit
Since the dry ingredients of concrete, cement, sand, and gravel, are mixed by volume, the easiest
way to be sure that the proportions are right is to decide on a standard measuring unit such as a box
or wheelbarrow.
Once the unit is chosen, simply fill it to the appropriate level with each ingredient in turn. For
example, to make the recommended mix for foundation footings, 1:3:6, for each unit of cement, add
3 units of sand, and 4units of gravel.
Generally, the easiest measuring unit to use is a gauge box or wheelbarrow that holds 1 bag of
cement. The box or wheelbarrow should be approximately 40cm x 40cm x 40cm. Note: to avoid
confusion, once the size of the measuring unit has been chosen, do not use different size boxes or
wheelbarrows on the site for any purpose.
When using a box:
• The box should have handles on both sides for easy lifting by two people;
• If the materials are close enough to the platform so that they do not have to be carried, it is
easier to use a bottomless box: set the box directly on the mixing platform and fill it to
measure; then, lift it up to empty the ingredients into the mixture.
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Figure 121: gauge box
Mixing the Ingredients
The ingredients in concrete should always be mixed in the same order:
• spread the correct amount of sand on the platform with a shovel.

• dump the required amount of cement on the sand, and mix the sand and cement until the
color of the pile is uniform: there should be no streaks of color.
• add the required amount of gravel and mix it with the sand and cement until the gravel is
thoroughly distributed and there are no streaks of color.
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• hollow out a hole in the center of the mix. Add water slowly, pushing the ingredients toward
the center while turning them over with a shovel.
Figure 122: mixing ingredients
Mixing ingredients
A good test for the correct amount of water is to walk on the mixture:
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• if you sink to your ankles or higher, there is too much water;
• if you sink about 5-6cm, you have the right mixture.
Too much water
The correct amount of water is important because too much or too little will weaken the mixture:
If there is too little water, air spaces (weak spots) will form in the concrete;
If there is too much water, a cement-water paste will rise to the surface, weakening the mixture
underneath.
Pouring concrete for foundation footings
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Fresh concrete mix has to be carried to the footing trench in water-tight containers such as
wheelbarrows: no water should seep out of the mixture:
The mix
• The mix should be poured within 45 minutes of mixing;

• Avoid bumps during transport from the mixing area to the site: vibration will cause the
aggregates (sand and gravel) to separate from the mixture;
• It is best to let the mix flow into the trench; do not drop it ; into place or the sand and gravel
may begin separating from the mixture;
• Once in place, the concrete should be worked up and down with a shovel, rod, or spading tool
to break air pockets;
• Footings up to 30cm deep can be poured all at once; deeper footings should be poured in layers
15-30cm deep at a time;
• Once started, the pouring must be continuous: concrete that has started to set cannot be
disturbed;
• If you must stop pouring at the end of a day, place a vertical stop at the end of the poured
section;
• When pouring is resumed, roughen the edge of the old section and paint it with a cement-water
paste before applying fresh concrete. (Use a stick or any sharp object to roughen the old
section).
Curing concrete footings
The strength and water-tightness of concrete improve with age. Proper curing is important to get the
aging process started well.
As concrete hardens, the water in the mix gradually evaporates. ‘Prolonging that process increases
the strength and water-tightness of concrete.
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Immediately after the concrete has set, put a wet covering over it. The covering may be made with
wet burlap bags, or a thin layer of wet sand, or wet straw. The covering should be sprinkled with
water 2 or 3 times a day for at least 7 days.
Reinforced footings
Reinforced concrete footings require the same formwork as unreinforced footings. Steel rods are
attached to the form before pouring. The rods should be made of steel about 9mm in diameter. They
must be clear and free of rust.
Figure 123: reinforcement bars
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Figure 124: hooked ends
When placing the rods:
• Use steel wire to hold them in place 2.5-5cm above the bottom of the trench, and 5-7.5cm from
the sides of the forms. Temporary wood supports may be used while the steel wire is being tied
in place, but they must be removed before pouring concrete.
• Plain round bars must be hooked at the ends; deformed bars (bars with curved ridges along
their surface) can be left straight since their ridges will hold the concrete firmly.
• The ends of bars should be spliced (overlapped) for a length at least 30 times the diameter of
the rods. For example, 9mm rods should overlap for 2.7 meters.
• The rods must be completely surrounded by concrete and the concrete and steel must be fully
and tightly bonded to work properly; any exposed steel will rust through, and this will weaken
the steel and destroy the bond.
Further information: http://www.nzdl.org/gsdlmod
Bottoming of Trenches
The trenches need to be leveled and compacted. This is done sight rails and boning rods or travellers
as shown in the figure. The thickness of foundation concrete is then marked by use of shot steel rod
driven at the bottom.
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Figure 125: bottoming of trenches

Practical
You are provided with the necessary materials for laying a 1m3 foundation footing. Lay the
foundation following all the necessary steps for the task.

To Identify the steps in the Identify the steps in the Seek permission from the site
preparation of concreting in concreting of foundations supervisor
foundations
To observe the timbering to Indicate the methods applied in
trenches timbering
1. Identify the steps in the concreting process?
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2. Sketch two timbering methods?
3. What is the function of a foundation?
4. What are the different types of foundation?
5. What are the functional requirements of a foundation?
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• Tape measure
• Mason string
• Pegs
• Hammer
• Spirit level
• Plumb bob
• Trowels
• Spades
• Wheel barrow
• Buckets
• Mixing platform
• Hose Pipe
• Personal protective equipment
Supplies and Materials
• Cement
• Sand
• Ballast
• Water
• Reinforcing steel
• Formworks
• Additives
• Hoop irop
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272
3.2.5.7 References
Publishing Co. Ltd
273
Response
1. State the steps in the concreting process
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Concreting process:
• Level and compact the bottom of the foundation trench

• Drive in a rod to indicate the thickness of the foundation concrete
• Prepare a mixing platform for concrete
• Batch and mix the concrete ingredients when dry
• Add enough water
• Mix until a uniform colour is obtained
• Place and compact the concrete (formwork may not be required in hard ground)
• Cure the concrete
2. Sketch two timbering methods
VERTICAL SHEETING. RUNNER SYSTEM.
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3. What is the function of a foundation
It is used to transmit the loading of the building safely on to the ground
4. What are the different types of foundation
• Strip foundation
• Pad foundation
• Pile foundation
• Stepped foundation
• Raft foundation
5. What are the functional requirements of a foundation
• Foundation should be strong enough to be able to sustain the loading from the building
• Foundation should be built with such material that are strong enough to make the
foundation durable
• Foundations should be built in such a way to transmit the loading of the building safely
onto the ground
• Foundation should be built with materials that are not affected by deleterious materials
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3.2.6 Learning Outcome 6: Construct Foundation Wall
3.2.6.1 Introduction to Constructing Foundation Wall

This learning outcome specifies the content of competencies required in constructing a foundation
wall. It includes the erection of a foundation wall, backfilling, stabilizing the soil around the building
and treating it with anti-termite.

6.1. Foundation walls are laid as per drawing and standard operation procedure (SOP)
6.2.Excavations are backfilled with stable soil according to SOP
6.3.Foundation ground is stabilized according to specifications.
6.4.Soil around and in the building are treated against termites

Definition of terms
Wall is a vertical element constructed using masonry units, concrete, timber or any other materials. It
is used for enclosing or dividing space.
Backfilling is filling the area around the building with selected materials.
Stabilizing foundation is essentially the process of reinforcing your foundation to prevent movement.
The importance of foundation stabilization is to make sure that the structure lasts for a very long
time without major shifting or settling.
Soil Treatments: The soil adjacent to the foundation walls is treated by digging a trench 6 to 8 inches
wide along the inside of the foundation. Apply the correct amount of diluted termiticide for each 10
linear feet of trench for each foot of depth from grade to the footing.
Foundation Wall
In constructing the foundation wall, two things must be considered - the thickness of the wall, and
the height of the wall above the ground level.
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Foundation walls should be made at least as thick as the earth walls that they support. Sometimes
they are thicker, but this is true only when they will be used to support other loads, such as the
interior floors.
Figure 126: Concrete foundation wall
The height of the foundation wall should be sufficient so that rain splash will not reach the earth
blocks and cause them to erode or wash out. This height depends on the amount of rainfall and width
of roof overhang. For dry areas (rainfall less than 15 inches per year) and wide roof overhangs, the
foundation walls should extend 8 inches above the ground surface. For high rainfall areas and small
roof overhang, 18 inches above the ground is required and under normal rainfall conditions, 12
inches is required. Even when a stucco or surface finish is used over the earth walls, the foundation
wall should extend to the heights given above.
CONCRETE FOUNDATION WALLS
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When using poured concrete for the foundation walls, use forms (shuttering) to hold the concrete
until it hardens These forms are set directly on top of the footing and must be solidly braced against
the walls of the trench or at the ground surface to prevent movement when the concrete is poured.
They should also be thick enough and braced well enough to prevent bulging.
Wood sheathing 1½ to 2 inches thick and braced about every 6 feet works well, or 1" tongue-and-
groove boards braced every 2½ feet. If plywood is used, a thickness of 5/3" to ¾" is satisfactory. A
typical wood form is shown in Figure 29. Constructing wood forms is a misleading job. They always
seem too strong, and therefore wasteful, while they are being built. Once the concrete is poured, it is
too late to correct the mistake of not making them strong enough. A bulging form is difficult or
impossible to repair.
The concrete forms should be carefully placed in the correct position and then well braced to prevent
movement as shown in Figure 29. Once the forms have been braced, the top of the foundation wall
should be located by driving nails and drawing lines on the inside of the forms. This can be done
accurately using the water hose method given in Chapter 3. This height should be marked on the
forms all the we, around the house as shown in Figure 30.
If reinforcing steel is to be placed in the foundation wall, it is easier to set only one side of the forms
first (usually the inside form), mark the correct height of the wall on the form and then place and tie
all of the reinforcing steel before erecting the remaining forms. This helps to line up the steel and get
it to the correct height.
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Fig 2: Formwork for Concrete Foundation Wall
After the forms have been placed and checked for correct al alignment and strength, the footing
inside of the form should be swept clean, and then lightly sprinkled.
It is a good plan to leave a few small openings in the bottom of the forms so trash can be swept out.
Be sure to close these openings before the concrete is poured.
To keep the concrete from sticking to the forms, they should be wetted with water just before the
concrete is poured, or better still, mopped with light oil before the forms are erected, not after.
Once the concrete pouring begins, it must be continued until the entire foundation wall is completed.
MASONRY FOUNDATION WALLS
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Foundation walls should protruded like two or three courses above ground to mitigate flooding
especially during heavy rains.
RUBBLE FOUNDATIONS
Fig 4: Rubble Foundations
Often, a large supply of stones, broken brick, or other suitable materials is available for building a
rubble foundation. This type of foundation works well and is economical, although it is harder to
reinforce. Instead of building a footing and foundation wall, the rubble foundation can be
constructed as one solid piece which tapers up so that it is the width of the earth wall at the top. The
width at the bottom is determined in the same way as for footings
Only hard, durable materials should be used in a rubble foundation. Mortar of the same type
described for masonry foundation walls is suitable for holding the rocks together. Often, during the
clearing of the site and digging for the foundation, suitable rocks and other materials can he saved
for construction of the rubble foundation.
Construction requires patience and it is more difficult to obtain the correct level and straightness
using rubble. The largest stones available should be placed at the bottom of the foundation and the
top should be covered with a thin layer of mortar to provide a smooth, level surface for the first layer
of the wall.
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BACKFILLING THE FOOTING EXCAVATION
Since the excavation for the foundation wall and footing is wider than the foundation wall, it must be
backfilled. Preferably, the backfill material should he the native earth removed from the excavation.
It should be placed back into the excavation as close as possible to the same moisture content and
compactness of the surrounding, undisturbed soil. This always means tamping the soil back in place.
Tamp it in thin, equal layers on both sides of the foundation wall so that there is no possibility of
damaging or forcing the wall to lean. You can use the same kind of tamper described elsewhere for
rammed earth.
Cracks may occur due to the foundation being backfilled before the concrete has achieved the
required strength or because the necessary amount of steel was not placed accordingly. The ground
is then treated with a suitable ant-termite.
Foundation Wall Design Considerations
Foundation walls shall be designed to withstand erosion, fast-moving water, and other factors
affecting those types of wall. The first two reasons restrict or limit the use of foundation walls in
coastal areas. Main elements that should be considered when building foundation walls include:
• Embedment
• Height
• Materials
• Bracing or lateral support
• Flood openings
• Grade Elevation
Embedment and Height/Width
A foundation wall should be built in such a way that the top of the footing shall be no higher than the
depth of erosion and scour. If you cannot achieve this, you must consider using a pile foundation that
can be installed at higher depths. A poorly embedded wall will lead a building to slide along the
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ground surface. Foundation walls will typically require lateral support from the floor system and
diaphragm, and connections to the top of the walls must be detailed properly.
Foundation walls should be constructed high enough, so the bottom of the floor is above the design
flood elevation. It is recommended to have at least 8 inches above the DFE at all points. When you
are building a masonry or concrete foundation wall, it shall have a minimum thickness of 6 inches.
For larger foundation wall depths, the minimum thickness must be the greater of 6 inches or 1.5
times the length of the footing projection from the foundation wall.
Building Materials for Foundation Walls
Foundation walls can be built from almost any material, but concrete, masonry, and wood are
predominant. If the build is using wood, you will need to be sure that it has been treated or certified
for marine. Make sure even cuts and holes should be field-treated. Masonry foundation walls should
be fully grouted and reinforced. Concrete foundation walls must be reinforced, and the concrete
mix must be a high-strength, low water-to-cement ratio.
Wall Openings
Wall openings are really important when it comes to balancing the water levels inside and outside
the walls. Building codes require air ventilation openings that normally do not satisfy the floor
opening requirement. Air openings shall be designed near the top of the wall, while flood openings
shall be close to the bottom of the wall. One single opening probably will not be enough to act as
both air and flood opening, so be sure to have the right dimensions for each one of them.
Elevations around Foundation Walls
When building your walls, avoid using the excavated soil to promote drainage away from
the structure, by raising the exterior grade. By doing so, water will eventually generate additional
loads against the foundation wall. Make sure the interior grade is at or above the lowest exterior
grade next to the structure. Flood openings in the foundation wall will allow floodwaters to exit the
crawlspace once floodwaters recede
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Transferring wall measurements to the foundation
Fig 5: Transferring wall measurements to the foundation
In this case the measurements are transferred from the profile boards by use of a spirit level or plumb
bob as shown in the figure. A string is held tight across opposite profile boards and a spirit level is
placed against it and it is projected to the foundation.

Practical
You are provided with the necessary materials to construct a 1m wall of three courses. Construct the
wall following the required procedure for the task.
Field Study

To Identify the steps in the Identify the steps in the setting Seek permission from the site
setting out a foundation wall out a foundation wall supervisor
284
To observe the construction of Indicate the operation of
a foundation wall constructing a foundation wall
1. What is a foundation wall as used in substructure work?
2. What is meant by the term foundation trench excavation?
3. What are the functional requirements of a foundation wall?
4. Why do we use stones of nine by nine in the foundation walling?
5. What is used to set out the foundation wall?
285
• Tape measure
• Mason string
• Pegs
• Hammer
• Spirit level
• Plumb bob
• Trowels
• Spades
• Wheel barrow
• Buckets
• Mixing platform
• Hose Pipe
• Cement
• Sand
• Ballast
• Water
• Formworks
• Additives
• Hoop irop
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3.2.6.7 References
Publishing Co. Ltd
287
Responses
1. What is a foundation wall as used in substructure work: This is the wall that is constructed
below the ground floor slab and on top of the foundation
2. What is meant by the term foundation trench excavation?
This is an excavation below the ground level for purposes of accommodating the foundation of
the building
3. What are the functional requirements of a foundation wall?
• Strength
• Durability
• Fire resistant
• Resistant to deleterious materials
4. Why do we use stones of nine by nine in the foundation walling?
• Because they can be able to withstand heavier load and also to save on the amount
of mortar used
5. What is used to set out the foundation wall?
• Profile boards and strings
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3.2.7 Learning Outcome 7: Construct a Ground Floor Slab
3.2.7.1 Introduction to Constructing a Ground Floor Slab
This learning outcome specifies the content of competencies required in constructing a ground floor
slab. Concrete floor slab formation method involves the construction of formwork, placing and
reinforcement of the floor. The first step is to bring together and put up formwork, the second step is
to put in order and place reinforcement, the third step is to pour, compact, and finish concrete. The
ultimate step is to cure concrete and remove formwork. These are the basic processes of constructing
a concrete slab.

7.1.Form works are laid as per specifications
7.2.Damp proof membrane is laid as per specifications
7.3.Slab steel reinforcement is done according to structural drawings
7.4.Concrete mix is prepared according to engineering specifications
7.5.Concrete is casted according to structural drawings and specifications.
7.6.Concrete slab is cured as per SOP
7.7.Damp proofing is done as per specifications.

Definition of terms
Formwork is a temporary construction that is meant to hold wet concrete in position until it is able to
support itself
Damp proof course (DPC) is an impervious sheet material that is placed on the slab at the position
where the wall is to be constructed to prevent moisture from rising through the wall
Hardcore is a filling that is placed under the floor slab to raise levels, create a level base for the slab,
to protect the floor from plant growth and moisture and to distribute floor loads to the ground.
289
Damp proof membrane (DPM) is a sheet material such as polythene that is placed under the slab to
prevent moisture from rising from the ground to the floor
Ground Floor Slab Construction
Ground-bearing slabs, also known as over site concrete is commonly used for ground floors on
domestic and some commercial applications. It is an economical and quick construction method for
sites that have non-reactive soil and little slope.
Here is a summary of the concrete slab construction process.
1. Prepare formwork
The formwork is the frame for the concrete slab. For measurements, consult the approved building
plans to ensure the formwork is setup correctly. Following the process of laying the formwork
correctly, reduces the likelihood that the concrete slab is compromised. Preparation of formwork
must also follow established building standards and guidelines.
The formwork needs to be erected correctly so that it can withstand the pressure from concrete, not
leak, allow people to work and walk on it, support equipment and machines and not contain defects
in construction. This means that all joints must be sealed and secured and no nails exposed. If there
are any defects, costly repairs may be required. It is the responsibility of the building supervisor or
site engineer to check that correct building practices have been followed.
An important tip is to ensure that the height of the formwork will be level with the top of the
concrete slab so that you can screed the finished surface in line with the top of the formwork.
2. Excavate earth
The site is cut to near level with excavation machinery. Once the excavation is complete, the
surveyor sets pins in the ground to mark out floor area and give tradesmen points to measure from.
Electricians and Plumbers trench and run access for services. Footings and piers are dug to the
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Engineers specifications and the site is made level using laser level. Formwork is constructed around
the perimeter of the slab to be poured. This will form the shape of the slab and hold the concrete
while it sets hard.
3. Prepare slab bedding
It is important to prepare the slab bedding correctly. This will ensure that the concrete slab rests on a
firm base and that the concrete slab does not start cracking. To prepare the slab bedding, use road
base or crusher dust of a reasonable thickness based on building codes. Ensure that the surface is
level and flat and compacted firmly. A well-drained base and compacted bed of hardcore prevents
the concrete slab cracking.
3. Place and compact the hardcore:
Ground floor concrete slabs have a solid nature and are not loose or suspended like the upper levels.
The construction begins following the completion of the bases and walls. The surfaces and sides of
the walls are internally and externally backfilled. Following this process, the ground base is
equalized and given a compact texture to get the hardcore base which is a minimum of 150
millimeters deep. Next step is to compact the base in the right way and consolidating the entire
surface. The result is the base for this concrete ground floor slab.
After the ground floor slab hardcore is compacted and leveled, blinding is then added. The blinding
can be of quarry dust, lose chipping, sand or murram. Anti-termite treatment is then sprayed on these
surfaces. Formwork for the concrete is then set to the edges of the foundation wall. This is the
concrete thickness
4. Install reinforcement
Reinforcement prevents the concrete from cracking, buckling and caving in when a load is placed on
it by improving the tensile strength of the concrete and making it more durable.
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Ensure the reinforcement bars, spacers and ties are installed in accordance with the approved
building plans.
5. Pour, compact and finish concrete
A professional should be engaged to pour the concrete from a reputable pre-mix company. This will
ensure that the concrete is at the specified strength. Prior to pouring, soak the slab bed with water to
prevent moisture loss.
Once the concrete is poured, add control joints where required. As the concrete dries, it will shrink.
To avoid cracks forming randomly, control / expansion joints ensure cracks to not develop.
In addition, ensure that the concrete is compacted. This help the concrete to bind and mould into
place inside the formwork and around the reinforcement bars. Vibration, either internal or external,
is the most widely used method for consolidating concrete. Lastly, slabs should be finished
according to applicable building standards.
6. Cure concrete and remove formwork
Curing a concrete slab involves the application of water over an approximate 7 day period. Applying
moisture to the concrete helps it to seal. Spraying twice daily is ideal – use light mist sprays with
complete coverage. After 24 hours of the concrete being poured, the formwork can be removed.
Take care removing the formwork to avoid any damage to the concrete slab. The slab can be walked
on after 3 days, but avoid heavy loads for at least 7 days.
After this procedure, there are techniques for curing the concrete slab in an effective way. There are
several slab curing systems which include a water cure where the concrete is flooded, mist sprayed
or ponded. Moreover, water holding system has covered the concrete with sand, burlap, canvas or
straw. These are used to keep the surface of the slab wet on a continuous basis; they also use
impervious paper or synthetic film seal. When we talk about curing, it is justified to separate
formworks in the subsequent fourteen days.
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.
Figure 127: Leveling the site and laying of Drainage Pipes
293
Figure 128: Concrete Floor Slab Construction
7. Damp Proof Course (DPC)
A Damp proof Course (DPC) is a durable, impermeable material such as slate, felt paper, metal,
plastic or special engineered bricks bedded into the mortar between two courses of bricks or blocks.
It can often be seen as a thin line in the mortar near ground level. To create a continuous barrier,
pieces of DPC or DPM may be sealed together. In addition, the DPC may be sealed to the DPM
around the outside edges of the ground floor, completely sealing the inside of the building from the
damp ground around it.
In a masonry cavity wall, there is usually a DPC in both the outer and inner wall. In the outer wall it
is normally 150 millimetres (5.9 in) to 200 mm (7.9 in) above ground level (the height of 2-3 brick
courses). This allows rain to form puddles and splash up off the ground, without saturating the wall
above DPC level. The wall below the DPC may become saturated in rainy weather. The DPC in the
inner wall is usually below floor level, (under a suspended timber floor structure), or, with a solid
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concrete floor, it is usually found immediately above the floor slab so that it can be linked to the
DPM under the floor slab. This enables installation of skirting boards above floor level without fear
of puncturing it. Alternatively, instead of fitting separate inner and outer DPCs, it is common in
commercial house building to use a one-piece length of rigid plastic (with an angled section) that fits
neatly across the cavity and slots into both walls (a cavity tray). This method requires weep vents to
enable water to drain from the cavity, otherwise dampness could rise from above the DPC.

Practical
Construct 1m3 of ground floor slab given all the necessary materials and tools for the task.

To Identify the steps in the Identify the steps in the Seek permission from the site
concreting process concreting process supervisor
To observe the concreting Indicate the current operation

process on site as per your list of
operations
1. You have secured yourself a ground floor construction job. What are the steps that you will
used in your preparation and placing of concrete
2. Which are the steps of concreting
3. Why is it necessary to compact concrete
4. What is the importance of curing concrete
5. What does the term segregation mean in concreting
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• Tape measure
• Mason string
• Pegs
• Hammer
• Spirit level
• Plumb bob
• Trowels
• Spades
• Wheel barrow
• Buckets
• Mixing platform
• Hose Pipe
• Cement
• Sand
• Ballast
• Water
• Formworks
• Additives
• Hoop irop
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3.2.7.7 References
Michael Y. C. (2017). Construction Technology For Tall Buildings. 5th Edition, World Scientific
Publishing Co Pte Ltd
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Response
1. You have secured yourself a ground floor construction job. What are the steps that you will
used in your preparation and placing of concrete
Steps in concreting of a ground floor slab:
• Prepare the site by removing all top soil, leveling and compaction
• Arrange and compact the hardcore to min. thickness of 150mm
• Level the top of hardcore and apply a 25mm thick blinding layer of mural
• Lay a DPM of 1000gauge polythene sheet material
• Place the required edge formwork
• Place the BRC reinforcement Ref. A142
• Prepare, place and compact concrete
• Cure the concrete for at least 7 days
2. Which are the steps of concreting
• Batching
• Mixing
• Transporting
• Placing
• Compacting
• Curing
3. Why is it necessary to compact concrete
• To remove air voids trapped in the concrete which reduced the density and strength of
concrete
4. What is the importance of curing concrete
• To ensure that the hydration process takes place uniformly and therefore avoid
cracking of concrete due to differential setting.
5. What does the term segregation mean in concreting
• This is the separation of aggregates in concrete during transportation and placing.
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CHAPTER 4: CONSTRUCTION OF SIMPLE 1 LEVEL MASONRY SUPERSTRUCTURES
Related Unit of Competency in Occupational Standard : Construct Simple Level 1 Masonry

Superstructures
4.1 Introduction to the unit of learning.

This unit specifies the competencies required to construct Simple 1 Level Masonry Superstructures.
It entails setting out the superstructure, construction of reinforced concrete elements and
construction of masonry wall with opening. It applies in the construction industry.

2. Quantify materials requirements
4. Set-out building superstructure
5. Construct reinforced concrete columns and ring beams
6. Construct masonry wall with openings
4.2.1 Learning outcome 1: interpret working drawings
This learning outcome specifies the content of competencies required in Interpreting Working
Drawings. It includes to differentiate working drawings, read and apply various scales as used in the
drawings for the purpose of interpretation, convert Imperial measurements used in the drawings into
metric measurements identify symbols based on technical drawings
1.1.Working drawings are differentiated based on technical drawings standards.
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1.2. The scale of the drawing is read based on the provided key.
1.3.Imperial measurements are converted into metric measurements based on conversion table.
1.4.Symbols are identified based on technical drawings standards.
1.5.Reference points are identified on the ground based on the site drawing.
Definitions of terms
Working drawings
This is a graphical representation of the actual works expected to be done such as Architectural
Drawings, Structural, MEP Drawings, Site Development Drawings, and Survey Maps
Technical drawings standards

These are documents which provide uniform reference in the practice of technical
ISO 128, Euro code, Ministry of public works drawing manual
Imperial measurements
These are measurements for length in terms of miles feet, and inches
They are old units of measuring length.
Points to note:
12 inches = 1 foot/feet
1 inch = 2.5 centimeters (25 mm)
1 feet = 300 centimeters (300 millimeters)
1 mile = 1.5 kilometers
Metric measurements
The metric system is used to measure the length, weight or volume of an object whereby;
Length is measured in terms of millimeters (mm), centimeters (cm), meters (m) or kilometers (km).
1 cm = 10 mm
1 m = 100 cm
1m = 1000 mm
1 km = 1000 m
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Weight is measured in grams (g) and kilograms (kg). Volume is measured in milliliters (ml) and
liters (l).
1 kg = 1000 g
1 l = 1000 ml
1 kg is the weight of seven apples
1 l is the volume of a carton of orange juice
Scale
Is a representation of the actual ground dimensions to fit the drawing on a particular size of the
drawing paper? E.g. 1mm on paper representing 100mm on the ground.
Symbols
Are the shorthand of drawing, They graphically portray the characteristics of a component with a
minimal amount of drawing
Reference points
Points from which all other measurements and levels will be measured or taken from in relation to
the site under construction.
Types of working drawings.
Architectural Drawings.
This is a technical drawing of a house, building or any kind of structure
Drawn by the architect giving the floor plan, elevations and sections with comprehensive details.
Floor plan: They illustrate the horizontal dimensions of a building space. The floor plan conveys the
thickness and construction of vertical walls, and columns that define these spaces. These floor plans
are essential to define the spaces such as rooms & partition and its functional relationship. And also
to illustrate places of openings like doors and windows, finishing and entrances. Also, to define
utilities such as stairs, elevators, mechanical room, baths, stores.
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Building Section: Building section drawing is a vertical pane cut through a building. It is a drawing
of interior & exterior partitions and roofs and ground floor in addition of interior elevations seen
beyond the plane of cut.
The purpose of building section is to Illustrate building construction, and technical implementation
such as precast & pre-stress. Also to show the types of slab; is it solid slab, hollow block, or just flat
slab? Also, to show the building materials to be used such as block, stone, concrete, glass, etc.
Moreover, it’s used to show the height of the building and levels. And again, for details, finishing,
and measurements.
Building Elevations: These are views of a building’s exterior vertical surfaces that shows the
finishing materials, windows and doors, size & Heights of the buildings and its elements, shape of
the building, materials of exterior surfaces, and measurements. Elevations are drawing of four main
faces of a building: front, rear, right, and left and are named north, south, east, and west.
302
303
Structural Drawings
Produced by the structural engineer giving details for structural members such as beams, foundations
strip, columns and column bases, slabs, roof members or other structures showing how they be built
These drawings outlines the sizes, type and standards of the materials required as well as
requirements for connections.
The structural drawings set has the following subsets:
• General Notes,
• Plans,
• Elevations,
• Sections,
• Details
General Notes are part of structural drawings and they cover the codes used in design and the by-
laws of the building.
Typically there are no details on these drawings. Structural notes provide information regarding
general material properties (steel or wood grade, concrete strength, etc) or construction requirements
(soil compaction, weld procedures, etc).
Elevations show the exterior walls of a building or structure. In elevation drawings you can find the
height of building (floors and roof elevations) and structural properties of elements present in the
walls and that cannot be seen in plan drawings.
Sections plans are referenced in the plan view drawings and provide information about elements
that cannot be see in plan drawings. The sections usually are cut through walls or structural elements
that are not typical and the constructor needs to be aware off.
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The details drawings provide particular information on how to construct or connect the structural
elements.The details can be reference in plans, elevations and sections.
Site Development Drawings
Produced giving details on how the site will be constructed bearing in mind the existing physical
planning regulations as stipulated in the physical planning act.
These drawings illustrate the location and orientation of the plot land.
It shows the following,

• Building foot prints, travel ways
• Drainage facilities,
• Sanitary sewer lines,
• Water lines,
• Lighting landscaping and garden elements.
• Property line
• Outline of existing and proposed buildings and structures
• Distance between buildings
• Distance between buildings and property lines (setbacks)
• Parking lots/areas, indicating parking spaces
• Driveways
• Surrounding streets
• Easements
• Ground sign location
• Utilities
Survey Maps
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Produced by the surveyor giving detailed information indicating existing features, ground and
reduced levels for the purpose of setting out and earthworks.
Survey maps determine the precise location of new structures on construction sites before they are
built.
What Should Be Included In Working Drawings

The following information should be shown:
• Drawing Title
• Plan layout
• Elevations
• Detailed and labeled sections
• A reference number,
• Notes (general, civil, mechanical
• Drawing scales
• Date drawn
• A brief description of the requirement or schedule eg for doors, windows, foundations,
reinforcement bars etc

Practical activity
• You are given a plan of a classroom, interpret the drawing and dive the detail of what is
required for the setting out of the building
A Case Study
Your institute intends to construct 3 No. classrooms to accommodate the rising number of trainees
joining the institute .The space available measures 100 feet by 160 feet.
You have been appointed as team leader on behalf of the institute to facilitate the construction of the
classroom.
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a) What type of drawings can you advice the institute to ensure that they are ready before the
work starts?
b) What’s the need of establishing the reference points on the site?
c) Why is the use of scale important in project drawings?
d) What are some of the appropriate scales you can expect in the different drawings to be
produced?
e) What are the metric measurements for the provided institute space?
Field/Visit to nearby construction site
To relate real site activities -types of drawings used in the Must interpret the working
in the interpretation of construction site drawing correctly.
working drawings - use of reference points in
constructions site
-use of scaled drawings Relate the drawings with
against ground ground measurements
measurements
- use imperial and metric
measurements
1. What are the types of working drawings used in the construction sites?
2. What are the views drawn in an architectural drawings?
3. What is the purpose of structural drawings?
4. What are the contents of structural drawings.
5. What is a site development drawing?
6. Which are the features that can be shown on a site development drawing
7. A clients plot measures 50 feet by 100 feet, convert the size of this plot in metric
measurements?
8. How is the scale used in working drawings?
9. What does the following scale mean?
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I. 1:100
II. 1.25
• Structural
• MEP Drawings
• Survey Maps
• Tape measures
• Stationery
308
4.2.1.7 References
W.G NASH, 1983, BRICK WORK

J.C HODGE, MALCOLM THORPR, 2006, BRICKWORK FPR APPRENTICES
W.G NASH, 1990, BRICK WORK, VOLUME 2
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Response
1. What are the types of working drawings used in the construction sites?
• architectural
• structural
• MEP drawings
• site development drawings
• survey maps
2. What are the views drawn in an architectural drawings?

• floor plan
• building elevations
• building sections
3. What is the purpose of structural drawings?

• Produced by the structural engineer giving details for structural members such
as beams, foundations strip, columns and column bases, slabs, roof members or
other structures showing how they be built
4. What are the contents of structural drawings.

• General Notes,
• Plans,
• Elevations,
• Sections,
• Details
5. What is a site development drawing?
• Produced giving details on how the site will be constructed bearing in mind the
existing physical planning regulations as stipulated in the physical planning act.
• These drawings illustrate the location and orientation of the plot land.
6. Which are features that can be shown on a site development drawing?

• Building foot prints, travel ways
• Drainage facilities,
• Sanitary sewer lines,
• Water lines,
• Lighting landscaping and garden elements.
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• Property line
• Outline of existing and proposed buildings and structures
• Distance between buildings
• Distance between buildings and property lines (setbacks)
• Parking lots/areas, indicating parking spaces
• Driveways
• Surrounding streets
• Easements
• Ground sign location
• Utilities
7. A clients plot measures 50 feet by 100 feet, convert the size of this plot in metric
measurements?
• 15M by 30M
8. How is the scale used in working drawings?

• Represents of the actual ground dimensions to fit the drawing on a particular size of the
drawing paper? E.g. 1mm on paper representing 100mm on the ground
9. What does the following scale mean?

1:100
1.25
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4.2.2 Learning outcome 2. Quantify material requirements

This learning outcome specifies the content of competencies required in Quantity of Material
Requirements. It includes identifying materials required for substructure, calculating the supplies
and preparing a materials schedule based on the drawing.

2.1. Materials required for masonry are identified based on the drawings
2.2. Supplies are identified based on drawings
2.3. A schedule of materials is prepared based on the drawing

Materials/supply is a substance or a mixture of substances that are used in the construction of
buildings and structures.
Materials schedule is a list of materials used in constructing an element including the quantities,
units of measurements and description
Material quantification is the act of counting and measuring the materials that are required for a
specific task
Drawings
This is a graphical representation of the actual works expected to be done such as Architectural
Drawings, Structural, MEP Drawings, Site Development Drawings, and Survey Maps
Types of Masonry Materials
Cement
Used as a binding material for preparation of mortar, concrete for masonry works.
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It comes in 50kgs bag.
Figure 129: cement

It is received in bags of 50 kg (or in bulk carriers in case of storage in silos) and each batch should be
accompanied with test certificate of the factory. Also, it should be tested before use to ascertain its
strength, setting time, etc.
Cement should be well stored in dry place free of moisture. In case cement has been stored for over 6
months from date of manufacturer or for any reasons the stored cement shows signs of deterioration
or contamination, it should be tested as per the direction of the Engineer before use.
The quality, strength of masonry and plastering works mainly depend on the quality of cement
Hence cement should be tested in field and in laboratory before use.
Cement should be checked for field tests like cement brand, manufacturing date, fineness, hardness,
floating test and also laboratory tests like soundness and setting time.
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Sand
Sand should be well graded, clean, dry, durable, coarse, hard, angular river sand free from foreign
materials such as coatings of clay, dust and organic matters.
Sand should be tested for silt content. Silt should not exceed 7%.
Sand should be checked for bulk age, so that correct quantity of sand will be added and also check
for gradation. The various sizes of particles of which the sand is composed should be uniformly
distributed throughout the mass.
Sand should not contain harmful impurities such as iron, pyrites, coal particles, lignite, mica shale or
similar laminated material, alkali, and organic impurities in such form or quantities so as to affect the
durability or strength of concrete or mortar. The seasonal changes shall be well guarded. Sand
should be invariably washed using screw type sand washing machine only if the silt content is not
within the permissible limits.
River sand should be used. Do not use river sand which is affected by tidal water.
Never use sea sand. Also do not use sand which contains the white spotted material and shells.
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Figure 130: sand sample
Sand Sieving Screen

Sieving of sand should be done before use so as to maintain the different sizes of screens for various
work. Do not use rusted screens. Screen should be replaced frequently. Big holes due to damage
should be replaced immediately. Mechanically operated sieving machine is also used for sand
sieving.
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Figure 131: sand sieving screen
Ballast
It should be obtained from an approved quarry, where natural stones of approved quality are crushed.
It is available in terms of aggregate size such as 12mm, 24mm, 36mm.
Ballast should be free of foreign materials before using as part of concrete.
Masonry Units and Materials
These are walling units used together with mortar as jointing agent to construct a wall.
Examples of walling units can be such as:
a) Quarry Stones
These are obtained from natural stones from approved quarries.
They are produced in different standard sizes to match the required design needs such as size of the
wall, facings etc.
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b) Bricks
Bricks are made out pure clay soils and should be checked for size, shape, frog, finishing, color,
soundness, breaking etc. once burnt from the kiln, before use. They come in different standard sizes
depending on the use. It should have minimum crushing strength of 35 kg/cm2.
Brick can be locally available, fairly uniform in size, with plane rectangular faces, shape and color.
Brick needs to be be uniformly well burnt so as to give clear ringing sound when struck and shall be
free from cracks or other flaws which impair their strength. They shall show a fine grained, uniform,
homogeneous and dense texture on fracture and shall be free from lumps of lime, laminations,
cracks, air holes, soluble salts causing efflorescence or other defects which may impair their
strength, durability, appearance or usefulness for the purpose intended.
(Also Read: All About Brick Masonry Construction and Its Precautions)
Figure 132: bricks

c) Concrete Hollow Blocks
These are made out of concrete in various sizes by use of molds that allow for hollow section in the
blocks.
The hollow part is meant to reduce the weight of the blocks while maintaining its structural strength.
Commonly used for non-loading bearing and partitioning walls.
317
d) Sold concrete blocks.
Made of concrete and in various sizes.

They are good for both load bearing and non-load bearing walls.
Figure 133: solid concrete block
318
e) Dressed Stones
The stone dressing is a process of surfacing and shaping of rocks available naturally. The place
where the rocks are abundantly available is called a quarry. The process of taking stones from the
natural bed is known as ‘Quarrying’.
The operation of stone dressing is generally carried out at the site of quarry so as to reduce the
transportation cost.
The dressing of stone is generally done using hand tools like Chisel, Pickaxe etc. using heavy
machines or blasting using explosives. Once quarried, the stones are cut into the suitable size and
surface finishes. This process is termed as dressing of stones. The effective dressing of stones would
help in making your structure attractive and economical.
319
Figure 134: dressed stones
320
Figure 135: stone dressing stones
Different Stages Involved in Stone Dressing
Sizing:
The irregular quarried rock is cut into desired dimensions by removing extra portions. It is generally
done using hammers and chisels or cutting machines.
Shaping:
Once cut to desired dimensions extra projections are removed to shape the stone.
321
Plaining:
It is the process of removing irregularities from the stone surface.
Finishing:
It is done by rubbing the stone surface with an abrasive material like silicon carbide.
Polishing:
In this stage the stone is polished by hand or machine to make it more attractive. It is generally done
in stones like lime stones, marbles and granite. The effective dressing of stones would help in
making your structure attractive and economical.
Reinforcing Steel
Reinforcement bars are manufactured and produced in different diameter sizes to serve structural
designs of the building.
They come in full lengths of 12M long and diameters ranging from 6mm, 8mm, 10mm, 12mm, 16mm,
20mm, to 32mm.
Shapes can be either round bar, twisted bar, ribbed or deformed bar.
Timber Formworks
Timber obtained from different types of wood through logging process.

Timber comes in different sizes that meet the use and demand in the building industry
It should be stored in areas free from wetness, direct sunlight.
Additives
These are extra ingredients that are added to concrete or mortar aimed at making the final product
water proof, increased structural strength or change in color.
Quarry Dust
These are fine aggregates obtained from the quarry during the process of crushing quarry stones.
Its used together with sand and cement to produce blocks, or as mortar for jointing.
Gravel
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These are rubble stones obtained from quarry sites for use as hardcore filling.
Anti- Termite Treatment
Chemical meant to treat surfaces occupied by the building to kill or bar insects and termites that affect
the structural components of the building structure such as roof, slab, walls etc.
Obtains from various manufacturers in the market.
Usage is as per manufacturer’s instructions.
It’s hazardous and should be kept well.
Dump Proof Membrane
A damp-proof membrane is a moisture-inhibiting foil that is 100% watertight .Thus damp – which
exists in the surrounding air in the form of condensation – is prevented from penetrating the
membrane.
Damp-proof membrane types
• (polyethylene) foils are most widely used

• aluminium or aluminated paper are also often used for insulation materials - examples that
come to mind include flensing decks and laminated insulation panels.
• another solution is a bituminous course
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Figure 136: DPM
Damp Proof Course
Damp proofing material laid on which the wall is constructed that helps inhibit moisture from
accessing the walls.
Hoop Iron
It’s meant to reinforce masonry walls.

The hoop iron is important in controlling excessive cracking and possible collapse of walls. This due
to the fact that iron has very good tensile properties while concrete and mortar are very weak on
tensile strength.
Reinforced brick masonry is capable of resisting both compressive as well as tensile and shear stress.
They in different sizes and gauges.
324
325
Figure 137: hoop iron 20kg roll
Quantifying Materials Used
Estimating masonry units
The most straight forward means of determining the walling of units needed is to determine the total
square area coverage of the wall and divide by the surface area provided by a single unit specified
for the project.
The table below shows the approximations.
326
Table 6: masonry units measurements
Estimating Masonry Mortar ( sand and cement)

To estimate for these materials the following factors must be considered:
i. Desinties for materials
• Cement 1440kg per cubic meter
• Sand 1550kg per cubic meter
• Ballast 1670kg per cubic meter
ii. Bulking percentage

iii. Wastage percenage
iv. Cutting and breakages percentage
v. Volume of work to be done
Materials Schedule Format
Item description quantity unit

no.
1 Cement 50kg bag 60 Number
2 Sand 200 Tones
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3 Ballast 468 Tones
4 Timber 200x25mm 690 Linear meters
5 D12 reinforcement bars 350 kgs
Additional Information Sources Related To The Learning Outcome
https://www.slideshare.net/NomanBindresh/reinforced-brickwork
Reinforced brickwork - SlideShare
http://www.experts123.com/q/what-role-does-hoop-iron-play-in-controlling-cracks-in-masonry-
walls.html
What role does hoop iron play in controlling cracks in masonry ...
https://theconstructor.org/building/types-masonry-construction-based-material/36289/
Types of Masonry Construction Based on Material

Practical activity
Visit the college workshop and From the samples provided on materials identify and differentiate
them as per the type and use of each material.
Based on the drawing provided, quantify the amount of material that will be required and prepare
materials schedule.
Field/Visit to nearby construction site

To relate real site activities in • Construction materials Must identify construction
quantifying materials available in the site materials correctly
• Calculation and
estimation of quantities
Estimate quantities for
• Preparation of schedule materials required for given
of materials amount of work and as per the
drawings correctly.
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Prepare material schedule
accurately
1. Which materials are used for superstructure walling

2. What is the importance of the following in masonry
• Hoop iron
3. Where the following materials are obtained from.
• Hollow block
• Quarry stone
• Bricks...
4. How should cement be stored

5. What factors are considered when quantifying materials for masonry walling
6. Draft a material schedule format.

• Structural
• MEP Drawings
• Survey Maps
329
• Tape measures
• Stationery
330
4.2.2.7 References
KREH, D. BUILDING with masonry brick, block and concrete. The Tuanton Press, 1998.
Annoted Design and Construction Details for Concrete Masonry. TR 90B. NATIONAL
CONCRETE MASONRY ASSOCIATION, 2003.
331
Responses
1. Which materials are used for superstructure walling?

• walling
• sand
• bricks
• ballast
• quarry stones
• timber
• hoop iron
• reinforcement bars
• dpm
• dpc
2. What is importance of the following in masonry
• Hoop iron: reinforces the wall and protects against tensional stress which cause
cracking
• Dump proof membrane: inhibits the ingress of dumpness from the surrounding
3. Where are the following materials obtained from?
Bricks... from burnt moulded clay soils
Quarry stone... from approved natural natural quarry sites
Hollow block..... from a mix of cement and fine aggreagates
4. How should cement be stored
• Cement should stored in stores free from dampness,rains and well aerated.
5. What factors are considered when quantifying materials for masonry walling.
• Bulking
• Density
• Wastage
• Cutting
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• Breakages
6. Draft a material schedule format.
Item description quantity unit

no.
1
2
3
4
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4.2.3 Learning Outcome 3 .Use Masonry Tools and Equipment

This learning outcome specifies the content of competencies required in the use masonry tools and
equipment. It includes identifying the tools and equipment for a specific job including personal
protective equipment, cleaning and maintenance and proper storage after use.

3.1.Personal Protective Equipment is used in line with occupational safety and health
regulations.
3.2.Masonry tools and equipment are identified based on the requirements of the job.
3.3.Masonry tools and equipment are cared for and maintained based on manufacturer’s manual
3.4.Masonry tools and equipment are used based on manufacturer’s instructions.
3.5.Masonry tools and equipment are stored based on manufacturer’s instructions.
Definition of terms
PPEs are items worn to minimize exposure to hazards that can cause serious injury or illness.
Equipment: the necessary items required to perform a particular task
Tools: devices or implement, especially one held in the hand, used to carry out a particular function
Safety the condition of being protected from or unlikely to cause danger, risk, or injury.
Maintenance is a deliberate activity intended to repair a tool or equipment. It can also be carried out
periodically to prevent breakdowns
Personal Protective Equipemnt (Care and Use)
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Required personnel protection equipment (PPE) must be worn at all times when on construction or
renovation sites or in the workshop while on practical sessions.
At a minimum, each worker is required to wear a hard hat and safety glasses. High visibility safety
vests with reflective striping are required when employees are exposed to vehicular traffic. In the
absences of vehicular traffic, high visibility shirts should be worn at all times. All workers must wear
shirts with sleeves, long work pants, and sturdy work shoes or boots when working on a construction
or renovation site or training workshops.
a) Eye and Face Protection
Safety glasses or face shields are worn any time work operations can cause foreign objects to get in
the eye. For example, during welding, cutting, grinding, nailing (or when working with concrete
and/or harmful chemicals or when exposed to flying particles). Wear when exposed to any electrical
hazards, including working on energized electrical systems.
Eye and face protectors – select based on anticipated hazards.
Figure 138: googles

b) Foot Protection
Construction workers should wear work shoes or boots with slip-resistant and puncture-resistant
soles.
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Safety-toed footwear is worn to prevent crushed toes when working around heavy equipment or
falling objects.
Figure 139: safety boots

Hand Protection
Protective Gloves should fit well .Workers should wear the right gloves for the job (examples:
heavy-duty rubber gloves for concrete work; welding gloves for welding; insulated gloves and
sleeves when exposed to electrical hazards).
Figure 140: gloves
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Head Protection
Wear hard hats where there is a potential for objects falling from above, bumps to the head from
fixed objects, or of accidental head contact with electrical hazards.Hard hats – routinely inspect them
for dents, cracks or deterioration; replace after a heavy blow or electrical shock; maintain in good
condition.
Figure 141: helmet
Hearing ProtectionUse earplugs/earmuffs in high noise work areas where chainsaws or heavy
equipment are used; clean or replace earplugs regularly.
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Figure 142: ear plugs
Respiratory Protection
When you have a lot cutting, grinding, handling dusty materials like cement, sand, chalk etc dust
gets everywhere including up to your nose. These calls for one wear a simple dust mask or a
respirator making it comfortable for one to work in such a dusty environment.
Figure 143: dust mask
Reflector Jackets
High Visibility gear is very imortant on most construction sites as well as in training workshops.
Colleges and companies can have refletive jackets as part of their uniform.. It's good to have a
warm jacket as well.
338
Figure 144: reflector jacket
Masonry Tools and Equipment
1. Mason square
• The masonry square looks like a standard square but it is usually made of wood or plastic or
steel. The square is used at the corner of two perpendicular walls to make sure the bricks are
set at an exact 90° angle.
• Used by the mason during setting out to enable attainment of accurate 90 degrees corners of
squarenes
• It’s prudent for a mason to always check for the accuracy level of the square and do the right
adjustments before use. This will help minimize errors.
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Figure 145: mason square
2. Spirit Level
• Used to check vertical and horizontal levels during construction.
• It is usually made out of wood or plastic and is very lightweight. These levels, like standard
levels, have vials in them set at different angles, and each vial has an air bubble. There are
two lines marking the center of each vial. When the bubble is in between the two center lines,
the mason knows that the surface is level.
Figure 146: spirit level
3. Plumb bob
• Used to measure and check vertical levels during construction.
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Figure 147: plumb bob
4. Trowels
• A trowel is a small pie-shaped tool that is attached to a small handle.

• It is used to pick up mortar and spread it onto the brick you are about to put in place.
Sometimes the brick may get set down a little out of alignment.
• The butt end of the handle can be used to tap it into place. Trowels come in all shapes and
sizes. The one that you use depends on how big or how special the job is.
5. Margin Trowel
• A margin trowel is a long, thin trowel used for heaping small amounts of mortar on stone and
spreading it.
• Margin trowels are used with narrow masonry units such as a manufactured stone veneer in
order to avoid spilling excess mortar over the sides of the veneer units.
• Margin trowels, while not appropriate for every masonry project, are as close to a universal
trowel as you can get.
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Figure 148: margin trowel
6. V- or Square-Notch Trowel
• The workhorse of masonry jobs, the v- or square-notch trowel is large and has two sides that
are straight and another two sides that are notched.
• These notches can either be square or V-shaped, and they act essentially as a metered system
for dispensing mortar across a flat surface such as cement board. If you were to try to dispense
the mortar evenly with the flat edge of a trowel, it would be nearly impossible to disperse the
mortar at even rates.
• By pressing the trowel's notches flat against the surface, the mortar extrudes from the notches
evenly.
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Figure 149: v or square notch trowel
7. Cold Chisel
• A cold chisel has a wide, flat head that is perfectly designed for slicing bricks or veneer stone
in half with a blow from a hammer.
• A cold chisel also has a myriad of other uses, such as chipping away excess mortar or
removing a single brick from a brick wall.
• Usually cold chisels have plastic handles to absorb the shock from the hammer blow.
Figure 150: cold chisel

8. Spades
• Used for mixing, picking ,collection and placing of materials in quantities
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Figure 151: spade
9. Wheel Barrow
• In large construction works, a wheelbarrow can be used for taking concrete from the mixing
plant to its destination but where a small quantity of concrete is required; the masonry
worker can mix the concrete in the barrow to ease himself of the work.
• Moreover, when junks are required to be moved away from the construction site, a
wheelbarrow can be used when a truck cannot be used or when there is no
Figure 152: wheel barrow
10. Float
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• Floats are used regularly by plasterers and builders. A float is a tool with a curved handle and
a flat board surface made of plastic, wood, rubber or metal.
• The float is used by ‘floating’ or gliding it over freshly applied plaster once it has started to
firm up in order to level out the irregularities in the surface.
Figure 153: timber float
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11. Vibrator
A concrete vibrator is a machine used for construction-based purposes. These machines can come in
several different shapes and sizes. Some are small and run strictly on battery power, while others are
much larger with a primary power source stemming from electric power cords. Choosing the right
concrete vibrator can help settle your concrete for long-term stability and maintenance.
Why Use a Concrete Vibrator
Using vibration to assist concrete during its settling period has proven a worthwhile method that aids
in long-term durability. As wet concrete is poured, air bubbles become trapped within the mixture
creating cavities or honeycomb-like spaces. Left untouched, “honeycombing” can compromise the
cement’s longevity and strength. Vibrators force the trapped air out of the mixture leaving the final
product a more compact and level slab. It is not uncommon to see small bursts of air surfacing from
the wet mixture when the vibrator is being used correctly.
Figure 154: vibrator

12. Hammer
• Brick Hammer or Mason's Hammer
A masonry hammer is shaped like claw hammer, having a longer handle and a head, but that is
where the similarity stops. The masonry hammer’s head is also two-sided, like the claw hammer, but
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one side has a square face on it, made for pounding in nails. The other side of the head has a long
chisel-like tip that is very sharp. This side is used to split bricks or break small pieces off rocks.
A brick hammer has a blunt side for tasks like chopping bricks or stones in half with a quick, decisive
blow. The other side is smaller and is used for scoring lines for more precise breaks.
Figure 155: brick hammer or masons hammer
• Mashing Hammer
The mashing hammer weighs between 2 to 4 pounds and has a double-sided pounding head. This
hammer is used to hit chisels to split brick or stone.
Figure 156: mashing hammer
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Measuring and Levelling Tools
When performing any kind of masonry work, it is essential to check that everything is lining up with
your plans as you go. This, of course, means measuring distances and checking your angles to ensure
that everything is square, plumb, and level.
• Tape measure
A tape measure isessentially for measuring distances or lengths required during masonry work
construction.
• Straight Edge

348
Used to line up elements, check straight edges or level materials while pouring concrete slabs, or
plastering and screeding
• Blocking Chisel
A blocking chisel is made from heavy-duty steel and can be as large as 8 inches long. It is made
specifically to split large numbers of blocks. Using a mashing hammer and blocking chisel is more
efficient than a masonry hammer because you place the chisel exactly where you want to make your
split, and then hit it. There is no guarantee that a masonry hammer will land exactly where you want
it to.
Figure 159: blocking chisel
• Mason’s Line
A mason’s line is a heavy twine that is used to mark out a complete wall in one shot. The line is
wrapped around blocks that are placed at each corner of the wall. The blocks are securely in the
ground and the twine is tight, giving you a straight line to follow.
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Figure 160: masons line
Care, Storage and Maintenance of Masonry Tools And Equipment

• They always be kept clean after use
• Use the right tool or equipment for the right job or purpose
• Repair with immediate effect any defect noted on your tool or equipment.
• Follow to the letter manufacturer’s user manual on use and maintenance of the tools and
equipment.
• Store all tools in their original pack cases.
• Keep all tools in a clean dry place.
• Lubricate, oil and grease tools and equipment before and after use.
350
Figure 161: care and storage of tools
Additional Information Sources Related To The Learning Outcome E.G. Books, Web Links
https://healthyhandyman.com/essential-masonry-tools-list/
The 13 Essential Masonry Tools List: Different Types & Their ...
https://gharpedia.com/blog/40-masonry-tools-used-in-masonry-work-of-your-home/
42+ Masonry Tools Used in Masonry Work of your Home
https://www.thespruce.com/overview-of-materials-for-masonry-work-1821974
Basic Masonry Tools and Materials to Get You Started
https://www.eurafco.com/eng/equipment-hand-tools/jung-masonry-tools.html
Masonry tools - Equipment - EURAFCO

Practical
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You have been taken to a workshop and tools are gathered together without any order. Select the
tools given according to their use and store them as required in the provided tools store.
Case study
A construction has not been doing well after self-appraisal. It was found that workers get injured
now and then and their health deteriorating after work.
It was noted that tools equipment don’t stay for longer after being bought.
What could be the cause of all these in relation to?
i. Use of PPEs
ii. Identification of tools and equipment
iii. Use ,care and maintence of tools and equipment
Field Study
To relate real site activities Identify PPES
in the use of masonry tools Identification of PPES used in
and equipment. construction site Use PPES in line with OSH
regulations
Use PPES in the site
Identification of masonry Identify masonry tools correctly
tools used on site
Use tools and equipment
Use tools and equipment on appropriately.
the site.
Adhere to the procedure of
Adhere to care and storing tools and equipment
maintenance of tools appropriately
,equipment on site
352
1. What are the forms of personal protective equipment in masonry work?

2. What are the major reasons for appropriate use of PPEs as mason?
3. Which types of PPEs used by masons.
4. Which is the major reason as to why use of PPEs is important.
5. What are the factors considered in good practice for care and maintenance of tools and
equipment?
Tools and Equipment

• Club hammer
• Mason's hammer ,Chisel
• Spirit level
• Brick bat gauge
• Bolster
• Cold chisel
• Stepping ladder
• Mason's line
• Plumb bob
• Power tools
• PPE’s
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• Sieve
• Brush
• Straight edge
• Sputter dash
• Vibrator Mixer
• Tamper
• Wheelbarrow
• Helmet
• Dumper
• Sledge Hammer

• Cement
• Sand
• Ballast
• Water
• Masonry units e.g. quarry stones, bricks, concrete hallow brocks, precast products, capped
stones, dressed stones
• Formworks
• Additives
• Quarry dust
• Gravel
• Anti- Termite treatment
• DPM
• DPC
• Hoop irop
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4.2.3.7 References

W.G NASH, NELSON THOMES, 1983, BRICKLAYING, VOLUME 3.
MALCOLM THORPE, 2010,TECHNOLOGY AND ENGINEERING,BRICK WORK LEVEL 1
355
Responses
1. What are the forms of personal protective equipment in masonry work?
• Protective gloves
• Hearing protection
• Full face disks when cutting, grinding or chipping
• Chemical splash protection goggles
• Respiratory protection
2. What are the major reasons for appropriate use of PPEs as a mason.
• Protective equipment (or PPE) are items worn to minimize exposure to
hazards that can cause serious injury or illness.
3. Which types of PPEs used by masons.
• Helmet or hard hats
• Googles
• Ear plugs and ear muffs
• Dust coat and coverall
• Safety shoes or gumboots
• Reflector jackets
• Face masks
• Protective eye wear
• Hand gloves
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4. Which is the major reason as to why use of PPEs is important.
• Club hammer
• ,Mason's hammer ,Chisel
• Spirit level
• Brick bat gauge
• Bolster
• Cold chisel
• Stepping ladder
• Mason's line
• Plumb bob
• Measuring tools (Tape measure
5. What are the factors considered in good practice for care and maintenance of tools and
equipment?
• They always be kept clean after use
• Use the right tool or equipment for the right job or purpose
• Repair with immediate effect any defect noted on your tool or equipment.
• Follow to the letter manufacturer’s user manual on use and maintenance of the
tools and equipment.
• Store all tools in their original pack cases.
• Keep all tools in a clean dry place.
• Lubricate, oil and grease tools and equipment before and after use.
357
4.2.4 Learning Outcome 4: Set-Out Simple Building Superstructure
This learning outcome specifies the content of competencies required in setting out a building. It
includes to locate reference points for columns and wall openings on the floor slab, to transfer
markings to the floor slab from the profiles, to check measurement and square-ness and to mark
wall openings on the floor slab based on drawings
4.1.Reference points for columns and wall openings are located on the floor slab as per drawings.
4.2.Markings are transferred to the floor slab from the profiles according to drawings and standard
procedures.
4.3.Measurement and square-ness are checked based on standard procedure.
4.4.Wall openings are marked on the floor slab based on drawings.

Setting Out (Laying Out) Superstructure Walling
Reference points for columns and wall openings are located on the floor slab as per drawings. In
order to begin constructing of super structure walling for a building, the mason must first locate
reference points for columns, walls and wall openings on the floor slab as per the working drawings.
Reference will be made from the profile boards fixed and marked during initial setting out of the
building. The exact length, width, and position of the columns, walls and wall openings must be
indicated on the floor. This movement from the plan to the actual site floor is called lying out or
setting out. It is probably one the most critical step in the construction process.
Setting out Method

Pythagoras Method (triangle method)
Setting out a right angle S1 Work method:
358
Ensuring right angles (90 degrees) is important when setting out the initial perimeter of the house.
Figure 162: Setting out superstructure walls and columns on the floor slab
This can easily be achieved using the 3:4:5 triangle method.
A triangle, which has sides of length 3 metres, 4 metres and 5 metres, will always have a right angle
between the 3-metre side and the 4-metre side.
One can therefore construct a right angle using only a tape measure as follows:
Step 1. Measure the length A to B of 4 metres along the line from where a perpendicular line needs
to be defined. Place pegs exactly at points A and B,
Step 2. Hold the zero point of the tape measure on the peg A,
Step 3. A second person holds the mark 8.0 meters on the tape measure on peg B,
Step 4. A third person holds the tape measure on mark 5.0 meters, which will lead to point C when
the tape measure is pulled tight. Set a peg on point C.
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Step 5. Extend the now perpendicular line from point B to point C to any length as required.
Step 6. After constructing the right angle check again that the triangle lengths represent exactly the
3:4:5 proportions.
Step 7. Ensure that all reference pegs are firmly fixed.
Step 8. Lay corner bricks or stones ensuring that they are vertically plumb and horizontally leveled.
Repeat the above procedure for other corners while applying diagonal checks to ascertain accuracy.
Figure 163: Pythagoras Method ( triangle method)
360
Figure 164 ground floor plan for setting out
A Building That Is Set Out Accurately Will Be:
• Level: no part of the floor or foundation higher than another;
• Square: walls parallel and the same length;
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Figure 165: squareness
362
• Plumb: straight up and down, not leaning to one side or the other
Figure 166: plumbness
A building that is set out carelessly will be difficult or impossible to construct according to plan. As
a result, the finished structure may be expensive to maintain and unhealthful.
So it is important to take special care when setting out.
Marking of Wall Openings On The Floor Slab Based On Drawings

With the help of working drawings and particularly floor plan, wall openings such as doors, and
arches can be marked.
363
Study clearly the dimensions and exact positions from the floor plan and mark the same on the floor
using a tape measure .
Web
http://www.nzdl.org/gsdlmod?e=d-00000-00---off-0hdl--00-0----0-10-0---0---0direct-10---4-------0-
1l--11-en-50---20-about---00-0-1-00-0--4----0-0-11-10-0utfZz-8-
10&cl=CL1.16&d=HASH0120e3be1fcef504939676c2.5.1>=1
Setting out (laying out)
https://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---ed_emp/---
emp_ent/documents/instructionalmaterial/wcms_650137.pdf
LU2 Setting out Works - ILO
Practical activity
Referring to the working drawing provided, set out the layout for superstructures marking all the
necessary wall openings.
Construct one course for all the walls applying all the relevant checks.
Case Study
You have successfully been selected as the site foreman by a nearby vocational training center in
your village. The center intends to construct a masonry workshop to accommodate the rising number
of trainees joining them.
a) What type of drawings can you advice the institute to ensure that they are ready before the
work starts?
b) What’s the need of establishing the reference points on the site?
c) What is the procedure you will use in setting out superstructures?
d) What checks must you apply to ascertain the accuracy of your work?
e) Which are the tools, equipment and materials the VTC will have to provide for the works.
364
To relate real site activities -location of reference points Must interpret the working
in the Set-out building for walls and columns on floor drawing correctly.
superstructure slab.
- transfer of markings from the Transfer marks from profiles
profiles to the floor slab correctly
-application of accuracy
checks for measurements and Must apply accuracy checks
square ness during setting out
Marked wall openings on the
floor slab
1. What does the term setting out mean in construction

2. What are the steps followed in triangular or Pythagoras method of setting.
3. Which are the tools necessary for setting out
4. Which are the necessary checks that you must apply to ascertain the accuracy of setting out.
5. What are the types of wall openings you may be required to mark when setting out.
6. Which are the materials required during setting out.

• Tape measure
• Mason string
• Pegs
• Hammer
• Spirit level
• Plumb bob
• Trowels
• Spades
365
• Wheel barrow
• Buckets
• Mixing platform
• Hose Pipe
Supplies
• Ballast
• Cement
• Additives
• Water
• Timber
• Steel barsdamp proofing materials
• Lime chalk
• termite
366
4.2.4.7 References
• INTERNATIONAL LABOUR ORGANIZATION, 2010, SETTING OUT

CONSTRUCTION WORKS, LEARNING UNIT 2.
• W.G NASH, 1983, BRICK WORK
• J.C HODGE, MALCOLM THORPR, 2006, BRICKWORK FPR APPRENTICES
• W.G NASH, 1990, BRICK WORK, VOLUME 2
• W.G NASH, NELSON THOMES, 1983, BRICKLAYING, VOLUME 3.
• MALCOLM THORPE, 2010,TECHNOLOGY AND ENGINEERING,BRICK WORK
LEVEL 1
367
Response
1. What does the term setting out mean in construction?

• transferring of a building plan to the ground or floor slab
2. What are the steps followed in triangular or Pythagoras method of setting

• Step 1. Measure the length A to B of 4 meters along the line from where a
perpendicular line needs to be defined. Place pegs exactly at points A and B,
• Step 2. Hold the zero point of the tape measure on the peg A,
• Step 3. A second person holds the mark 8.0 metres on the tape measure on peg
B,
• Step 4. A third person holds the tape measure on mark 5.0 metres, which will
lead to point C when the tape measure is pulled tight. Set a peg on point C.
• Step 5. Extend the now perpendicular line from point B to point C to any
length as required.
• Step 6. After constructing the right angle check again that the triangle lengths
represent exactly the 3:4:5 proportions.
• Step 7. Ensure that all reference pegs are firmly fixed.
• Step 8. Lay corner bricks or stones ensuring that they are vertically plumb
and horizontally leveled.
• Repeat the above procedure for other corners while applying diagonal checks
to ascertain accuracy.
3. Which are the tools necessary for setting out?

• Tape measure
• Mason string
• Pegs
368
• Hammer
• Spirit level
• Plumb bob
4. Which are the necessary checks that you must apply to ascertain the accuracy of setting out?
• level check
• diagonal check
• square check
• plumbness check
5. What are the types of wall openings you may be required to mark when setting out
• doors
• windows
• arches
6. Which are the materials required during setting out?

• Ballast
• Cement
• Additives
• Water
• Timber
• Steel bars damp proofing materials
• Lime chalk
• termite
369
4.2.5 Learning Outcome 5: Construct Reinforced Concrete Columns And Ring Beam
This learning outcome specifies the content of competencies required in constructing reinforced
concrete columns and ring beam. It includes: to place steel reinforcements, place formworks,
prepare concrete mix, cast concrete, and cure ring beams and columns according to standard
operating procedures
5.1. Steel reinforcements are placed according to structural drawings and standard operating
procedures
5.2. Formworks are placed as per specifications
5.3. Column concrete guide is casted as per standards operating procedure
5.4. Concrete mix is prepared as per specifications
5.5. Concrete is casted as per specifications and standard operating procedures
5.6. Ring beams and columns are cured according to standard operating procedures
Preparation of Reinforcement
• Reinforcement for columns and beams are available in the market in different sizes.
• The sizes appropriate for use is normally detailed in the structural drawings provided by
the structural engineer.
• The bar bending schedule provided by the structural engineer need to be followed strictly
for better results.
• Accuracy of the highest degree is needed when taking measurements for the purpose of
cutting the bars.
• Unnecessary cutting of the bars should be avoided as much as possible so to reduce
wastage.
370
• Tolerances and allowances necessary for cutting and bending should be allowed and this
vary from one size of the bar to another.
Standard Sizes of Reinforcement Bars

Available sizes are in diameters of 8mm, 10mm, 12mm, 16mm, 20mm, 25mm, and 32mm.
Types of Bars
• Round or mild steel bars denoted as R
• Twisted bars or high tensile bars denoted as Y
• Deformed or ribbed bars or high tensile bars denoted as D
Procedure for Placing Of Reinforcement Bars
i. Identifying the type and size of the required bars from the drawings
ii. Straightening of the bars
iii. Measuring and marking the required lengths
iv. Cutting bars to required sizes
v. Bending
vi. Marking and Fixing using the tying or binding wire.
vii. Hoisting and placing in position
viii. Fixing of spacer or distance blocks ready for casting
Factors to Consider for Fixing and Positioning of Reinforcement
• Bar number/Bar Mark Reference

• Bar shape
• Diameter
• Spacing
• Length of bar
• Cutting Length
• Number of bars
371
Most of the information in a Bar Bending Schedule can be found in reinforcement drawings of the
structural unit. Bar shape, diameter, length and spacing is directly entered in the schedule just by
looking at the drawings, which will have detailed dimensioning.
Beam reinforcement bar marking for BBS

Number of bars:
Suppose the spacing of stirrups is 150 c/c and the length along which they are placed is 6800 mm,
we can find the number of bars by the formula below
[Length / Spacing] + 1 = number of bars
[ 6800 / 150 ] + 1 = 46.33
372
In this case, we always round up. Hence, we require 47 stirrups.
Cutting Length:
We must remember than steel is ductile in nature and is subject to elongation. Hence, the length of a
bar is increased when bends or hooks are introduced. Hence, certain deductions are needed to offset
this increase in length.
Cutting Length = True Length of a bar – Deductions
For 45 degree
Cutting length = Total length – 1 x Dia of bar x No. of bends
For 90 degree
Cutting length = Total length – 2 x Dia of bar x No. of bends
For stirrups:
90 degree hook:
Length of stirrup = (2A + 2B) + 20 x dia
135 degree hook:
Length of stirrup = (2A + 2B) + 24 x dia
Example BBS Calculation
373
Figure 167: Beam reinforcement bar marking for BBS Crossection
Formwork Placement
Formwork is the term used for the process of creating a temporary mould into which concrete is
poured and formed.
Formwork is meant to hold reinforcement bars and concrete to mould and form the shape of the
beam or column required.
The shape, and sizes of formwork is as per the architectural working drawings provided by the
architect.
Correct dimensions should be used to avoid timber wastage and inaccuracies to the final product.
374
Materials used For Formwork
• Timber
• Steel
• Glass fibre reinforced plastics
• Hard board
• Ply wood
• Round poles or posts
Beam Formwork
Formwork for beams takes the form of a three-sided box which is supported and propped in the
correct position and to the desired level.
375
Column Formwork
376
This consists of a vertical mould of the desired shape and size of the column to be poured. As a
means of keeping the formwork material thickness to a minimum, horizontal steel or timber
clamps (or yokes) are used at equal centers for batch filling and at varying centers for filling that is
completed in one pour.
Figure 168: column formwork
377
Functional Requirements of Good Formwork
378
The Following Requirements Should Be Satisfied By Good Formwork:
• Strong enough to withstand dead and live loads.

• Capable of retaining its shape by being efficiently propped and braced horizontally and
vertically.
• Joints should prevent leakage of cement grout.
• Should be capable of being removed in various parts without damaging the concrete.
• Material used be suitable for reuse.
• Should be set accurately to the desired line.
• As lightweight as possible.
• Material should not warp or distort on exposure to the elements.
• Should rest on a firm base.
• Deflection and shrinkage should be minimum
• The materials used should be cheap, easily available and suitable for reuse.
Concrete Preparation and Mixing
Proportioning for Mixing Concrete.
This signifies relative quantities of essential components that are mixed together to make concrete.
Thus a concrete mix of “1:3:6” signifies three parts of sand and five parts of coarse-aggregate for
one part of cement.
Other mixing ratios include 1:2:4, 1:3:5, 1:1.5:3, 1:4:8, 1:1:2
The quality of concrete depends to a great extent on these relative quantities. Various methods have
been applied to decide the proportions.
Ratios and quality of concrete expected are well defined in the detailed information on the working
drawings and specifications.
In ordinary construction, arbitrary method is generally applied where the experienced mason decides
the ratios of sand and coarse aggregates to be mixed with each volume of cement.
379
Batching Of Concrete Can Be Done By Either:
• Volume batching
This achieved by use a gauge box normally with a 1 cubic meter capacity.
• Weight batching
This method employs use of a weighing machine to batch the materials.
Casting of Concrete
The casting procedure is as follows.
1. Collect samples for maturity testing. Check slump and temperature if inclined with what’s
designed. Concrete should not be “freshen up” with water or re-tampered in any way.
2. The surfaces of construction joints should the thoroughly wet, free from laitance before pouring
fresh concrete.
3. For the casting, deposit concrete continuously. Make sure that concrete is cast as neatly as
possible and avoid considerable height difference that promotes aggregates segregation. Use chutes
if necessary. Make sure that no concrete that has already settled or “unworkable” is used, or does not
meet the required quality control limits.
4. Concrete pumps (lubricated using mortar before starting the work) may be used if necessary.
5. Concrete mix should be used and cast within one and one-half hour (1 1/2) after water has been
added to the dry mix.
6. Should the weather does not permit the ongoing concreting works; proper construction joints
should be established as per specifications and at the location where the stress is minimum.
7. As much as possible, avoid cold joints by placing layer by layer while the concrete is still in
plastic form.
380
8. Remove the temporary spreader (if used) in the formworks when the concrete placing has reached
the elevation of such spreader.
9. The concrete should be compacted using a mechanical vibrator. The use of vibrators should be
limited to the time necessary for consolidation. By any means, do not vibrate forms or
reinforcement. Under no circumstances should they be allowed to cause aggregate segregation.
Prepare for spare vibrator should the other one malfunction.
10. Strictly speaking, concrete should be cast max 0f 2 hours after leaving the batching plant (for
ready-mix concrete).
After the concrete has settled and has attained its designed strength safe for stripping, removal of
formworks may commence. Should there be any defect or noticeable bulges after the removal of
formworks, it should be rectified by the means of chipping, grinding or any approved tools.
Curing Of Concrete
Curing plays an important role on strength development and durability of concrete.
Curing takes place immediately after concrete placing and finishing, and involves maintenance of
desired moisture and temperature conditions, both at depth and near the surface, for extended periods
of time. Properly cured concrete has an adequate amount of moisture for continued hydration and
development of strength, volume stability, resistance to freezing and thawing, and abrasion and
scaling resistance.
The length of adequate curing time is dependent on the following factors:
• Mixture proportions
• Specified strength
• Size and shape of concrete member
• Ambient weather conditions
• Future exposure conditions
381
https://theconstructor.org/practical-guide/bar-bending-schedule-for-rcc-beam/9600/
Bar Bending Schedule for Reinforced Concrete Beam
https://theconstructor.org/practical-guide/preparation-of-bar-bending-schedule/7629/
Preparation of Bar Bending Schedule (BBS) and Its Advantages
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JMSwp9JKdcE
Bar Bending Schedule of Beam - YouTube
https://image.slidesharecdn.com/formwork-150318073913-conversion-gate01/95/formwork-
construction-in-structures-7-638.jpg?cb=1426664578
http://www.civilengineersguide.com/procedure-on-how-to-cast-concrete-column
Procedure on How To Cast Concrete Column | Civil Engineers ...
https://www.quora.com/How-is-concrete-placed-in-the-formworks-for-a-slab-and-beams-what-is-
the-sequence-of-casting-and-what-area-of-the-slab-is-cast-by-each-lift-of-concrete
How is concrete placed in the formworks for a slab and beams .
https://www.cement.org/learn/concrete-technology/concrete-construction/curing-in-construction
Role of Concrete Curing - The Portland Cement Association
https://www.bobvila.com/articles/curing-concrete/
Curing Concrete Dos and Don'ts - Bob Vila
https://www.forconstructionpros.com/concrete/equipment-products/technology-
services/article/12169059/the-hows-and-whys-of-concrete-curing
The How's and Why's of Concrete Curing | For Construction Pros
382
Practical activity
Referring to the working drawings provided, carry out the following tasks:
i. Prepare and place in position reinforcement and formwork ready for casting of concrete to
the beams and columns.
ii. Prepare concrete for casting using the following methods,
iii. Batching by volume: (beam concrete)
iv. Batching by weight: (column concrete)
v. Place the concrete prepared and subject it to curing till its gains the required strength and
demolish formwork.
1.2.5.4.1.2 A Case Study

Studies have shown that final those products of concrete elements fail to achieve the required
characteristics as expected from design work. You have been appointed as a lead team leader to
oversee construction of a dormitory.
a) What areas can look at to ensure that the final product meets the specifications
b) Why is curing essential to concreting
c) What are some of the materials you can recommend for formwork?
d) What methods can use in batching of concrete materials.
e) State the procedure you will use in casting concrete.
Field Study
To relate real site -placement of steel reinforcement as Must interpret the working
activities in the structural drawings drawing correctly.
Construction of - placement of formwork as per
reinforced concrete specifications Use bar bending schedule
columns and beams -preparation of concrete as per correctly
specifications Prepare formwork accurately
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Correct concrete mixing ratios
Casting of concrete as per the followed accurately.
speciftions Casting procedure followed
correctly
Curing of concrete as per the
procedures
1. What are the available sizes of reinforcement bars in diameters in use?
2. Which types of reinforcement bars are commonly used ?
3. What is the procedure for placing of reinforcement bars?
4. What are the factors to consider for fixing and positioning of reinforcement?
5. How would you define the term formwork?
6. What is the major function of the formwork?
7. What are the materials used for formwork?
8. Which methods are used for concrete batching?
9. Which are the concrete mixing ratios used in construction?

• Tape measure
• Mason string
• Pegs
• Hammer
• Spirit level
• Plumb bob
• Trowels
• Spades
• Wheel barrow
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• Buckets
• Mixing platform
• Hose Pipe
• Cement
• Sand
• Ballast
• Water
• Formworks
• Additives
• Hoop irop
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4.2.5.7 References

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RESPONSES
1. What are the available sizes of reinforcement bars in diameters in use?

8mm,10mm,12mm,16mm,20mm,25mm, and 32mm
2. Which types of reinforcement bars are commonly used?
• Round or mild steel bars denoted as R
• Twisted bars or high tensile bars denoted as Y
• Deformed or ribbed bars or high tensile brs denoted as D
3. What is the procedure for placing of reinforcement bars?
• Identifying the type and size of the required bars from the drawings
• Straightening of the bars
• Measuring and marking the required lengths
• Cutting bars to required sizes
• Bending
• Marking and Fixing using the tying or binding wire.
• Hoisting and placing in position
• Fixin of spacer or distance blocks ready for casting
4. What are the factors to consider for fixing and positioning of reinforcement?
• Bar number/Bar Mark Reference

• Bar shape
• Diameter
• Spacing
• Length of bar
• Cutting Length
• Number of bars
5. How would you define the term formwork?
• Formwork is the term used for the process of creating a temporary mould into
which concrete is poured and formed
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6. What is the major function of the formwork?
• Formwork is meant to hold reinforcement bars and concrete to mould and form
the shape of the beam or column required
7. What are the materials used for formwork?
• Timber
• Steel
• Glass fibre reinforced plastics
• Hard board
• Ply wood
• Round poles or posts
8. Which methods are used for concrete batching?

• volume
• weight
9. Which are the concrete mixing ratios used in construction?
• 1:2:4,
• 1:3:6,
• 1:1.5:3,
• 1:4:8,
• 1:1:2
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4.2.6 Learning Outcome 6: Construct Masonry Wall with Opening
This learning outcome specifies the content of competencies required in construct masonry wall with
openings. It includes: to mark the position of the wall and openings on the slab and columns , lay
the Damp Proof , lay masonry wall units and construct bridging of walls as per drawings and SOP.

6.1 Position of the wall and openings are marked on the slab and columns as per
drawings
6.2 Damp Proof Course is laid as per standard operating procedures and specifications
6.3 Masonry wall units are laid according to drawings and SOP
6.4 Bridging of walls are constructed as per drawings and SOP
Masonry Walls
Masonry walls are the most durable part of any building or structure. Masonry is the word utilized
for development with mortar as a coupling material with singular units of blocks, stones, marbles,
rocks, solid squares, tiles, and so forth.
Mortar is a blend of restricting material with sand. Restricting materials can be concrete, lime, soil or
any other constructing materials.
Professionals do the Masonry projects and the unit works for various purposes. Some works for
building constructions, some makes barriers for boundaries to separate property line and some make
house wall for structural used.
Types of Masonry Wall
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Masonry walls render strengths, lastingness to the structure and help to maintain indoor and outdoor
temperature as well as it keeps protect the buildings from the outside world. Depending on the motor
mix materials, there are various types of Masonry Walls used in building constructions.
Categories
• Load bearing masonry wall

• Reinforced masonry wall
• Hollow/Cavity masonry wall
• Composite masonry wall
• Post-tensioned masonry wall
Brief descriptions of these masonry wall types are given below.
Load bearing Masonry Wall
Based on load bearing walls could be Load Bearing and Non-load Bearing walls.
Load bearing wall is a wall that bears a load reposing upon it, which depends on weight constructing
and the work of foundation structure. Usually, this type of wall used for large buildings. e.g. housing
or tall buildings construction work. It is mainly made with brick, concrete block, or stone. Load
bearing wall helps to transfer weight from root to the foundation.
Non-load bearing walls that are only intended to support themselves and the weight of the cladding
or sheathings attached. This kind of walls provides no structural support and may be interior or
exterior walls
Reinforced Masonry Wall
A reinforced masonry wall is made with any type of brick, concrete or another type of masonry
materials that strengthened the use of other buildings materials to increase resistance to deterioration
due to weight bearing or other forms of stress. This type of wall could be a non-load bearing or load
bearing. One of the common examples of masonry involves exterior walls that are created using
concrete blocks or clay bricks. Along with these materials, steel rods are works into the structure,
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often using some type of vertical framework that allows bearing the weight of connecting walls and
floors within the building.
Depending on which materials are used, and how they are located, reinforced masonry (RM) walls
can be divided into the following categories:
• Confined Masonry
• Reinforced Cavity Masonry
• Reinforced solid Masonry
• Reinforced hollow unit Masonry
• Reinforced grouted Masonry
• Reinforced pocket type Walls
Hollow/Cavity Masonry Wall
Hollow masonry walls are made with cement blocks.
This type of masonry walls is used to stop dampness from getting inside of the building. It creates a
hollow area between the outside and inside of masonry walls.
It also assist with climate control. Modern masonry walls are constructed from hollow masonry units
or combined hollow and solid masonry units.
Solid walls are systematically certified by metal ties, masonry investments or by collective
reinforcement.
Composite Masonry Walls
Composite Masonry walls are made with the combination of two or more building materials; stones
and bricks or hollow bricks and bricks.
The purpose of this type of walls construction is –reduce the overall cost of construction and make
the structure durable by providing materials of better quality and good workmanship in the faces.
Composite masonry walls work to improve the appearance of a structure by covering up the inferior
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works by use of superior quality of material in the desired positions. This type of walls is better
because it is cost-effective and optically appealing.
Types of Composite Masonry walls:
• Brick Backed Ashlar

• Brick facing with Rubble or Concrete Backing
• Stone facing with Brick, Rubble or concrete Backing
Post-tensioned Masonry Wall
Post-tensioning provides an additional axial load to masonry structures and thus increases resistance
to lateral force.
This type of walls has over their conventionally reinforced equivalents, such as increased in-plane
strength and the absence of residual post-earthquake wall displacements. Post-tensioning now is
used extensively in bridges, elevated slabs (parking structures and residential or commercial
buildings), residential foundations, walls, and columns. Designers commonly take advantage of this
method to produce buildings and structures with clear open spaces allowing more architectural
freedom.
Openings in Walls
These are gaps left on the wall to allow entry and exit in the building and to provide circulation of air
and light into the building.
The number, size and position of openings should not impair the stability of a wall to the extent that
the combined width of openings in walls between the centre line of buttressing walls or piers should
not exceed two-thirds of the length of that wall together with more detailed requirements limiting the
size of opening and recesses.
There is a requirement that the bearing end of lintels with a clear span of 1200 mm or less may be 100
mm and above that span, 150 mm.
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For strength and stability the brickwork in the jambs of openings has to be strengthened with more
closely spaced ties and the wall over the head of the opening supported by an arch, lintels or beams.
The jambs, brickwork on either side of the opening acts like legs which support brickwork over the
head of the opening. The term jamb is not used to describe a particular width either side of openings
and is merely a general term for the brickwork for full height of opening either side of the window.
‘Reveal’ is used more definitely to describe the thickness of the wall revealed by cutting the opening
and the reveal is a surface of brickwork as long as the height of the opening.
The lower part of the opening is a Cill for windows or a Threshold for doors.
The jambs of openings may be plain or square into which the door or window frames are built or fixed
or they may be rebated with a recess, behind which the door or window frame is built or fixed
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.
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Damp Proof Course DPC
A damp proof course is a barrier usually formed by a membrane built into the walls of a
building typically 150 mm above ground level, to prevent damp rising through the walls.
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A course is provided in the building to prevent the entry of the damp into the building, this course is
known as the damp proof course(DPC). This treatment is given to the building at the time of their
construction.
Effects 0f Dampness
Dampness in buildings can cause a number of serious problems, such as:
• Damp patches
• Mould growth, which is a course of respiratory allergies
• Mildew ,salts,staining and tide marks
• Damage to surface finishes
• Corrossion and decay of the building fabric
• Slip hazards
• Frost damage
• Poor performance of insulation
• Damage to equipment or electrical failure
• Poor drainage at the building site.
• In the perfect orientation of building; less entry of sunlight, heavy showers may
remain damp.
• Imperfect roof slope: flat slope may cause more water accumulation.
• Defective construction: in perfect wall jointings, joints in roofs, defective throating,
etc.
• Absorption of water from defective rainwater pipe
The most common causes of persistent dampness in buildings are:
• Condensation (surface or interstitial).

• Penetrating damp
• Rising damp
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Rising is caused by capillary action drawing moisture by up through the porous elements of a
building’s fabric and some penetrating , can be caused by faults to, or the absence of a (DPC) or
damp proof membrane (DPM).
When laying the DPC should be
• Continuous with any damp proof membrane in the floor.

• At least 150 mm above the grounf level of the adjoining ground if it is in an external
wall.
• If it is in an external cavity wall, the cavity should extend at least 225 mm below
the DPC or a cavity tray should be provided with weep holes every 900 mm so that
water running down the cavity cannot pass to the inner leaf.
Common Damp Proofing Materials
There are various materials that are used for damp proofing.
1. Hot Bitumen– It is a flexible material which is placed on concrete or mortar.

2. Mastic Asphalt – It is a semi-rigid material. It provides an impervious layer for damp
proofing.
3. Bituminous Felts – It is a flexible material which is available in rollers of walls width. It is
easy to lay and laid upon cement mortar.
4. Metal Sheets – The sheets of copper lead and aluminium are used as a damp proof course.
5. Stone – If stones such as granites, slates etc. laid in cement mortar they work as a damp
proof course.
6. Cement Concrete – Cement concrete with a ratio of 1:2:4 is a good damp proof course. It
is generally provided in the building at the plinth level.
7. Plastic Sheets – Plastic sheets are a very good course for damp proofing. They are made up
of black polythene having a thickness up to 1 mm.
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Laying of Masonry Units
Steps in Setting of walling units:
Step: [1] Plan
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Block walls require careful planning, just like any other masonry structure. If possible, plan the
length of your wall so it’s divisible by 450mm (the length of a standard block and mortar joint) to
minimize cutting.
Step:[2] Build A Solid Base Or Concrete Footing
Block walls must be built on a solid base.
Poured concrete footings for walls should be twice the width of the wall, flush with the ground, and
as deep as local codes require. Building codes might also call for concrete reinforcement.
Step :[3] Make Lines
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Set a block at each end of the footing and center the width of each block on the width of the footing.
Mark the edges of the block on the footing and snap chalk lines on the surface of the footing. Make
sure your chalk lines extend to the ends of the footing
Step : [4] Establish The Corners
Use your batter or profile boards and mason’s lines to mark the corners of the wall on the footing.
Drop a plumb bob from the intersection of the lines and mark the footing clearly. Then snap a chalk
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line between your marks. Check the corners for square using a 3-4-5 triangle or framing square, and
adjust as needed.
Step :[5] Make A Story Pole
A story pole helps you space the courses more quickly. To make one, cut a piece of straight
200×400mm to the height of the finished wall. Then mark the courses on the board, separating them
by 10mm for mortar joints.
Step: [6] Space the Blocks
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Starting at one end of the footing with either an end block or half-corner block (depending on the
length of the wall), set blocks without mortar. Place the edges on the chalked lines, spacing them
with 3/8-inch-wide plywood. When you set the last block, snap perpendicular chalk lines to mark the
ends of the row.
Step [7] Navigate the Corners
If your wall turns a corner, establish the corner with your layout lines. Then start the second leg of
the trial run with a full corner block. Check the corner with a framing square. Lay out the rest of the
blocks along the chalk lines.
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Step:[8] Prepare The Cement Mortal
Take the bag of dried concrete and measure out one dosage. Look on the bag’s specifications for the
brand you choose. Prepare a container to mix the dried mortar with water. Use a five gallon bucket
that you don’t mind damaging.
• Never mix more mortar than you can use
Step:[9] Apply Mortal To The Side
Apply mortar to each side of the concrete block using your trowel. You’ll need to apply at least an
inch to each side. Once applied, position the stone in the desired location. Try to align the corner to
the string set up earlier.
• Don’t apply mortar to outer edge of the corner.

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• Try not to leave any gaps when applying mortar, or it’ll weaken the bond between the blocks.
Step:[10] Continue To Lay The Concrete Blocks
Start laying blocks from the corner or edge of the wall so you can work in one direction.
• Apply mortar at the end of the block before you place the block adjacent to it.
Step:[11] Check The Alignment
Before stacking more concrete blocks on top of your initial foundation, check if everything is
aligned.
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Use your mason’s level by laying it on the first set of blocks. Check both the outside and center
section of the bricks.
• Tap the blocks for any alignment adjustments while the mortar is still wet.
• Do not try to move a block after the concrete has set.
• Measure the length and height every two or three layers.
Step:[12] Apply Mortal To The Top
Place the mortar 1 inch (25mm ) deep and use the same width as the width of the block. You can
then spread the mortar so it covers the length of about 3 blocks in the direction that you are laying
the bricks.
Step:[13] Stack The Block
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Lay the block down on top so the edge of the top block aligns with the halfway mark of the bottom
block.
You’ll recognize the pattern as a standard among the construction sites. The top block will fit in
between two bottom blocks.
Important Things to Note Why Laying Blocks.
• Before you apply mortar, lay the first course of blocks in a dry run, spacing the blocks with
3/8-inch plywood. Since you’ll need some method for keeping the block square to the
footing, either snap a chalk line on the footing along the edges of the block or 1-1/2 inches
away from the edges. Once you’ve set the block, you can use a 2×4 to keep the first course
spaced on this line. Or you can set stakes with mason’s line to align the outside faces.
• Concrete block webs are wider on one side. The wide side should face up because it provides
a larger bed for the mortar. This reduces waste, minimizing the amount of mortar that falls
off the web. It’s also easier to handle the blocks when you grip the wide side. To save time,
distribute the blocks along the job site with all the wide sides up.
• Do not wet the blocks before installing them. Wet blocks expand, then shrink when they dry.
If it rains or rain threatens, cover the blocks.
• Spread mortar only on the outside edges of the block (a technique called face-shell bedding),
not on the cross web. Applying mortar to the cross web is difficult, wasteful, and not
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necessary when building a wall in the landscape. An exception is when laying
reinforcements.
• On ends without corners, every other course after the first one should start and end with a
half-block.
Bridging Of Walls for Openings
This can be done by use of the following methods:
Lintels
Timber Lintels These were regularly used in the past and, depending on the span and the loading,
are still very useful.
Advantages of Timber Lintels
(1) they are light and thus easy to place
(2) they are cheap in comparison with other materials
(3) fixings are simple for architraves, pelmets, curtain rails, etc
Disadvantages Include
(1) the possibility of sagging under load when inadequately sized
(2) spans are limited according to the sizes available. While timber lintels have been used externally
in dwellings, they are more often than not used internally, covered in plasterboard and skimmed, not
only for appearance, but also to give them the required degree of fire resistance
Reinforced Concrete Lintels
This is cast using concrete and reinforcement bars since both materials expand and contract with
temperature variation at similar rates.
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The use of reinforcing bars in concrete beams is important because of the inherent weakness of
concrete in tension (stretching). For example, if a beam is placed over an opening it will tend to sag
under load and stresses will occur in the beam
The lintels act as weight-supporting bridges, allowing the contractors to place bricks above a large
gap. Lintels can be precast or made on-site to the exact dimensions required. All you’ll need is some
strong cement – Tembo Power Plus is ideal for weight-bearing concrete beams and structures.
Materials needed to make concrete lintels
• cement
• River sand
• Crushed stone
• Wheelbarrow
• Shovel
• Trowel
• Timber for wooden formwork
• Steel rebar
• Hammer and nails
Steps to Making Concrete Lintels
1. Measure the gap you want to bridge with the concrete lintel and make a note of the exact
dimensions (length, width and height).
2. Create the wooden formwork using the timber. The bottom piece of wood should be the same
length and width as the lintel. Cut the four sides of the formwork to the right height and nail
the sides to the bottom piece of wood. You will now have an open-top box. Spray the inside
of the box with paint or oil to prevent the cement from sticking to the wood.
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3. Cut the steel rebar to the right size – they should be a few centimetres shorter than the length
of the wooden box. Place the bars inside the box using spacers or small wires to prevent them
from shifting when the cement is poured in.
4. Mix your concrete batch. Follow the instructions of the cement manufacturer , adding river
sand, crushed stone and water. Mix the concrete in a wheelbarrow until it has a paste-like
consistency.
5. Pour the wet concrete into the wooden formwork on top of the steel rebars. Fill the box to the
top and use a trowel to smooth the surface. Gently tap the sides of the wooden formwork
with a hammer to remove any trapped air inside the concrete. The concrete should be evenly
spread throughout the wooden mold.
6. Leave the lintel to stand for 24 hours then remove the wooden formwork. Place the semi-dry
concrete lintel on a flat surface to cure for seven days. After one week, the lintel will be
ready for use on your building.
http://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007%2F978-1-349-11379-8_7.pdf
BRIDGING OPENINGS
http://zhclg.com/brickwork-bricklaying/bridging-openings-in-cavity-walls.htm
BRIDGING OPENINGS IN CAVITY WALLS | Building, repair ..
Practical activity
Referring to the working drawing provided, measure and quantify the materials required for
superstructures works and prepare materials schedule.
Set out the layout for superstructures marking the position of all the necessary wall openings on the
slab and columns.
Construct the walls applying all the relevant checks.
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1.2.6.4.1.2 A Case Study
You have successfully been awarded a tender to construct a 3 bedroomed house, and work is to start
with immediate effect. At superstructure level:
a) What are the most important aspects to consider?

b) What type of drawings can you advice the institute to ensure that they are ready before the
work starts?
c) What’s the need of marking the positions of wall openings?
d) Which procedure will you use in setting out superstructures walling?
e) What checks must you apply to ascertain the accuracy of your work?
f) Which tools, equipment and materials the will have to provide for the works?
Field visit

To relate real site activities in - marking of the positions 0f Positions of the walls and
Construct masonry wall with the wall and opennings as per openings must be marked
openings drawings. correctly
- laying of damp proof course Damp proof course must be
as per specifications and laid as per specifications
standard operating procedures
- laying of Masonry wall units Masonry wall units must be
are according to drawings and laid correctly
SOP
Construction of Bridging of Bridging of walls must comply
walls as per drawings and SOP with drawings and SOPs
1. Which are the types of openings in superstructure works
2. How would you define the term damp proofing as used in construction
3. Which materials are used for damp proofing
4. What are the major types of walls
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5. What are the advantages of timber lintel
6. What is the procedure of making a concrete lintel
7. What is the procedure of laying masonry wall units
• Tape measure
• Mason string
• Pegs
• Hammer
• Spirit level
• Plumb bob
• Trowels
• Spades
• Wheel barrow
• Buckets
• Mixing platform
• Hose Pipe
• Cement
• Sand
• Ballast
• Water
• Formworks
• Additives
• Hoop irop
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4.2.6.7 References

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Responses
1. Which are the types of openings in superstructure works

• Doors
• Windows
• Permanent vents
2. How would you define the term damp proofing as used in construction
• It’s a barrier usually formed by a membrane built into the walls of a building typically
150 mm above ground level, to prevent damp rising through the walls
3. Which materials are used for damp proofing
• Hot Bitumen
• Mastic Asphalt
• Bituminous Felts.
• Metal Sheets
• Polythene sheets
• Cement Concrete
4. What are the major types of walls
• Load bearing masonry wall

• Reinforced masonry wall
• Hollow/Cavity masonry wall
• Composite masonry wall
• Post-tensioned masonry wall
5. What are the adavantages of timber lintel

• they are light and thus easy to place
• they are cheap in comparison with other materials
• fixings are simple for architraves, pelmets, curtain rails, etc
6. What is the procedure of making a concrete lintel

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• Measure the gap you want to bridge with the concrete lintel and make a note of the
exact dimensions (length, width and height).
• Create the wooden formwork using the timber. The bottom piece of wood should be
the same length and width as the lintel. Cut the four sides of the formwork to the right
height and nail the sides to the bottom piece of wood. You will now have an open-top
box. Spray the inside of the box with paint or oil to prevent the cement from sticking
to the wood.
• Cut the steel rebar to the right size – they should be a few centimeters shorter than
the length of the wooden box. Place the bars inside the box using spacers or small
wires to prevent them from shifting when the cement is poured in.
• Mix your concrete batch. Follow the instructions of the cement manufacturer packet,
adding river sand, crushed stone and water. Mix the concrete in a wheelbarrow until
it has a paste-like consistency.
• Pour the wet concrete into the wooden formwork on top of the steel bars. Fill the box
to the top and use a trowel to smooth the surface. Gently tap the sides of the wooden
7. What is the procedure of laying masonry wall units.

• plan
• build a solid base or concrete footing
• make lines
• establish the corners
• make a story pole
• space the blocks
• navigate the corners
• prepare the cement mortal
• apply mortal to the side
• continue to lay the concrete blocks
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• check the alignment
• apply mortal to the top
• stack the block
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CHAPTER 5: MASONRY WORK FINISHING
Related Unit of Competency in Occupational Standard Finish masonry works

This unit specifies the competencies required to finish masonry works. It entails laying of floor
screed, applying wall plaster, keying and pointing. It also involves facing of masonry walls as
applied in the construction industry.

2. Quantify materials requirement
4. Apply wall plaster with key and point
5. Lay floor screed
6. Face and render masonry walls
5.2.1 Learning Outcome 1: Interpret working drawings

This learning outcome specifies the competencies required to interpret working drawings. It entails
differentiating working drawings, scale reading, measurements conversion and identification of
symbols.
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5.2.1.2 Performance Standards
1.1 Working drawing are differentiated based on international technical drawings (ISO 128).
1.2 The scale of the drawing is read based on the provided key.
1.3 Imperial measurements are converted into metric measurements based on conversion table.
1.4 Symbols are identified based on international technical drawings (ISO 128).
1.5 Reference points are identified on the ground based on the site drawing.

Working drawings these are dimensioned graphical information used in construction or fabrication
Scale this is the ratio of depicted distance to actual distance.
Symbols this is a character used to depict an idea
Reference point is a feature on an object against which measurements are made.
Types of working drawings
1. Architectural drawings
This type of drawings provides a complete overview of a building. They give in-depth construction
details construction details.
2. Electrical drawings
This type of construction drawing illustrates information on lighting, wiring, power and circuits.
They are meant to illustrate the physical layout of wires and components they connect within a
building.
3. Structural drawings
They show the entire load – carrying members in a building
4. Plumbing drawings
This kind of construction drawings illustrates the drainage and water system in a building. Pumps,
water pipes, sinks and other sanitary appliances are indicated on the drawing.
5. Finishing drawings
This type of drawings illustrates finishing details of a building. They include every type of finishing
component such as painting details, flooring patterns, plaster finish and ceiling finishing details
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Scales in working drawings
Scales drawings allow us to accurately represent sites, spaces buildings and details to a smaller or
more practical size than the original.
When a drawing is described as to scale it means that each element in that drawing is in the same
proportion, related to the real or proposed thing.
In the real world one meter is equal to one meter. A drawing at a scale of 1:10 means that the object
is 10 times smaller than in real life scale of 1:1
As the numbers in the scale get bigger, i.e. 1:100-1:200 the elements in the drawing get smaller. This
is because in a drawing of 1:50 there is 1 unit for every 50 units in real life. A drawing of 1:200 is
representing 200 units for every unit and therefore it is showing smaller elements than the 1:50
drawing.
Instruments used in scaling

A scale ruler is a tool for measuring lengths and transferring measurements at a fixed ratio of length;
Architect's scale
An architect's scale is a specialized ruler designed to facilitate the drafting and measuring of
architectural drawings, such as floor plans and Multi-view orthographic projections.
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Figure 169: architecture scale
Engineer's scale
An engineer's scale is a tool for measuring distances and transferring measurements at a fixed ratio
of length.
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Conversion of measurements
Metric system – often referred to as the International System of Units (SI system) the metric system
is the system of measurement that developed in France in the 1790s.
It uses base units such as the meter, the kilogram, the second, the ampere and the kelvin.
Imperial system – This is a system of measurement used in the United Kingdom and other
Commonwealth countries now mostly superseded by the Metric System. It uses units of
measurement such as the inch, the mile and the pound.
Conversion table of common imperial units to metric units
Imperial unit Symbol Metric equivalent
1 Mile mi 1.609344 km
2 Furlong 201.17 metres
3 Chain 20.117 metres
4 Rod 5.029 metre
5 Yard yd 0.9144 metre
6 Foot ft 30.48 cm
7 Inch in 2.54 cm
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8 Ton 1015.7 kg
9 Stone st 6.356 kg
10 Pound lb 0.454 kg
Reference points
Also called a datum, a reference point is a feature on an object against which measurements are
made. Site levels are fixed according to a fixed mark or level nearby. Examples of reference points
are
1. `
.
Figure 170: geodetic survey datum
Symbols used In Working Drawings
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423
424
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Figure 171: symbols used in drawing

Practical assessment
1. Visit the nearest survey datum and record the readings of the reference point
2. Establish the reference point used in construction of the institution
3. Using simple drawing instruments sketch the plan of the institution workshop and indicate
all the symbols
Resource Requirements
1. A fully functional masonry workshop
2. Working drawings
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1. Explain the following terms
a. Scale
b. Plan
c. Elevation
d. Section
e. Symbol
2. Which two instruments are used in scaling?
3. What is the difference between metric system and imperial system as used in measurement?
4. Convert the following measurements to imperial units
a. 10 km to miles
b. 10m to yards
c. 5 kgs to pounds
d. 100 cm to feet
e. 50 cm to inches
5. Which are the common working drawings found in the construction industry?
6. What is a reference point?
7. Which fixed marks can be used as a reference point?
8. Which common symbols are used in architectural drawings
5.2.1.6 Tools, Equipment, Supplies, and Materials
• Club hammer
• Mason's hammer
• Chisel
• Spirit level
• Brick bat gauge
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• Bolster
• Cold chisel
• Stepping ladder
• Mason's line
• Plumb bob
• Power tools
• PPE’s Spade
• Sieve
• Brush
• Straight edge
• Sputter dash
• Vibrator
• Mixer
• Tamper
• Wheelbarrow
• Helmet
• Dumper
• Sledge hammer
• Cement
• Sand
• Ballast
• Water
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• Masonry units (e.g. quarry stones, bricks, concrete hallow brocks, precast products, capped
stones, dressed stones)
• Formworks
• Additives
• Quarry dust
• Gravel
• Anti- termite treatment
• DPM
• DPC
• Hoop iron
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5.2.1.7 References
1. D. Walton, The Motivate Series Building Construction Principles

2. R. Chudley Building Construction Handbook
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Response to self-assessment questions
1. Explain the following terms
a. Scale – this is a measurement representation used in drawings to represent
elements on the ground on a piece of paper easily and practically.
b. Plan – this is a drawing showing technical details of a building from an eagle’s
viewpoint.
c. Elevation – this is an orthographic projection drawing that shows the details on
one side of a building.
d. Section – this is a drawing showing details from a vertical plane slicing through
a building.
e. Symbol – a mark or character representing an object, function, or process.
2. Which two instruments are used in scaling?
a. Architect's scale
b. Engineer's scale
3. What is the difference between metric system and imperial system as used in measurement?
Metric system is the system of measurement that developed in France in the 1790s.
It uses base units such as the meter (distance), the kilogram (weight), the second (time),
the ampere (current), and the kelvin (temperature).
The imperial system on the other hand is a system of measurement used in the United
Kingdom and other Commonwealth countries now mostly superseded by the Metric
System. It uses units of measurement such as the inch, the mile, and the pound.
4. Convert the following measurements to imperial units

a. 10 km to miles
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1 mile = 1.609344 km
10 km to miles
= 10 ÷ 1.609344
= 6.21 miles
b. 10m to yards
1 yard = 0.9144 metre
10 m to yds
= 10 ÷ 0.9144
= 10.94 yards
c. 5 Kgs to pounds
1 pound = 0.454 kg
5 Kgs to pounds
= 5 ÷ 0.454
= 11.01 pounds
d. 100 cm to feet
1 foot = 30.48 cm
100 cm to feet
= 100 ÷ 30.48
= 3.28 feet
e. 50 cm to inches
1 inch = 2.54 cm
50 cm to inches
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= 50 ÷ 2.54
= 19.685 inches
5. Which are the common working drawings found in the construction industry?
a. Architectural drawings
b. Electrical drawings
c. Plumbing drawings
d. Structural drawings
6. What is a reference point?
A reference point is a feature on an object against which measurements are made.
7. Which fixed marks can be used as a reference point?
a. A manhole cover in a nearby road
b. Spot levels which are points marked out on the ground for taking levels.
c. A datum level which is noted on survey maps of an area as the height above sea
level in meters
d. A mark made on a rock or a tree
8. Which common symbols are used in architectural drawings?
a. Door
b. Window
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5.2.2 Learning Outcome 2: Quantify materials requirement

This learning outcome specifies the competencies required to quantify materials requirement. It
entails identifying materials and supplies based on drawings as well as preparing schedule of
materials.

2.1 Materials required for masonry are identified based on the drawing.
2.2 Supplies are identified are based on drawing.
2.3 A schedule of materials is prepared based on the drawings.

Supplies – to provide or make something available
Construction materials
1. Bricks
Brick is obtained by moulding good clay into a block, which is dried and then burnt
Types of Bricks
Bricks may be broadly classified as:
i. Building Bricks: These bricks are used for the construction of walls.
ii. Paving Bricks: These are vitrified bricks and are used as pavers.
iii. Fire Bricks: These bricks are specially made to withstand furnace temperature. Silica bricks
belong to this category.
iv. Special Bricks: These bricks are different from the commonly used building bricks with
respect to their shape and the purpose for which they are made. Some of such bricks are
listed below:
a. Specially shaped bricks - Bricks of special shapes are manufactured to meet the
requirements of different situations.
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b. Facing bricks - These bricks are used in the outer face of masonry. Once these bricks
are provided, plastering is not required. The standard size of these bricks is 190 × 90
× 90 mm or 190 × 90 × 40 mm
c. Perforated building bricks – These bricks are manufactured with area of perforation
of 30 to 45 per cent. The area of each perforation should not exceed 500 mm2. The
perforation should be uniformly distributed over the surface. They are manufactured
in the size 190 × 190 × 90 mm and 290 × 90 × 90 mm.
d. Burnt clay hollow bricks - They are light in weight. They are used for the
construction of partition walls. They provide good thermal insulation to buildings.
They are manufactured in the sizes 190 × 190 × 90 mm, 290 × 90 × 90 mm and 290 ×
140 × 90 mm. The thickness of any shell should not be less than 11 mm and that of
any web not less than 8 mm.
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2. Stone
Stone is a ‘naturally available building material’ which has been used from the early age of
civilization.
It is available in the form of rocks, which is cut to required size and shape and used as
building block.
Type of Stones
Stones used for civil engineering works may be classified in the following three ways:
• Geological
• • Physical
• • Chemical
Geological Classification
Based on their origin of formation stones are classified into three main groups—Igneous,
sedimentary and metamorphic rocks.
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(i) Igneous Rocks: These rocks are formed by cooling and solidifying of the rock masses
from their molten magmatic condition of the material of the earth. Generally igneous
rocks are strong and durable. Granite, trap, and basalt are the rocks belonging to this
category, Granites are formed by slow cooling of the lava under thick cover on the top.
Hence they have crystalline surface. The cooling of lava at the top surface of earth results
into non-crystalline and glassy texture. Trap and basalt belong to this category.
(ii) Sedimentary Rocks: Due to weathering action of water, wind and frost existing rocks
disintegrates. The disintegrated material is carried by wind and water; the water being
most powerful medium. Flowing water deposits its suspended materials at some points of
obstacles to its flow. These deposited layers of materials get consolidated under pressure
and by heat. Chemical agents also contribute to the cementing of the deposits. The rocks
thus formed are more uniform, fine grained and compact in their nature. They represent a
bedded or stratified structure in general. Sand stones, lime stones, mud stones etc. belong
to this class of rock.
(iii) Metamorphic Rocks: Previously formed igneous and sedimentary rocks undergo changes
due to metamorphic action of pressure and internal heat. For example due to
metamorphic action granite becomes greisses, trap and basalt change to schist and
laterite, lime stone changes to marble, sand stone becomes quartzite and mud stone
becomes slate.
Physical Classification
Based on the structure, the rocks may be classified as:
• Stratified rocks
• Unstratified rocks
(i) Stratified Rocks: These rocks are having layered structure. They possess planes of
stratification or cleavage. They can be easily split along these planes. Sand stones, lime stones,
slate etc. are the examples of this class of stones.
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(ii) Unstratified Rocks: These rocks are not stratified. They possess crystalline and compact
grains. They cannot be split in to thin slab. Granite, trap, marble etc. are the examples of this
type of rocks.
(iii) Foliated Rocks: These rocks have a tendency to split along a definite direction only. The
direction need not be parallel to each other as in case of stratified rocks. This type of structure is
very common in case of metamorphic rocks.
Chemical Classification
On the basis of their chemical composition engineers prefer to classify rocks as:
• Silicious rocks
• Argillaceous rocks and
• Calcareous rocks
(i) Silicious rocks: The main content of these rocks is silica. They are hard and durable.
Examples of such rocks are granite, trap, sand stones etc.
(ii) Argillaceous rocks: The main constituent of these rocks is argil i.e., clay. These stones are
hard and durable but they are brittle. They cannot withstand shock. Slates and laterites are
examples of this type of rocks.
(iii) Calcareous rocks: The main constituent of these rocks is calcium carbonate. Limestone is a
calcareous rock of sedimentary origin while marble is a calcareous rock of metamorphic origin.
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3. Concrete.
Plain concrete, commonly known as concrete, is an intimate mixture of binding material, fine
aggregate, coarse aggregate and water. This can be easily moulded to desired shape and size
before it loses plasticity and hardens.
Plain concrete
Major ingredients of concrete are:
a. Binding material (like cement, lime, polymer)
b. Fine aggregate (sand)
c. Coarse aggregates (crushed stone, jelly)
d. Water.
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A small quantity of admixtures like air entraining agents, water proofing agents,
Functions of various concrete ingredients
Cement is the binding material. After addition of water it hydrates and binds aggregates and the
surrounding surfaces like stone and bricks. Generally richer mix (with more cement) gives more
strength.
Setting time starts after 30 minutes and ends after 6 hours. Hence concrete should be laid in its
mould before 30 minutes of mixing of water and should not be subjected to any external forces till
final setting takes place.
Coarse aggregate consists of crushed stones. It should be well graded and the stones should be of
igneous origin. They should be clean, sharp, angular and hard. They give mass to the concrete and
prevent shrinkage of cement. Fine aggregate consists of river sand. It prevents shrinkage of cement.
When surrounded by cement it gains mobility enters the voids in coarse aggregates and binding of
ingredients takes place. It adds density to concrete, since it fills the voids. Denser the concrete higher
is its strength.
Water used for making concrete should be clean. It activates the hydration of cement and forms
plastic mass. As it sets completely concrete becomes hard mass. Water gives workability to concrete
which means water makes it possible to mix the concrete with ease and place it in final position.
More the water better is the workability. However excess water reduces the strength of concrete
To achieve required workability and at the same time good strength a water cement ratio of 0.4 to
0.45 is used, in case of machine mixing and water cement ratio of 0.5 to 0.6 is used for hand mixing.
Preparing and Placing of Concrete
The following steps are involved in the concreting:
1. Batching
2. Mixing
3. Transporting and placing and
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4. Compacting.
1) Batching: The measurement of materials for making concrete is known as batching. The
following two methods of batching is practiced:
a. Volume Batching: In this method cement, sand and concrete are batched by volume. A
gauge box is made with wooden plates, its volume being equal to that of one bag of cement.
One bag of cement has volume of 35 litres. The required amount of sand and coarse
aggregate is added by measuring on to the gauge box. The quantity of water required for
making concrete is found after deciding water cement ratio. For example, if water cement
ratio is 0.5, for one bag of cement (50 kg), water required is 0.5 × 50= 25 kg, which is equal
to 25 litres. Suitable measure is used to select required quantity of water. Volume batching is
not ideal method of batching. Wet sand has higher volume for the same weight of dry sand. It
is called bulking of sand. Hence it upsets the calculated volume required.
b. Weight Batching: This is the recommended method of batching. A weighing platform is
used in the field to pick up correct proportion of sand and coarse aggregates. Large weigh
batching plants have automatic weighing equipment.
2) Mixing: To produce uniform and good concrete, it is necessary to mix cement, sand and coarse
aggregate, first in dry condition and then in wet condition after adding water.
The following methods are practiced:
a. Hand Mixing: Required amount of coarse aggregate for a batch is weighed and is spread on
an impervious platform. Then the sand required for the batch is spread over coarse aggregate.
They are mixed in dry condition by overturning the mix with shovels. Then the cement
required for the batch is spread over the dry mix and mixed by shovels. After uniform texture
is observed water is added gradually and mixing is continued. Full amount of water is added
and mixing is completed when uniform colour and consistency is observed. The process of
mixing is completed in 6–8 minutes of adding water. This method of mixing is not very good
but for small works it is commonly adopted.
b. Machine Mixing: In large and important works machine mixing is preferred. . Required
quantities if sand and coarse aggregates are placed in the drum of the mixer. 4 to 5 rotations
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are made for dry mixing and then required quantity of cement is added and dry mixing is
made with another 4 to 5 rotations. Water is gradually added and drum is rotated for 2 to 3
minutes during which period it makes about 50 rotations. At this stage uniform and
homogeneous mix is obtained.
3) Transporting and Placing of Concrete. After mixing concrete should be transported to the final
position. In small works it is transported in iron pans from hand to hand of a set of workers.
Wheel barrow and hand carts also may be employed. In large scale concreting chutes and belt
conveyors or pipes with pumps are employed. In transporting care should be taken to see that
segregation of aggregate from matrix of cement do not take place.
Concrete is placed on form works. The form works should be cleaned and properly oiled. If
concrete is to be placed for foundation, the soil bed should be compacted well and is made
free from loose soil.
Concrete should be dropped on its final position as closely as possible. If it is dropped from a
height, the coarse aggregates fall early and then mortar matrix. This segregation results into
weaker concrete.
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4) Compaction of Concrete: In the process of placing concrete, air is entrapped. The entrapped air
reduces the strength of concrete up to 30%. Hence it is necessary to remove this entrapped air.
This is achieved by compacting the concrete after placing it in its final position. Compaction can
be carried out either by hand or with the help of vibrators.
a. Hand Compaction: In this method concrete is compacted by ramming, tamping,
spading, or by slicing with tools. In intricate portions a pointed steel rod of 16 mm
diameter and about a metre long is used for poking the concrete.
b. Compaction by Vibrators: Concrete can be compacted by using high frequency
vibrators.
Vibration reduces the friction between the particles and set the motion of particles. As a result
entrapped air is removed and the concrete is compacted. The use of vibrators reduces the compaction
time. When vibrators are used for compaction, water cement ratio can be less, which also help in
improving the strength of concrete. Vibration should be stopped as soon as cement paste is seen on
the surface of concrete. Over vibration is not good for the concrete.
The following types of vibrators are commonly used in concreting:
• Needle or immersion vibrators

• Surface vibrators
• Form or shutter vibrators
• Vibrating tables.
Needle vibrators are used in concreting beams and columns. Surface vibrators and form vibrators are
useful in concreting slabs. Vibrating tables are useful in preparing precast concrete elements.
5) Curing of Concrete
Curing may be defined as the process of maintaining satisfactory moisture and temperature
conditions for freshly placed concrete for some specified time for proper hardening of concrete.
Curing in the early ages of concrete is more important. Curing for 14 days is very important. Better
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to continue it for 7 to 14 days more. If curing is not done properly, the strength of concrete reduces.
Cracks develop due shrinkage. The durability of concrete structure reduces.
The following curing methods are employed:
• Spraying of water: Walls, columns, plastered surfaces are cured by sprinkling water.
• Wet covering the surface: Columns and other vertical surfaces may be cured by covering
the surfaces with wet gunny bags or straw.
• Ponding: The horizontal surfaces like slab and floors are cured by stagnating the water to a
height of 25 to 50 mm by providing temporary small mounds with mortar.
• Steam curing: In the manufacture of pre-fabricated concrete units steam is passed over the
units kept in closed chambers. It accelerates curing process, resulting into the reduction of
curing period.
• Application of curing compounds: Compounds like calcium chloride may be applied on the
curing surface. The compound shows affinity to the moisture and retains it on the surface. It
keeps the concrete surface wet for a long time.
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Blocks: Solid and hollow concrete blocks are manufactured in factories to meet the requirements of
building blocks in cities and towns. These blocks may be called as artificial stones, since they
replace the stones in the masonry construction. They are manufactured with lean mixes of cement,
sand and aggregates of sizes less than 12 mm. Instead of sharp edged aggregates, round aggregates
are professed in the manufacture of these blocks.
Advantage of using concrete blocks is that the construction activity is fast. Mortar requirement for
finishing the surface is less. Pointing alone is sufficient, in other words plastering is not necessary.
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Figure 172: hollow concrete block
Calculation and estimation of quantities
Cost estimation for building construction is an important part of any construction project.
Factors that impact estimation of quantities
1. Labour and materials – labour and ,materials shift according to supply and demand
2. Project size and type – the larger the project the more the materials and labour needed
3. Site location and conditions – the location of the site affects the estimate of quantities
4. Plans, specifications, and scheduling – the more detailed a plan the better the specifications
and the easier it will be to figure out probable cost
5. Regulatory requirements and insurance
Preparation of schedule of materials
A material schedule is a detailed list of construction material required for a specific job.
Steps for preparing materials list

1. Determine the required materials – examine the drawings and specifications closely and work
out the required materials
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2. Determine the nature of materials required - Decide how to purchase the materials. There are
two options:
a. Purchase materials for construction on-site, eg timber for on-site framing.
b. Purchase prefabricated components, eg wall frames, roof trusses.
3. Work out the quantities of materials required - Work out the amount of material needed. You
can do this by looking at the measurements on the plans and using these to calculate the
various lengths required.
This information can also be found from lists like a 'timber list' provided by the estimator
as part of the tender for the project. This is the most efficient way for a building company
to operate as it uses information already available.
Example
Materials list
The house to be framed is a 133 square metre brick veneer house on a concrete slab with a truss
framed concrete tiled roof. A brick single garage is attached.
This list is for a frame to be cut and stood on-site, including the roof.
Framing material:
F5 pine studs 90 x 35 230/2400
90 x 45 14/2400
MGP10 pine PLs 90 x 35 18/3600
6/3900
4/4200
30/5400
Merch pine 90 x 35 23/4800
Masonite braceboard 2440 x 915 x 6.5 8 sheets
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Mild steel angle bracing 10/3600
MGP10 pine joists 10/2400
16/3600
14/4200
12/4500
6/5200
Beams – MGP10 120 x 35 3/2100
140 x 45 4/3000
190 x 45 1/3600
240 x 45 2/4800
Framing material continued:
F17 KDHW 190 x 45 5/3600
4/3300
240 x 45 1/3000
MGHP10 pine 90 x 45 37/4800
38/4200
8/3300
4/2700
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12/2700
Roof material 14/3600
4/5400
2/6000
F7 pine 140 x 35 10/3600
4/4500
3/5400
2/6000
LOSP fascia 190 x 30 2/4500
3/540
2/6000
3/3300
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Fixing material:
Architrave/skirtings single
MDF raw 67 x 18 19/2400
2/3300
13/3600
11/3900
40/4200
4/4800
3/5400
3/6000
Internal doors four panel primed and pre-hung
Internal sliding door 2040 x 870 1 of
2 RH 2040 x 720 2 of
2 LH, 1 RH 2040 x 770 3 of
3 RH, 1 LH 2040 x 820 4 of
1 RH 2040 x 520 1 of
Corinthian/door unit 2040 x 820 1 of
Latch sets – Lockwood 530 7 of
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Privacy sets 3 of
Lock up material:
Hardiflex eave sheets 2400 x 600 x 4.5 mm 15 of
2400 x 450 x 4.5 mm 6 of
1800 x 900 x 4.5 mm 3 of
Divisional – white 5 of
Merch pine 70 x 35 80 metres
This is a real list as estimated, tendered for quotations and then ordered.

1. You are required to visit the masonry workshop then identify and group all the materials
in the workshop in their relevant categories indicating the specifics regarding the
materials.
2. You are required to visit a nearby construction site and prepare a hypothetical schedule of
materials required in execution of a certain task.
2. An ongoing construction site
1. Which types of bricks are commonly used in the construction industry?
2. What are the main ingredients of concrete?
3. Which steps would you take when preparing concrete?
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4. What methods are commonly used in curing concrete?
5. Which crucial steps would you follow when preparing schedule of materials?
6. Which types of building stones would you consider when constructing a building?
7. Why is estimation and calculation of building materials quantities important?

• Club hammer
• Mason's hammer
• Chisel
• Spirit level
• Brick bat gauge
• Bolster
• Cold chisel
• Stepping ladder
• Mason's line
• Plumb bob
• Power tools
• PPE’s Spade
• Sieve
• Brush
• Straight edge
• Sputter dash
• Vibrator
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• Mixer
• Tamper
• Wheelbarrow
• Helmet
• Dumper
• Sledge hammer
• Cement
• Sand
• Ballast
• Water
• Masonry units (e.g. quarry stones, bricks, concrete hallow brocks, precast products,
capped stones, dressed stones)
• Formworks
• Additives
• Quarry dust
• Gravel
• DPM
• DPC
• Hoop iron
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5.2.2.7 References
1. . Lynch, G., Gauged Brickwork, A Technical Handbook, Gower Publishing Company,
Aldershot, Hants, England, 1990, 115 pp.
454
1. Which types of bricks are commonly used in the construction industry?
b. Building Bricks are used for the construction of walls.
c. Paving Bricks are vitrified bricks and are used as pavers.
d. Fire Bricks are specially made to withstand furnace temperature.
e. Special Bricks
2. What are the main ingredients of concrete?
a. Binding material (like cement, lime, polymer)
b. Fine aggregate (sand)
c. Coarse aggregates
d. Water.
3. Which steps would you take when preparing concrete?

a. Batching
b. Mixing
c. Transporting and placing and
d. Compacting.
4. What methods are commonly used in curing concrete?
a. Spraying of water
b. Covering the surface with wet gunny bags, straw etc.
c. Ponding
d. Steam curing and
e. Application of curing compounds.
5. Which crucial steps would you follow when preparing schedule of materials?
a. Determine the required materials
b. Determine the nature of the required materials
c. Determine the quantities of materials required
6. Which types of building stones would you consider when constructing a building?
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a. Geologically formed stones
b. Physically formed stones
c. Chemically formed stones
7. Why is estimation and calculation of building materials quantities important?

The estimate aids developers in determining the feasibility and profitability of a
potential project. Most importantly, an accurate estimation keeps all parties focused on
delivering a project on time and under budget
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5.2.3 Learning outcome 3: Use masonry tools and equipment

This learning outcome specifies the competencies required to use masonry tools and equipment. It
entails proper use of Personal Protective Equipment as well as identifying, caring, maintenance and
storage of masonry tools and equipment

3.1 Personal Protective Equipment is used in line with occupational safety and health regulations.
3.2 Masonry tools and equipment are identified based on the requirements of the job.
3.3 Masonry tools and equipment are cared for and maintained based on manufacturer’s manual
3.4 Masonry tools and equipment are used based on manufacturer’s instructions.
3.5 Masonry tools and equipment are stored based on manufacturer’s instructions

Definitions of terms;
Tool a mechanical device intended to make work easier
Equipment anything provided for a specific purpose
PPEs and their applications

• All PPE clothing and equipment should be of safe design and construction, and should be
maintained in a clean and reliable fashion.
• Employers should take the fit and comfort of PPE into consideration when selecting
appropriate items for their workplace.
• PPE that fits well and is comfortable to wear will encourage employee use of PPE. Most
protective devices are available in multiple sizes and care should be taken to select the proper
size for each employee.
• If several different types of PPE are worn together, they should be compatible.
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• If PPE does not fit properly, it can make the difference between being safely covered or
dangerously exposed. Therefore It may not provide the level of protection desired and may
discourage employee use.
Masonry tools and equipment
ILLUSTRATION USES
Used to lift and spread
mortar in joints during
masonry construction
Used for shaping corners

of the wall.
Used to set out right

angles at the corner of
masonry wall.
Used to check the

verticality of walls.
Used to check the

horizontality and
verticality of the
surfaces.
The surface is called
leveled when the bubble
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in the tube settles at
middle of tube
It is used to level line
and the alignment of
brick course while brick
laying in brick masonry
work.
Used to transfer and

check levels
used for levelling from

two fixed points in
surveying
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they are used to mix
mortar and also used to
place cement, mortar
and concrete
It is a vessel made of
rigid plastic or steel used
to hold or carry sand,
cement, mortar and
concrete.
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A jointer or brick jointer
is a hand tool designed
to imprint grooves into
recently filled mortar
joints at the stage when
they are starting to set.
Used to set out angles
Employed for rough

dressing of stones and to
split the stones in the
quarry
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Employed for dressing
the surface of stones.
A chisel is used for

normal splitting,
roughing out and
shaping the stone.
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Used to strike arrow -
headed chisels. It is also
useful for light
demolition work, driving
masonry nails, and for
use with a steel chisel
when cutting stone.
Used to cut soft stones.
It runs on electricity and

is provided with a
toothed or abrasive
blade/disc which has the
ability to cut different
materials including
wood, stone, brick,
metals, by using a rotary
motion that spins around
an arbor.
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Used to cut large blocks
of stones.
Used for rough cutting

of bricks in different
shapes and sizes.
Used for light

demolition work or to
break masonry. In order
to cut brick accurately, a
steel chisel with a very
wide blade called bolster
is employed.
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Act as extensors to
mason’s level. They are
used when levels are
shorter than the area that
needs to be measured or
assessed.
Brickwork It is used to confirm that

Gauge Rod courses are maintained
at correct levels
Bricklaying Used in bricklaying for

Trowel cutting brick and
spreading mortar or
cement.
Safety, care, and maintenance of masonry tools and equipment
Use and maintenance of a claw hammer
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a) Ensure that the handle is firmly attached to the head of the hammer.
b) Replace worn out or broken parts.
c) Hold a nail onto a piece of wood as shown in the picture.
d) Hold the hammer firmly and hit the nail several times until it enters.
e) Store the hammer in a dry and safe place after use.
Use and maintenance of a Spirit Level
a) Wipe the surface of the spirit level to remove dust and dirt from it.
b) Hold the spirit level firmly and place it on the wooden surface that you want to check.
c) View and note the position of the bubble in the spirit level.
Chisel
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A chisel has a sharp cutting edge. This edge can injure you if carelessly handled.
A chisel is driven into wood by a mallet. There is a danger of hitting your arm while hitting the
chisel head.
Health and safety measures
a) Always keep the cutting edge of the chisel sharp.

b) Always clamp the work securely on the work bench.
c) Wear gloves to protect hands.
Clamp/jointer
During clamping, you can accidentally trap your fingers or hands. If the parts being clamped are
loosely held, they may break and fall/drop on your hands or legs injuring them.
a) Hold the pieces of wood being glued together firmly.

b) Close the jaws of the clamp until the clamp is tight before using it.
c) Wear goggles or a face shield to protect your head.
Trowel
Use and maintenance of trowel
a) Ensure the handle of the trowel is in good condition.

b) Using a trowel mix the mortar.
c) Scoop and apply the mortar using the trowel as shown.
d) Clean and keep it dry after use.
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Plumb line
Use and maintenance of a plumb line
a) Hammer a nail into surface you want to check.

b) Tie the string of the plumb line to the nail.
c) Measure the distance from the vertical surface of the wall to the top of the string.
d) Mark the points you want to find with chalk.
e) Clean the plumb line, oil it and store in safely in a dry box.
Water level
Use and maintenance of a water level
468
a) With your partner stand at the location you want to level.
b) Hold the water level against the surface you are levelling.
c) Use chalk to mark the spot on the wall where the water line inside the tube falls.
d) Clean the water level and store it when dry.
Float
Use and maintenance of float
a) Ensure the handle of the float is firm.

b) Spread concrete over the floor and wall as shown.
c) Clean it and oil the metallic parts of the float.
d) Store the float on a rack.
469
Metre ruler
Use and maintenance of metre ruler
a) Place a metre ruler on the wall.

b) Measure the length of the wall in meters.
c) Avoid knocking the edges of the ruler against objects.
d) Clean it after use.
470
Tape measure
Use and maintenance of a tape measure
a) Hold the tape measure vertically on a wall.

b) Keep the edges straight.
c) Measure the distance and mark with a pencil as shown.
d) Avoid rubbing or scratching the tape measure.
Jointer
Use and maintenance of jointer
a) Ensure the nuts of a jointer are tight.
471
b) Run a jointer along a mortar joint and compact it.
c) Scrap excess mortar from the joint.
d) Clean, dry and store it in a dry place.
Brick frame
Use and maintenance of a brick frame
a) Place a brick frame carefully on a flat surface to avoid breaking it.

b) Pack wet concrete or soil into it to produce rectangular shaped bricks.
c) Clean and store brick frames in a dry rack.
d) Oil metallic frames to prevent rusting
Wheelbarrow
472
Use and maintenance of a wheelbarrow
a) Ensure the handles are firm and the moving parts are greased.
b) Load sand, gravel, or stones into the wheelbarrow.
c) Push the wheelbarrow to where they are needed.
d) Clean it well and oil after use.
Storage of masonry tools and equipment

Masonry tools need to be stored properly in a tool rack as shown below.
473
1. You are provided with a piece of wood 1m long
a) Sharpen the saw provided
b) Use the saw to cut the piece of wood into four equal pieces
2. Carry out full maintenance on the wheelbarrow provided.
3. You have been provided with a tool rack. Arrange all the tools provided on the tool rack.
4. You have been provided with a water level. Transfer the level indicated by the instructor to
another point in the same building.
5. You have been provided with bricks and a plumb line. Using dry bonding and the plumb line
ensure that the wall is completely vertical.
2. A tool rack
3. Masonry tools and equipment
474
5.2.3.5 Self-Assessment questions
1. What is the work of a:
a) Trowel
b) Steel float
c) Wooden float
d) Water level
e) Plumb line
2. Sand and stones need to be delivered to a construction site.
a) Which suitable masonry tools are you going to use?
b) How would you ferry the sand and stones to the construction site?
c) How would you maintain the tool after use?
3. Describe briefly the maintenance of
a) A steel float
b) A wooden float.
4. What 3 dangers could arise during use of masonry tools?
5. What is the general importance of masonry tools? Justify your answer using suitable examples.
6. Outline uses of a mortar mixer.
7. How do you ensure that a mortar mixer remains in good working condition?
8. The following picture shows a construction site.
475
a. Identify the masonry tools being used.
b. What tool does the mason mixing sand and cement need?
9. Describe maintenance practices carried out on a brick hammer.

10. (a) What is the use of a plumb line?
(b) How is a water level used?

• Club hammer
• Mason's hammer
• Chisel
• Spirit level
• Brick bat gauge
• Bolster
476
• Cold chisel
• Stepping ladder
• Mason's line
• Plumb bob
• Power tools
• PPE’s Spade
• Sieve
• Brush
• Straight edge
• Sputter dash
• Vibrator
• Mixer
• Tamper
• Wheelbarrow
• Helmet
• Dumper
• Sledge hammer
• Cement
• Sand
• Ballast
• Water
477
• Formworks
• Additives
• Quarry dust
• Gravel
• DPM
• DPC
• Hoop iron
5.2.3.7 References
1. . Lynch, G., Gauged Brickwork, A Technical Handbook, Gower Publishing Company,

478
a) Trowel - Used to lift and spread mortar in joints during masonry construction
b) Steel float – used to spread concrete to obtain a smooth finish.
c) Wooden float - used to spread concrete
d) Water level – used to transfer levels from one point to another.
e) Plumb line – used to obtain verticality.
i. Spades
ii. Shovels
Using a wheelbarrow
i. Cleaning with plenty of water
ii. Oiling moving parts
a) A steel float
i. Ensure the handle of the float is firm.
ii. Spread concrete over the floor and wall as shown.
iii. Clean it and oil the metallic parts of the float.
iv. Store the float on a rack.
b) A wooden float.
i. Ensure the handle of the float is firm.
ii. Spread concrete over the floor and wall as shown.
iii. Clean it and oil the metallic parts of the float.
iv. Store the float on a rack.
479
i. Dropped tools could hurt feet
ii. Misplaced sharp tools can lead to bruises
iii. Poorly maintained tools can break down during use and cause injury
i. They make work easier e.g wheelbarrows
ii. They make work convenient
iii. They save time
A mixer is used to mix mortar and concrete to obtain a uniform mix capable of being
structurally sound
7. How do you ensure that a mortar mixer remains in good working condition?
a. Lubricate moving parts
b. Clean all mortar/concrete after use
8. The following picture shows a construction site.
c. Identify the masonry tools being used.

i. Shovel
ii. Trowel
480
iii. Plumb bob
d. What tool does the mason mixing sand and cement need?
A spade/shovel
9. Describe maintenance practices carried out on a brick hammer.

10. (a) What is the use of a plumb line?
A plumb line is used to set verticality in walls
(b) How is a water level used?
A water level is used to transfer levels from one point to another.
481
5.2.4 Learning outcome 4: Apply wall plaster with key and point

This learning outcome specifies the competencies required to apply wall plaster with key
and point. It entails checking wall plumpness, mortar mixing, applying plaster, pointing,
and plaster curing

4.1 Plumpness of the wall is checked and marked as per SOP
4.2 Dot guides are laid following the plumb-ness as per SOP
4.3 Electrical, mechanical and ICT conduits are provided for as per specifications.
4.4 Mortar mix is prepared as per specs and SOP
4.5 Plaster is applied as per spec and SOP
4.6 Walls are keyed and pointed as per spec and SOP
4.7 Plaster is cured as per SOP
5.2.4.3 Information sheet

Striking - – this is the process of finishing the mortar joints between newly laid bricks.
Pointing – this is the process of applying a small amount of mortar into the face joint between bricks
(either newly laid or in old brickwork).
Wall plumb-ness
Plumbness is the horizontal deviation of the well centerline from a true vertical centerline. A well
can be straight and not plumb. Alignment refers to horizontal deviation between the actual well
centerline and a straight line.
To check for accurate plumb vials, rest your level against a wall and note the location of the bubble
between the lines. Then rotate the level 180 degrees, edge to edge, keeping the same end facing up.
The bubble should be in the same spot. If not, your plumb vial is off.
482
Figure 173: checking wall plumbness
Types of keying
Flush Pointing
In this type, mortar is pressed hard in the raked joints and by finishing off flush with the edge of
masonry units. The edges are neatly trimmed with trowel and straight edge. It does not give good
appearance. But, flush pointing is more durable because of resisting the provision of space for dust,
water etc., due to this reason, this method is extensively used.
Recessed Pointing
483
In this case, mortar is pressing back by 5mm or more from the edges. During placing of mortar the
face of the pointing is kept vertical, by a suitable tool. This type gives very good appearance.
Beaded Pointing
It is formed by steel or iron with a concave edge. It gives good appearance, but it will damage easily
when compared to other types.
Struck Pointing
This is a modification of flush pointing in which the face the pointing is kept inclined, with its upper
edge pressed inside the face by 10mm which drains water easily.
Rubbed, Keyed or Grooved Pointing
484
This is also a modification of flush pointing in which groove is formed at its mid height, by a
pointing tool. It gives good appearance.
Tuck Pointing
In this case mortar is pressed in the raked joint first and finishing flush with the face.
While the pressed mortar is green, groove or narrow channel is cut in the center of groove which is
having 5mm width and 3mm depth. This groove is then filled with white cement putty, kept
projecting beyond the face of the joint by 3 mm. if projection is done in mortar, it is called bastard
pointing or half tuck pointing.
V- Pointing
This is formed by forming V-groove in the flush-finishing face.
485
Weathered Pointing
This is made by making a projection in the form of V-shape.
Tools used in keying

i. Pointing Trowel
ii. Nylon string
iii. Cold chisel
iv. Tape measure
v. Brick jointer
vi. Soft brush
vii. Watering spray
Background preparation
486
All the joints in masonry are raked down to a depth of 20mm while the mortar is still soft. The joints
and surface are cleaned and then thoroughly wetted.
1. Use a nylon string to mark a perfect horizontal height for the bottom cement screed
2. Use a brush to wipe off dust on the masonry stone
Mortar mix preparation

1. Measure three parts sand to one part masonry cement. For a basic mortar mix, you'll want to
mix essentially three parts of sand for every one part of cement you use.
2. Use the right amount of water. The amount of water used can vary drastically depending upon
the weather, how wet the sand is, and the variety of mix you're using, so read the instructions
carefully before adding water
3. Use the correct sand and mortar. Using a fine-grade, sharp masonry sand for the job is more
appropriate than other varieties, and using fresh unopened bags of masonry cement will be
more effective than using older bags.
4. Consider using lime as an additive. In some areas where the wall you're building will be
exposed to especially high winds or the elements, lime is added to increase the bonding and
strengthen the stonework you're building.
Mortar application
487
Mortar is the element that bonds bricks or other masonry units together and provides structural
capacity to the wall or other structure. There are four main types of mortar mix: N, O, S, and M.
Each type is mixed with a different ratio of cement, lime, and sand to produce specific performance
characteristics such as flexibility, bonding properties, and compressive strength. The best mortar mix
type for any project depends on the application and the various design specifications for the masonry
construction
Type N Mortar Mix

Type N mortar is usually recommended on exterior and above-grade walls that are exposed to severe
weather and high heat. Type N mortar mix has a medium compressive strength and it is composed of
1 part Portland cement, 1 part lime, and 6 parts sand.
Type O Mortar Mix
Type O mortar mix has relatively low compressive strength. It is used primarily interior, above-
grade, non-load–bearing walls.
Type S Mortar Mix
Offering a high compressive strength and a high-tensile bond strength, type S mortar is suitable for
many projects at or below grade. It performs extremely well to withstand soil pressure and wind and
seismic loads.
Type M Mortar Mix
Type M mortar mix has the highest amount of Portland cement and is recommended for heavy loads
and below-grade applications, including foundations, retaining walls, and driveways.
Type K Mortar Mix
Type K mortar is rarely used for new construction but may be specified for restoration or other
specialty applications. It offers a very low compressive strength
Quality checks
Mortar Consistency
488
The most important aspect of mortar quality control is consistency throughout the construction
project. The test methods outlined in ASTM C780 are intended to evaluate that consistency. Test
results acquired throughout construction are compared to a baseline preconstruction evaluation.
The cone penetration test offers a quantitative measure of mortar consistency. Test values indicate
the mortar workability, which may be affected by water content, aggregate properties, batch
properties and other factors. Tested values are likely to change throughout a project’s duration due to
variable site conditions as well as variations in masonry unit moisture content and absorption
characteristics.
Cone penetration tests are performed by dropping a conical plunger from a specified height into a
measured mortar sample and measuring the resulting depth of penetration
Mortar Compressive Strength Testing

Compressive strength testing in accordance with ASTM C270 is conducted on specimens that are
proportioned, mixed, and conditioned in the testing laboratory. Water content of the mortar sample is
such that the mortar flow must be 110 ± 5%. Compressive strength test specimens are 2 in. (51 mm)
mortar cubes cast in nonabsorbent molds and cured in a moist room or moist cabinet meeting the
requirements of ASTM C511, Standard Specification for Mixing Rooms, Moist Cabinets, Moist
489
Rooms and Water Storage Tanks Used in the Testing of Hydraulic Cements and Concretes (ref. 9),
until tested.
Water Retention
The property specification of ASTM C270 requires a minimum water retention of 75% when tested
in accordance with Standard Test Method for Water Retention of Hydraulic Cement-Based Mortars
and Plasters, ASTM C1506 (ref. 15). This test was developed to measure the ability of a mortar to
retain its mix water under the suction of the adjacent masonry unit. A certain amount of water
absorption by the unit is beneficial, but too much may be detrimental.
Air Content
The ASTM C270 property specification includes a limit on the mortar air content. In general, greater
air contents result in greater mortar durability and workability, but reduced mortar bond strength.
1. You are required to prepare mortar cubes in the laboratory, cure them in an oven, and check
their strength at day 3, 7, 14 and 21.
2. You have been provided with a wall. Carry out the following pointing techniques
a. Tuck pointing
b. Recessed pointing
c. Weathered pointing
d. V- pointing
1. A fully functional concrete laboratory
2. Masonry tools and equipment
490
1. What is pointing as used in masonry works?
2. Using well – sketched diagrams illustrate the following pointing techniques
a. Recessed pointing -
b. V-pointing
d. Flush pointing
3. Which are some of the tools used in pointing?

4. Which are some mortar types used in masonry works?
5. How would you make sure that the masonry used in construction is of good quality?
6. What is wall plumbness?
7. Which are the tools used to ensure wall plumbness?
8. Which are some factors to consider when mixing mortar?

• Club hammer
• Mason's hammer
• Chisel
• Spirit level
• Brick bat gauge
• Bolster
• Cold chisel
• Stepping ladder
491
• Mason's line
• Plumb bob
• Power tools
• PPE’s Spade
• Sieve
• Brush
• Straight edge
• Sputter dash
• Vibrator
• Mixer
• Tamper
• Wheelbarrow
• Helmet
• Dumper
• Sledge hammer
• Cement
• Sand
• Ballast
• Water
• Formworks
• Additives
• Quarry dust
492
• Gravel
• DPM
• DPC
• Hoop iron
493
5.2.4.7 References
1 Building Materials and Construction” by G C Sahu and Joygopal Jena
2 “Building Construction And Material” by Sushil Kumar
3 “A Textbook of Building Construction” by S K Sharma
494
1. What is pointing as used in masonry works?
Pointing – this is the process of applying a small amount of mortar into the face joint
between bricks (either newly laid or in old brickwork).
2. Using well – sketched diagrams illustrate the following pointing techniques
a. Recessed pointing
In this case, mortar is pressing back by 5mm or more from the edges. During
placing of mortar the face of the pointing is kept vertical, by a suitable tool.
b. V-pointing
d. Flush pointing
495
3. Which are some of the tools used in pointing?
i. Jointer
ii. Trowel
iii. Plumb bob
4. Which are some mortar types used in masonry works?
i. Type M mortar
ii. Type N mortar
iii. Type S mortar
iv. Type K mortar
5. How would you make sure that the masonry used in construction is of good quality?
i. Strength cube test
ii. Consistency test
6. What is wall plumbness?
Plumbness is the horizontal deviation of the well centerline from a true vertical
centerline. A well can be straight and not plumb. Alignment refers to horizontal
deviation between the actual well centerline and a straight line
7. Which are the tools used to ensure wall plumbness?

i. Plumb bob
ii. Spirit level
496
iii. Gauge rod
8. Which are some factors to consider when mixing mortar?
i. Use of additives
ii. Strength required
iii. Amount of Water to use
497
5.2.5 Learning Outcome 5: Lay floor screed

This learning outcome specifies the content of competencies required to lay floor screed. It entails
floor preparation as well as mixing, laying and curing screeds.

5.1 Floor is prepared for screed as per specs and SOP
5.2 Screed mix is prepared as per specs and SOP
5.3 Screed is laid as per specs and SOP
5.4 Screed is cured as per SOP

Definition of terms
Screeding is the process a person called a concrete finisher performs by cutting off excess wet
concrete to bring the top surface of a slab to the proper grade and smoothness.
For all types of bonded screeds (both sand/cement screeds and calcium sulphate screed) preparation
of the base is of paramount importance. The structural concrete base should be at least C28/35
concrete with a minimum cement of 300kg/m3. For precast units the surface of the units should be
left rough during production and should be thoroughly washed and cleaned e.g. by wire brushing to
remove all adhering dirt. Where required, the joints between the units should be grouted at least one
day before the screed is placed. Where the levelling screed is designed to act compositely with the
units and additional preparation of the units is required, contained shot blasting equipment should be
used to avoid damaging the units. Where a screed is required over in-situ concrete then all
contamination and laitance on the base concrete should be entirely removed by suitable mechanized
equipment to expose cleanly the coarse aggregate. All loose debris and dirt should be removed
preferably by vacuuming.
Mortar mix preparation
498
1. Measure three parts sand to one part masonry cement. For a basic mortar mix, you'll want to
mix essentially three parts of sand for every one part of cement you use.
2. Use the right amount of water. The amount of water used can vary drastically depending upon
the weather, how wet the sand is, and the variety of mix you're using, so read the instructions
carefully before adding water
3. Use the correct sand and mortar. Using a fine-grade, sharp masonry sand for the job is more
appropriate than other varieties, and using fresh unopened bags of masonry cement will be
more effective than using older bags.
4. Consider using lime as an additive. In some areas where the wall you're building will be
exposed to especially high winds or the elements, lime is added
Screeding techniques
• Levelling screed – screed suitably finished to obtain a defined level and to receive the final
flooring. It does not contribute to the structural performance of the floor.
• Wearing screed – screed that serves as flooring. This term was formerly known as high
strength concrete topping. It is also used to refer to structural toppings as well as wearing
surfaces.
• Bonded – screed laid onto a mechanically prepared substrate with the intention of
maximising potential bond.
• Unbonded – screed intentionally separated from the substrate by the use of a membrane.
• Floating – screed laid on acoustic or thermal insulation. This is a type of unbonded screed.
• Cement sand screed – screed consisting of a screed material containing sand up to a 4mm
maximum aggregate size.
• Fine concrete screed - screed consisting of a concrete in which the maximum aggregate size
is 10mm.
• Pumpable self-smoothing screed - screed that is mixed to a fluid consistency, that can be
transported by pump to the area where it is to be laid and which will flow sufficiently (with
or without some agitation of the wet material) to give the required accuracy of level and
surface regularity.
499
• Curling – an upward deformation of the edges of the screed caused by differential shrinkage.
Quality checks
Mortar Consistency
The most important aspect of mortar quality control is consistency throughout the construction
project. The test methods outlined in ASTM C780 are intended to evaluate that consistency. Test
results acquired throughout construction are compared to a baseline preconstruction evaluation.
The cone penetration test offers a quantitative measure of mortar consistency. Test values indicate
the mortar workability, which may be affected by water content, aggregate properties, batch
properties and other factors. Tested values are likely to change throughout a project’s duration due to
variable site conditions as well as variations in masonry unit moisture content and absorption
characteristics.
Cone penetration tests are performed by dropping a conical plunger from a specified height into a
measured mortar sample and measuring the resulting depth of penetration
Mortar Compressive Strength Testing

Compressive strength testing in accordance with ASTM C270 is conducted on specimens that are
proportioned, mixed, and conditioned in the testing laboratory. Water content of the mortar sample is
500
such that the mortar flow must be 110 ± 5%. Compressive strength test specimens are 2 in. (51 mm)
mortar cubes cast in nonabsorbent molds and cured in a moist room or moist cabinet meeting the
requirements of ASTM C511, Standard Specification for Mixing Rooms, Moist Cabinets, Moist
Rooms and Water Storage Tanks Used in the Testing of Hydraulic Cements and Concretes (ref. 9),
until tested.
Water Retention
The property specification of ASTM C270 requires a minimum water retention of 75% when tested
in accordance with Standard Test Method for Water Retention of Hydraulic Cement-Based Mortars
and Plasters, ASTM C1506 (ref. 15). This test was developed to measure the ability of a mortar to
retain its mix water under the suction of the adjacent masonry unit. A certain amount of water
absorption by the unit is beneficial, but too much may be detrimental.
Air Content
The ASTM C270 property specification includes a limit on the mortar air content. In general, greater
air contents result in greater mortar durability and workability, but reduced mortar bond strength.
Curing techniques
1. Shading Of Concrete Work
The object of shading concrete work is to prevent the evaporation of water from the surface even
before setting. This is adopted mainly in case of large concrete surfaces such as road slabs. This is
essential in dry weather to protect the concrete from heat, direct sun rays and wind. It also protects
the surface from rain. In cold weather shading helps in preserving the heat of hydration of cement
thereby preventing freezing of concrete under mild frost conditions. Shading may be achieved by
using canvas stretched on frames. This method has a limited application only.
2. Covering Concrete Surfaces With Hessian or Gunny Bags
501
This is a widely used method of curing, particularly for structural concrete. Thus exposed surface of
concrete is prevented from drying out by covering it with hessian, canvas or empty cement bags. The
covering over vertical and sloping surfaces should be secured properly. These are periodically
wetted. The interval of wetting will depend upon the rate of evaporation of water. It should be
ensured that the surface of concrete is not allowed to dry even for a short time during the curing
period. Special arrangements for keeping the surface wet must be made at nights and on holidays.
3. Sprinkling of Water
Sprinkling of water continuously on the concrete surface provides an efficient curing. It is mostly
used for curing floor slabs. The concrete should be allowed to set sufficiently before sprinkling is
started. The spray can be obtained from a perforated plastic box. On small jobs sprinkling of water
may be done by hand. Vertical and sloping surfaces can be kept continuously wet by sprinkling
water on top surfaces and allowing it to run down between the forms and the concrete. For this
method of curing the water requirement is higher.
4. Ponding Method
This is the best method of curing. It is suitable for curing horizontal surfaces such as floors, roof
slabs, road and air field pavements. The horizontal top surfaces of beams can also be ponded. After
placing the concrete, its exposed surface is first covered with moist hessian or canvas. After 24
hours, these covers are removed and small ponds of clay or sand are built across and along the
pavements. The area is thus divided into a number of rectangles. The water is filled between the
ponds. The filling of water in these ponds is done twice or thrice a day, depending upon the
atmospheric conditions. Though this method is very efficient, the water requirement is very heavy.
Ponds easily break and water flows out. After curing it is difficult to clean the clay.
5. Membrane Curing
The method of curing described above come under the category of moist curing. Another method of
curing is to cover the wetted concrete surface by a layer of water proof material, which is kept in
contact with the concrete surface of seven days. This method of curing is termed as membrane
curing. A membrane will prevent the evaporation of water from the concrete. The membrane can be
either in solid or liquid form. They are also known as sealing compounds. Bituminised water proof
502
papers, wax emulsions, bitumen emulsions and plastic films are the common types of membrane
used.
6. Steam Curing
Steam curing and hot water curing is sometimes adopted. With these methods of curing, the strength
development of concrete is very rapid.
These methods can best be used in pre cast concrete work. In steam curing the temperature of steam
should be restricted to a maximum of 750C as in the absence of proper humidity (about 90%) the
concrete may dry too soon. In case of hot water curing, temperature may be raised to any limit, ay
1000C.
At this temperature, the development of strength is about 70% of 28 days strength after 4 to 5 hours.
In both cases, the temperature should be fully controlled to avoid non-uniformity. The concrete
should be prevented from rapid drying and cooling which would form cracks.

You are required to carry out the following tasks
i. Mix mortar
ii. Carry out screeding on the floor given
iii. Cure the floor for a sufficient period of time
5.2.5.5 Self-assessment
1. What is screeding?
2. Which tools are used in screeding?
3. Which methods are used in curing of concrete?
4. What common screeding techniques are normally practiced locally
5. Which quality checks can be carried out to ascertain the quality of screed?
503
5.2.5.1 References
1. Building Materials and Construction” by G C Sahu and Joygopal Jena
2. “Building Construction And Material” by Sushil Kumar
3. “A Textbook of Building Construction” by S K Sharma
4. ↑http://www.screeding.org/html/body_traditional_screed.html
5. ↑http://www.concretecentre.com/Building-Elements/Floors/Floor-Screeds.aspx
6. ↑http://www.building.co.uk/what-to-remember-floor-screed/3079835.article
↑http://www.concretecentre.com/Building-Elements/Floors/Floor-Screeds.aspx
504
5.2.6 Learning outcome 6: Face and render masonry walls

This learning outcome specifies the competencies required to face and render masonry walls. It
entails wall preparation as well as fixing, finishing and curing of render.

6.1 Wall is prepared for finishing or rendering
6.2 Rendering and finishing materials are prepared as per specs and SOP
6.3 Rendering materials are fixed as per specs and SOP
6.4 Finishing is applied as per specs and SOP
6.5 Finishing is cured as per SOP

Definition of terms
Facing an outer layer covering the surface of a wall.
Types of facing
1. Brick cladding employs bricks and now available in a wide variety of colors.
2. Wood cladding
505
3. Metal cladding
4. Ceramic cladding
506
5. Concrete cladding
6. Stone cladding
507
7. Composite cladding made from a combination of recycled wood and plastic, composite
cladding combines the traditional appearance of wood with the durability of an engineered
composite.
8. Metal Mesh cladding can be effectively used for wall cladding design elements like privacy
screens or sun protection.
508
9. Solid Surface Cladding
10. Plastic cladding usually cheap, lightweight and easy to install
509
Types of rendering
1. Cement Render Cement renders are some of the most durable types of renders available.
Stronger than a lime render, this sealed or painted render can provide additional support to a
building when applied. It helps prevent the penetration of dampness or water through exterior
walls. Using a cement (most common is Portland cement) render is not recommended for an
older home as it’s extremely rigid and could crack or break easily. Cement renders are a
popular option for builders and homeowners alike as they are a more cost-effective option
compared to lime or polymer renders, cures quicker than most and is typically easier to apply.
This is one of the most popular rendering options.
2. Lime Render Sometimes referred to as a traditional ‘natural hydraulic lime render,’ or ‘NHL’
for short, this has been utilised on all types of buildings for many years. Of all the options
available to your walls, this one provides the most breathable render product available, as it’s
capable of expanding and contracting with the surface of whatever building it coats. This
makes it one of the best choices for wooden or older buildings and surfaces.
3. Polymer Render This type of render is relatively new. White cement polymer renders utilizes
a silicone water repellent as an essential part of the rendering process. While it repels water
easily on the surface, it still allows water vapor to pass through it and lets the substrate beneath
it breath with ease.
This type of render could be used on most brick and wooden homes
510
4. Insulated Render This special type of render is a type of ‘exterior wall insulation,’ or ‘EWI’
that can reduce your homeowner’s carbon footprint. Up to a third of a building’s heat can be
lost through walls that aren’t insulated properly. When a wall has no room for a cavity wall
insulation, such as buildings with solid walls, single skin walls, steel or timber framed walls,
or prefabricated concrete panels, an exterior wall insulation or insulated render is often the best
choice to insulate your home.
5. Acrylic Render This render is only used as a finishing coat for previous renders. It contains
aggregates, a material formed from fragments or particles loosely compacted together, for
design purposes in order to provide a texture that isn’t flat. The size of the aggregates can vary,
depending on the appearance you want to achieve. In addition, an acrylic rendering can be
used to help seal the surface of the render and surface beneath it and can also be used to help
hide alterations or unwanted defects.
Rendering techniques
The three most common types of rendering today are:
• Cement rendering
• Acrylic rendering
• Polymer rendering
Cement rendering
Cement render is created by mixing together cement, sand, water, and either lime or clay. Cement
rendering products are usually applied to rough surfaces such as brick, concrete or stone blocks, or
even painted walls that have been suitably prepared. The reason to use cement rendering is to add a
smooth finish to a coarse surface.
There are a number of surfaces and projects where cement rendering is used by a cement rendering
specialist;
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• Retaining walls
• Fences
• Exterior walls
• Interior walls
Acrylic rendering
Acrylic render is a rendering material that is similar to cement render but additionally features acrylic
added to the product. Acrylic is a form of plastic that adds more flexibility to the render
Acrylic render can be applied to many surfaces, including:
• Cement
• Concrete
• Polystyrene
• Brick
• Existing render
• Painted walls
Polymer rendering
Polymer rendering is a cement rendering application which bonds more effectively to all appropriate
surfaces. The polymer that is added to the rendering product is very adhesive, so it is normally
suggested when cement rendering or acrylic rendering may not be as effective.
The benefits of polymer rendering for houses and commercial projects include:
• Polymer render is waterproof

• It is weather resistant
• It reduces wear and tear on your building
Polymer render can be applied to the following surfaces:
• Cement blocks
• Clay bricks
• Concrete
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• Polystyrene
• Plaster
• Painted walls
Unless the wall has been recently built, you will need to clean it well – remove any loose paint, and
dust or loose debris, plants growing up it, scrub off any mould with a bleach, or fungicide solution,
and hose down the wall to remove any dust and dirt that could stop the render from adhering.
After washing down it will be okay to render the wall if it is still damp but do not try and render
while it is still running with water.
Quality checks
Materials could be tested by exposing them to higher levels of temperature and pressure. This is to
simulate the effect of the facade catching fire. Higher wind speeds might also be applied to test the
integrity of the material.
Aside from rigorous testing, advanced computer simulation might also be applied to determine if the
materials can truly withstand external conditions. The simulation may include “testing” the materials
once they were installed. This way, engineers can better analyze how the finished project will interact
with its own weight and the environment.

You are required to complete the following tasks
1. Prepare a wall surface for rendering
2. Render the wall surface
3. Visit the nearest construction site and demonstrate fixing of facings
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1. An ongoing construction site
1. What is cladding?
2. What is curtain walling?
3. Which types of facings are commonly used in the construction industry?
4. What are the functional requirements of claddings?
5. Which factors would you consider when selecting the type of cladding to use?

• Club hammer
• Mason's hammer
• Chisel
• Spirit level
• Brick bat gauge
• Bolster
• Cold chisel
• Stepping ladder
• Mason's line
• Plumb bob
• Power tools
• PPE’s Spade
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• Sieve
• Brush
• Straight edge
• Sputter dash
• Vibrator
• Mixer
• Tamper
• Wheelbarrow
• Helmet
• Dumper
• Sledge hammer
• Cement
• Sand
• Ballast
• Water
• Formworks
• Additives
• Quarry dust
• Gravel
• DPM
• DPC
• Hoop iron
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5.2.6.7 References
1. Building Materials and Construction” by G C Sahu and Joygopal Jena
2. “Building Construction And Material” by Sushil Kumar
3. “A Textbook of Building Construction” by S K Sharma
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1. What is cladding?
The term 'cladding' refers to components that are attached to the primary
structure of a building to form non-structural, external surfaces.
2. What is curtain walling?
Curtain wall systems are a non-structural cladding system for the external walls of
buildings. They are generally associated with large, multi-storey buildings.
Typically curtain wall systems comprise a lightweight aluminium frame onto which
glazed or opaque infill panels can be fixed. These infill panels are often described
as 'glazing' whether or not they are made of glass.
3. Which types of facings are commonly used in the construction industry?
a. Curtain walling
b. Patent glazing
c. Rainscreen
d. Timber cladding
e. Metal profile cladding
4. What are the functional requirements of claddings?
a. Control of air leakage.
b. Control of condensation.
c. Integrity and continuity of Insulation.
d. Prevention of water penetration, or provision of drainage.
e. Control of thermal movement.
f. Spread of fire.
g. Ease of installation.
h. External attachments and fixings.
i. Cleaning.
j. Maintenance, remedial work and renewal.
k. Resilience, strength and durability.
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5. Which factors would you consider when selecting the type of cladding to use?
a. How the building is going to be used.
b. Internal and external conditions.
c. Durability.
d. Local context.
e. Planning requirements.
f. Building regulations requirements.
g. Accessibility and buildability.
h. Appearance.
i. Availability.
j. Budget.
k. Maintenance requirements.
l. Structural requirements
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CHAPTER 6: PRODUCTION OF SIMPLE MASONRY PRODUCTS
Unit of learning code CON/CU/MA/CR/04/3/A
Related Unit of Competency in Occupational Standard produce simple masonry units

This unit specifies the competencies required to produce simple masonry products. It entails
production of masonry clay units, concrete masonry products, hand dressed stone masonry products
and stabilized soil masonry products. It applies in the construction industry.

1. Identify and locate raw materials
3. Produce masonry clay units
4. Produce concrete masonry products
5. Produce hand dressed stones
6. Produce stabilized soil masonry units
6.2.1 Learning Outcome 1: Identify and locate raw materials

This learning outcome specifies the competencies required to identify and locate raw
materials. It entails identification of supplies, materials, tools and equipment as well as
observation of public safety and health regulations.

1.1 Supplies and materials are identified and differentiated based their properties, workability
and product specification.
1.2 Statutory requirements are obtained and adhered to as per the law.
1.3 Personal and public safety and health regulations are adhered to as per the law.
1.4 Tools and equipment are identified and gathered based on construction materials required
1.5 Raw materials are obtained from source based on quantities required
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Soil profile and types
A soil horizon makes up a distinct layer of soil. The horizon runs roughly parallel to the soil surface
and has different properties and characteristics than the adjacent layers above and below. The soil
profile is a vertical section of the soil that depicts all of its horizons. The soil profile extends from
the soil surface to the parent rock material.
Master Horizons
There are 5 master horizons in the soil profile. Not all soil profiles contain all 5 horizons; and so, soil
profiles differ from one location to another. The 5 master horizons are represented by the letters: O,
A, E, B, and C.
O: The O horizon is a surface horizon that is comprised of organic material at various stages of
decomposition. It is most prominent in forested areas where there is the accumulation of debris
fallen from trees.
A: The A horizon is a surface horizon that largely consists of minerals (sand, silt, and clay) and with
appreciable amounts of organic matter. This horizon is predominantly the surface layer of many soils
in grasslands and agricultural lands.
B: The B horizon is a subsurface horizon that has been heavily leached. Leaching is the process in
which soluble nutrients are lost from the soil due to precipitation or irrigation. The horizon is
typically light in color. It is generally found beneath the O horizon.
C: The C horizon is a subsurface horizon that has accumulated from the layer(s) above. It is a site of
deposition of certain minerals that have leached from the layer(s) above.
R: The R horizon is a subsurface horizon. It is the least weathered horizon. Also known as the
saprolite, it is unconsolidated, loose parent material.
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Figure 174: soil profiles
Types of rocks and their properties
There are three main types of rocks: sedimentary, igneous, and metamorphic. Each of these rocks are
formed by physical changes—such as melting, cooling, eroding, compacting, or deforming—that are
part of the rock cycle.
Sedimentary Rocks
Sedimentary rocks are formed from pieces of other existing rock or organic material. There are three
different types of sedimentary rocks: clastic, organic (biological), and chemical. Clastic sedimentary
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rocks, like sandstone, form from clasts, or pieces of other rock. Organic sedimentary rocks, like coal,
form from hard, biological materials like plants, shells, and bones that are compressed into rock.
The formation of clastic and organic rocks begins with the weathering, or breaking down, of the
exposed rock into small fragments. Through the process of erosion, these fragments are removed
from their source and transported by wind, water, ice, or biological activity to a new location. Once
the sediment settles somewhere, and enough of it collects, the lowest layers become compacted so
tightly that they form solid rock.
Chemical sedimentary rocks, like limestone, halite, and flint, form from chemical precipitation. A
chemical precipitate is a chemical compound—for instance, calcium carbonate, salt, and silica—that
forms when the solution it is dissolved in, usually water, evaporates and leaves the compound
behind. This occurs as water travels through Earth’s crust, weathering the rock and dissolving some
of its minerals, transporting it elsewhere. These dissolved minerals are precipitated when the water
evaporates.
Figure 175: sedimentary rocks
Metamorphic Rocks
Metamorphic rocks are rocks that have been changed from their original form by immense heat or
pressure. Metamorphic rocks have two classes: foliated and nonfoliated. When a rock with flat or
elongated minerals is put under immense pressure, the minerals line up in layers, creating foliation.
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Foliation is the aligning of elongated or platy minerals, like hornblende or mica, perpendicular to the
direction of pressure that is applied. An example of this transformation can be seen with granite, an
igneous rock. Granite contains long and platy minerals that are not initially aligned, but when
enough pressure is added, those minerals shift to all point in the same direction while getting
squeezed into flat sheets. When granite undergoes this process, like at a tectonic plate boundary, it
turns into gneiss (pronounced “nice”).
Nonfoliated rocks are formed the same way, but they do not contain the minerals that tend to line up
under pressure and thus do not have the layered appearance of foliated rocks. Sedimentary rocks like
bituminous coal, limestone, and sandstone, given enough heat and pressure, can turn into nonfoliated
metamorphic rocks like anthracite coal, marble, and quartzite. Nonfoliated rocks can also form by
metamorphism, which happens when magma comes in contact with the surrounding rock.
Figure 176: Metamorphic rock

Igneous Rocks
Igneous rocks (derived from the Latin word for fire) are formed when molten hot material cools and
solidifies. Igneous rocks can also be made a couple of different ways. When they are formed inside
of the earth, they are called intrusive, or plutonic, igneous rocks. If they are formed outside or on top
of Earth’s crust, they are called extrusive, or volcanic, igneous rocks.
Granite and diorite are examples of common intrusive rocks. They have a coarse texture with large
mineral grains, indicating that they spent thousands or millions of years cooling down inside the
earth, a time course that allowed large mineral crystals to grow.
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Alternatively, rocks like basalt and obsidian have very small grains and a relatively fine texture. This
happens because when magma erupts into lava, it cools more quickly than it would if it stayed inside
the earth, giving crystals less time to form. Obsidian cools into volcanic glass so quickly when
ejected that the grains are impossible to see with the naked eye.
Extrusive igneous rocks can also have a vesicular or “holey” texture. This happens when the ejected
magma still has gases inside of it so when it cools, the gas bubbles are trapped and end up giving the
rock a bubbly texture. An example of this would be pumice.
Figure 177: Igneous rock

Methods of masonry materials excavation
Excavation is the process of removing earth to form a cavity in the ground. In small sites or in
confined spaces, excavation may be carried out by manual means using tools such as picks, shovels
and wheelbarrows. Larger scale excavation works will require heavy plant such as bulldozers and
backactors
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Figure 178: excavator
Classification according to materials being excavated

Topsoil excavation
This involves the removal of the exposed layer of the earth’s surface, including any vegetation or
decaying matter which could make the soil compressible and therefore unsuitable for bearing
structural loads. The depth will vary from site to site, but is usually in a range of 150-300 mm.
Earth excavation
This involves the removal of the layer of soil directly beneath the topsoil. The removed material
(referred to as 'spoil') is often stockpiled and used to construct embankments and foundations
Rock excavation
This is the removal of material that cannot be excavated without using special excavation methods
such as drilling (by hand or with heavy machinery) or blasting with explosives.
Muck excavation
This is the removal of excessively wet material and soil that is unsuitable for stockpiling.
Classification according to the purpose of the work
Cut and fill excavation
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This is the process of excavation whereby the material that is cut or stripped. The removed topsoil
and earth can be used as fill for embankments, elevated sections, and so on. It can also be used to
form a level surface on which to build, as elevated sections of the site are ‘cut’ and moved to ‘fill’
lower sections of the site
Trench excavation
A trench is an excavation in which the length greatly exceeds the depth. Shallow trenches are usually
considered to be less than 6 m deep, and deep trenches greater than 6 m.
Trench, or footing, excavation is typically used to form strip foundations, buried services, and so on.
The choice of technique and plant for excavating, supporting and backfilling the trench depends on
factors such as; the purpose of the trench, the ground conditions, the trench location, the number of
obstructions, and so on.
Basement excavation
A basement is part of a building that is either partially or completely below ground level.
Dredging
Dredging is the process of excavating and removing sediments and debris from below water level,
typically from the bottom of lakes, rivers, harbours, and so on.
Open excavations
An excavation in open ground is an open excavation and can vary in shape and size.
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Figure 179: open excavation
Safety precautions
Excavation Hazards:
1. Damage to underground facilities.

2. Personal, vehicle, equipment and materials falling inside excavation.
3. Cave-in, Soil collapse due to loose soil and heavy equipment moment.
4. Presence of toxic and flammable gases.
5. Injuries due to employees working very close to each other.
6. Expose of existing building foundation.
Excavation safety Precautions:

i Inspections
Frequent inspection of the excavation and surrounding area by the Competent Person is critical to
ensure the safety of the workers involved in work within the trench. An excavation inspection form
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is included as Appendix A in this document. The Competent Person must conduct inspections of the
entire excavation site:
• Daily and before the start of each shift.

• As dictated by the work being done in the trench.
• After every rain storm.
• When fissures, tension cracks, sloughing, undercutting, water seepage, bulging at the bottom,
or other similar conditions occur.
• When there is a change in the size, location, or placement of the spoil pile.
• When there is any indication of change or movement in adjacent structures.
ii Temporary spoil shall be placed no closer than 2 feet from the surface edge of the
excavation. The distance is measured from the nearest base of the spoil to the cut. This
distance should not be measured from the crown of the spoil deposit. This distance
requirement ensures that loose rock or soil from the temporary spoil will not fall on
employees in the trench.
The spoil should be placed so that it channels rainwater and other run-off water away from the
excavation. Spoil should be placed so that it cannot accidentally run, slide, or fall back into the
excavation.
iii Surface Crossing of Trenches
Surface crossing of trenches should not be made unless absolutely necessary. However, if necessary,
they are only permitted under the following conditions:
• Vehicle crossings must be designed by and installed under the supervision of a registered
professional engineer.
• Walkways or bridges must have a minimum clear width of 20 inches, be fitted with standard
rails, and extend a minimum of 24 inches past the surface edge of the trench.
iv Ingress and Egress

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Trenches 4 feet or more in depth shall be provided with ladders or other fixed means of egress.
Spacing must be such that a worker will not have to travel more than 25 feet to the nearest means of
egress. Ladders must be secured and extend a minimum of 36 inches above the landing. Metal
ladders should be used with caution, particularly when electric utilities are present.
v Exposure to Falling Loads
Employees are not allowed in the excavation while heavy equipment is digging. Employees must not
work under loads being lifted or moved by heavy equipment used for digging or lifting. Employees
are required to stand away from equipment that is being loaded or unloaded to avoid being struck by
falling materials or spillage.
vi Hazardous Atmospheres and Confined Spaces
Testing for Atmospheric Contaminants If there is any possibility that the trench or excavation could
contain a hazardous atmosphere, atmospheric testing must be conducted prior to entry. Conditions
that might warrant atmospheric testing would be if the excavation was made in a landfill area or if
the excavation is adjacent to sources of contamination (e.g. sewage or fuel leaks).
Excavation tools and equipment

i. Hoes
ii. Fork hoes
iii. Pickaxes, mattocks and crowbars
iv. Crowbar
v. Shovels and spades
vi. Wheelbarrows
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You are required to complete the following tasks
1. Visit a local quarry site and excavate building stones

2. Excavate the local soil and sketch the soil profile as it appears
3. Collect locally available stones and classify them

2. A quarry site
1. What is a soil horizon?
2. Which are the five soil horizons commonly found in soils?
3. Which tools would you use to excavate soil profile?
4. What is a quarry?
5. How would you ensure personal safety during excavation?
6. What is open excavation?
7. How are igneous rocks formed?
8. Which are some examples of sedimentary rocks?
9. Which are some equipment used for light excavation works?
10. What is a basement?
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Tools
• Hoes
• Fork hoes
• Pickaxes, mattocks and crowbars
• Crowbar
• Shovels and spades
• Wheelbarrows
Supplies and materials
• Cement
• Sand
• Ballast
• Water
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6.2.1.7 References
1. Day W. Robert, (2000). Geotechnical Engineers Portable Handbook.

2. Turner M. Joe, (2008). Excavation Systems Planning, Design and Safety.
3. Endicott John,(2020). Deep Excavations in Soil.
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Response to self-assessment
1. What is a soil horizon?
The soil profile is a vertical section of the soil that depicts all of its horizons. The soil
profile extends from the soil surface to the parent rock material.
2. Which are the five soil horizons commonly found in soils?
i. The O horizon is a surface horizon that is comprised of organic material at
various stages of decomposition. It is most prominent in forested areas where
there is the accumulation of debris fallen from trees.
ii. The A horizon is a surface horizon that largely consists of minerals (sand, silt,
and clay) and with appreciable amounts of organic matter. This horizon is
predominantly the surface layer of many soils in grasslands and agricultural
lands.
iii. The B horizon is a subsurface horizon that has been heavily leached. Leaching is
the process in which soluble nutrients are lost from the soil due to precipitation
or irrigation. The horizon is typically light in color. It is generally found beneath
the O horizon.
iv. The C horizon is a subsurface horizon that has accumulated from the layer(s)
above. It is a site of deposition of certain minerals that have leached from the
layer(s) above.
v. The R horizon is a subsurface horizon. It is the least weathered horizon. Also
known as the saprolite, it is unconsolidated, loose parent material.
3. Which tools would you use to excavate soil profile?
i. Shovels
ii. Spades
iii. Jembes
iv. Mattock
4. What is a quarry?
A quarry is a site for mining stones
5. How would you ensure personal safety during excavation?
i. Adequate spacing should be provided between workers.
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ii. Temporary support shall be provided for existing foundations.
iii. If excavation reached more than 3 meter, shoring or close sheeting shall be
done
iv. Adapting soil protection method like stepping, sloping, shoring and close
sheeting
6. What is open excavation?
This is an excavation in open ground.
7. How are igneous rocks formed?
Igneous rocks are formed when molten hot material cools and solidifies. Igneous
rocks can also be made a couple of different ways. When they are formed inside of
the earth, they are called intrusive, or plutonic, igneous rocks. If they are formed
outside or on top of Earth’s crust, they are called extrusive, or volcanic, igneous
rocks.
8. Which are some examples of sedimentary rocks?
i. Limestone
ii. Sandstone
iii. Shale
iv. Rock salt
v. Flint
9. Which are some equipment used for light excavation works?
i. Mattocks
ii. Jembes
iii. Hoes
iv. Pick axes
v. Crow bar
vi. Shovels
10. What is a basement?
A basement is part of a building that is either partially or completely below ground
level
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6.2.2 Learning Outcome 2: Use masonry tools and equipment

This learning outcome specifies the competencies required to use masonry tools and equipment. It
entails use of PPEs as well as care, maintenance and storage of masonry tools and equipment.

2.1 Personal Protective Equipment is used in line with occupational safety and health regulations.
2.2 Masonry tools and equipment are identified based on the requirements of the job.
2.3 Masonry tools and equipment are cared for and maintained based on manufacturer’s manual and
workplace place policy.
2.4 Masonry tools and equipment are used based on manufacturer’s instructions.
2.5 Masonry tools and equipment are stored based on manufacturer’s instructions.

Definition of terms
PPEs and their applications

• All PPE clothing and equipment should be of safe design and construction, and should be
maintained in a clean and reliable fashion.
• Employers should take the fit and comfort of PPE into consideration when selecting
appropriate items for their workplace.
• PPE that fits well and is comfortable to wear will encourage employee use of PPE. Most
protective devices are available in multiple sizes and care should be taken to select the proper
size for each employee.
• If several different types of PPE are worn together, they should be compatible.
• If PPE does not fit properly, it can make the difference between being safely covered or
dangerously exposed. Therefore It may not provide the level of protection desired and may
discourage employee use.
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Masonry standard operating procedures
Standard specification and work procedure for brickwork in masonry construction‘ provides
guidelines about quality of bricks, mortar, soaking of bricks, laying of bricks, curing, scaffolding etc.
The construction of brickwork in substructure and superstructure requires quality control on various
aspects of material and construction procedure.
1. Materials for Brickwork
i. Bricks
The quality of bricks to be used in masonry construction should be of standard specifications (good
brick earth, thoroughly burnt and deep cherry red or copper in color). Bricks should be regular in shape
and their edges should be sharp. Bricks should emit a clear ringing sound on being struck and should
be free from cracks, chips, flaws and lumps of any kind.
Bricks should not absorb water more than one-sixth of their weight after one-hour soaking by
immersing in water. Standard bricks should have a crushing strength of 105 kg/sq.cm
ii. Mortar
Mortar should be of the specified grade and materials used for mortar should be of standard
specifications.
For cement mortar, cement should be fresh Portland cement or pozzolana Portland cement of standard
specifications. Sand should be sharp, clean, and free from organic and foreign matters. Coarse or
medium-sized sands should be used for rich mortar, and local fine sand may be used for weak mortar.
The proportion of cement-sand for mortar can vary from 1:3 to 1:6 or as specified. Materials of mortar
should be measured to have required proportion with measuring box. Cement and sand should first be
dry-mixed to have a uniform color on a clean masonry platform and then mixed by adding clean water
slowly and gradually to have workable consistency and mixed thoroughly by turning at least three
times. Only freshly mixed mortar should be used for construction; old and stale mortar should not be
used. Mortar for one hour’s work should only be mixed with water so that they can be used before
setting starts.
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2. Soaking of Bricks
Bricks should be fully soaked in clean water by submerging in a tank for a period of 12 hours
immediately before use. Soaking should be continued till the air bubbles have ceased to appear.
3. Laying of Bricks
Bricks should be laid in English bond unless specified and should be well bonded. Every course should
be truly horizontal, and walls should be truly in plumb. Vertical joints of consecutive course should
not come directly over one another; vertical joints in the alternate course should come directly over
one another.
No damaged or broken bricks should be used. Closers should be of clean-cut bricks and should be
placed near the ends of walls but not at the other edge. Selected best-shaped bricks should be used for
face work.
Mortar joints should not exceed 6 mm (1/4 inch) in thickness and joints should be fully filled with
mortar. Bricks should be laid with frogs upward except in the top course where frogs should be placed
downwards.
Brickwork should be carried out for not more than 1 metre or 3 feet in height at a time. When one part
of the wall has to be delayed, stepping should be left at an angle of 45 degrees. Corbelling or
projections, where made, should not be more than ¼ brick projections in one course. All joints should
be raked and faces of wall are cleaned at the end of each day’s work.
4. Curing of Brickwork
The brickwork should be kept wet for a period of at least 20 days after laying. At the end of day’s
work, the tops of walls should be flooded with water by making small weak mortar edging to contain
at least 2.5cm or 1 inch deep water.
5. Protection for Brickwork
The brickwork should be protected from the effect of sun, rain, frost etc. during the construction since
it is green and likely to get damaged.
6. Scaffolding for Brickwork
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Necessary and suitable scaffolding should be provided to facilitate the construction of a brick wall.
Scaffolding should be sound and strong with supports and members sufficiently strong to withstand
all loads likely to come upon them.
7. Measurement of Brickwork
Brickwork should be measured in cubic meter. Different kinds of brickwork with different mortar
should be taken under separate items. The thickness of the wall should be taken as the multiple of half
brick as 10cm, one brick as 20cm, 1.5 bricks as 30 cm and so on. The rate should include the cost of
complete work including scaffolding and all tools and plants.
Masonry tools and equipment

ILLUSTRATION USES
Used to lift and spread
mortar in joints during
masonry construction
Used for shaping corners

of the wall.
Used to set out right

angles at the corner of
masonry wall.
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Used to check the
verticality of walls.
Used to check the

horizontality and
verticality of the
surfaces.
The surface is called
leveled when the bubble
in the tube settles at
middle of tube
It is used to level line
and the alignment of
brick course while brick
laying in brick masonry
work.
Used to transfer and

check levels
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used for levelling from
two fixed points in
surveying
they are used to mix

mortar and also used to
place cement, mortar
and concrete
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It is a vessel made of
rigid plastic or steel used
to hold or carry sand,
cement, mortar and
concrete.
A jointer or brick jointer

is a hand tool designed
to imprint grooves into
recently filled mortar
joints at the stage when
they are starting to set.
Used to set out angles
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Employed for rough
dressing of stones and to
split the stones in the
quarry
Employed for dressing

the surface of stones.
A chisel is used for

normal splitting,
roughing out and
shaping the stone.
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Used to strike arrow -
headed chisels. It is also
useful for light
demolition work, driving
masonry nails, and for
use with a steel chisel
when cutting stone.
Used to cut soft stones.
It runs on electricity and

is provided with a
toothed or abrasive
blade/disc which has the
ability to cut different
materials including
wood, stone, brick,
metals, by using a rotary
motion that spins around
an arbor.
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Used to cut large blocks
of stones.
Used for rough cutting

of bricks in different
shapes and sizes.
Used for light

demolition work or to
break masonry. In order
to cut brick accurately, a
steel chisel with a very
wide blade called bolster
is employed.
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Act as extensors to
mason’s level. They are
used when levels are
shorter than the area that
needs to be measured or
assessed.
Brickwork It is used to confirm that

Gauge Rod courses are maintained
at correct levels
Bricklaying Used in bricklaying for

Trowel cutting brick and
spreading mortar or
cement.
Safety, care and maintenance of masonry tools and equipment
Use and maintenance of a claw hammer

545
a) Ensure that the handle is firmly attached to the head of the hammer.
b) Replace worn out or broken parts.
c) Hold a nail onto a piece of wood as shown in the picture.
d) Hold the hammer firmly and hit the nail several times until it enters.
e) Store the hammer in a dry and safe place after use.
Use and maintenance of a Spirit Level
a) Wipe the surface of the spirit level to remove dust and dirt from it.
b) Hold the spirit level firmly and place it on the wooden surface that you want to check.
c) View and note the position of the bubble in the spirit level.
Chisel
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A chisel has a sharp cutting edge. This edge can injure you if carelessly handled.
A chisel is driven into wood by a mallet. There is a danger of hitting your arm while hitting the
chisel head.
a) Always keep the cutting edge of the chisel sharp.

b) Always clamp the work securely on the work bench.
c) Wear gloves to protect hands.
Clamp/jointer
During clamping, you can accidentally trap your fingers or hands. If the parts being clamped are
loosely held, they may break and fall/drop on your hands or legs injuring them.
a) Hold the pieces of wood being glued together firmly.

b) Close the jaws of the clamp until the clamp is tight before using it.
c) Wear goggles or a face shield to protect your head.
Trowel
Use and maintenance of trowel
a) Ensure the handle of the trowel is in good condition.

b) Using a trowel mix the mortar.
c) Scoop and apply the mortar using the trowel as shown.
d) Clean and keep it dry after use.
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Plumb line
Use and maintenance of a plumb line
a) Hammer a nail into surface you want to check.

b) Tie the string of the plumb line to the nail.
c) Measure the distance from the vertical surface of the wall to the top of the string.
d) Mark the points you want to find with chalk.
e) Clean the plumb line, oil it and store in safely in a dry box.
Water level
Use and maintenance of a water level
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a) With your partner stand at the location you want to level.
b) Hold the water level against the surface you are levelling.
c) Use chalk to mark the spot on the wall where the water line inside the tube falls.
d) Clean the water level and store it when dry.
Float
Use and maintenance of float
a) Ensure the handle of the float is firm.

b) Spread concrete over the floor and wall as shown.
c) Clean it and oil the metallic parts of the float.
d) Store the float on a rack.
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Metre ruler
Use and maintenance of metre ruler
a) Place a metre ruler on the wall.

b) Measure the length of the wall in meters.
c) Avoid knocking the edges of the ruler against objects.
d) Clean it after use.
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Tape measure
Use and maintenance of a tape measure
a) Hold the tape measure vertically on a wall.

b) Keep the edges straight.
c) Measure the distance and mark with a pencil as shown.
d) Avoid rubbing or scratching the tape measure.
Jointer
Use and maintenance of jointer
a) Ensure the nuts of a jointer are tight.

b) Run a jointer along a mortar joint and compact it.
c) Scrap excess mortar from the joint.
d) Clean, dry and store it in a dry place.
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Brick frame
Use and maintenance of a brick frame

Wheelbarrow
Use and maintenance of a wheelbarrow
a) Ensure the handles are firm and the moving parts are greased.
b) Load sand, gravel, or stones into the wheelbarrow.
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c) Push the wheelbarrow to where they are needed.
d) Clean it well and oil after use.
Storage of masonry tools and equipment

Masonry tools need to be stored properly in a tool rack as shown below.

1. Carry out full maintenance on the wheelbarrow provided.

2. You have been provided with a tool rack. Arrange all the tools provided on the tool rack.
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3. You have been provided with a water level. Transfer the level indicated by the instructor to
another point in the same building.
4. You have been provided with bricks and a plumb line. Using dry bonding and the plumb line
ensure that the wall is completely vertical
i. A fully functional masonry workshop
ii. A tool rack
iii. Masonry tools and equipment
1. Which standard procedures govern the usage of bricks in the construction industry?
f) Trowel
g) Steel float
h) Wooden float
d) Which suitable masonry tools are you going to use?
e) How would you ferry the sand and stones to the construction site?
f) How would you maintain the tool after use?
c) A steel float
d) A wooden float.
6. How should brickwork be cured?
7. Why should brickwork be protected?
10. Why should tools be stored safely in a tool rack?
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• Club hammer
• Mason's hammer
• Chisel
• Spirit level
• Brick bat gauge
• Bolster
• Cold chisel
• Stepping ladder
• Mason's line
• Plumb bob
• Power tools
• PPE’s
• Spade
• Sieve
• Brush
• Straight edge
• Sputter dash
• Vibrator
• Mixer
• Tamper
• Wheelbarrow
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• Helmet
• Dumper
• Sledge hammer

• Cement
• Sand
• Ballast
• Water
• Formworks
• Additives
• Quarry dust
• Gravel
• DPM
• DPC
• Hoop iron
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6.2.2.7 References
1. https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&cad=rja&uact=
8&ved=2ahUKEwjUqpzphpTvAhUsDmMBHYAeBdwQFjAAegQIARAD&url=https%
3A%2F%2Fwww.fm.virginia.edu%2Fdocs%2Foperations%2FSOP_ConcreteandRelated
MasonryMaterials.pdf&usg=AOvVaw37lyWeOwqMKl-ayFrYi_sd
2. Lynch, G., Gauged Brickwork, A Technical Handbook, Gower Publishing Company,
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1. Which standard procedures govern the usage of bricks in the construction industry?
i. Bricks should not absorb water more than one-sixth of their weight after one-hour
soaking by immersing in water.
ii. Standard bricks should have a crushing strength of 105 kg/sq.cm
iii. Bricks should be regular in shape and their edges should be sharp.
iv. Bricks should emit a clear ringing sound on being struck and should be free from
cracks, chips, flaws and lumps of any kind

a) Trowel - Used to lift and spread mortar in joints during masonry construction
b) Steel float- used to spread concrete to obtain a smooth finish
c) Wooden float - used to spread concrete
iii. Spades
iv. Shovels

iii. Cleaning with plenty of water
iv. Oiling moving parts
a) A steel float
v. Ensure the handle of the float is firm.
vi. Spread concrete over the floor and wall as shown.
vii. Clean it and oil the metallic parts of the float.
viii. Store the float on a rack.
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b) A wooden float.
v. Ensure the handle of the float is firm.
vi. Spread concrete over the floor and wall as shown.
vii. Clean it and oil the metallic parts of the float.
viii. Store the float on a rack.
iv. Dropped tools could hurt feet
v. Misplaced sharp tools can lead to bruises
vi. Poorly maintained tools can break down during use and cause injury
6. How should brickwork be cured?
Brickwork should be kept wet for a period of at least 20 days after laying. At the end of
day’s work, the tops of walls should be flooded with water by making small weak mortar
edging to contain at least 2.5cm or 1 inch deep water.
7. Why should brickwork be protected?
Brickwork should be protected from the effect of sun, rain, frost etc. during the
construction since it is green and likely to get damaged
iv. They make work easier e.g wheelbarrows
v. They make work convenient
vi. They save time

A mixer is used to mix mortar and concrete to obtain a uniform mix capable of being
structurally sound
10. Why should tools be stored safely in a tool rack?
6.2.1 For safety purposes. If tools are left lying on the ground they could harm
people
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6.2.3 Learning Outcome 3: Produce masonry clay units

This learning outcome specifies the competencies required to produce masonry units. It entails clay
preparation, molding, moulds preparation and firing of clay.

3.1 Clay is prepared based on international standards.
3.2 Clay molds boxes are identified and gathered based on job requirements.
3.3 Molding is carried out and molds allowed to dry under shed.
3.4 Dry molds are arranged in a kiln in readiness for firing.
3.5 Firing is carried out based on type of fuel available

Types of clays
The four types of clay are Earthenware clay, Stoneware clay, Ball clay, and Porcelain. All of them can
be used to make pottery, but the end result would differ a lot thanks to their different textures, colors,
and flexibilities.
1. Earthenware Clay
Earthenware clays are the oldest clays used by potters and happen to be the most common today.
Earthenware is very plastic and is beginner-friendly.
Color
The earthenware colors are mostly warm. The wet clay has a tone of Brown, red, orange, or
grey. After firing, earthenware shows brown, orange, red, grey, or white colors. Colors in
pottery show after being fired. Terracotta is the most popular color you can yield. Earthenware
can be easily decorated over with paints and glazes.
Uses
It is used for sculpting, hand-building and wheel throwing. You can create sculptures,
flowerpots, and other outdoor decorations. If it freezes, water can’t get trapped inside and
crack.
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Figure 180: Earthenware Clay
2. Ball Clay
Ball clays are the most plastic clays and contain very limited mineral impurities. They contain
a large percentage of kaolinite and quartz, with around 10-25% mica. Ball clays occur naturally
as sediments or deposits, containing very fine minerals. Materials like lignite can also be found
in ball clays.
Color
Ball clays lose color on firing. At the greenware stage, ball clays have a grey color. After firing,
they obtain a light buff color. They produce a fine white color when fired right, making them
popular among potters.
Uses
Because of the high plastic and high binding quality, Ball clays are commonly used for floor
tiles, toilet bowls, vases, kiln furniture, and tableware. Ball clay alone tends to be too fine and
slippery for use. It can be used for wheel throwing but is mainly used in slip casting.
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Figure 181: ball clay
3. Stoneware Clay
Stoneware clays are moderately plastic, hard, and nonporous. Getting its name because of its
stone-like qualities.
Color
They vary in color from white, grey, and all the way to brown when wet. Stoneware clays
contain kaolinite with small quantities of mica and quartz. Illite and smectite are often found
as well. The type of firing and temperature affects the color, too.
Uses
This type of clay can be easily worked with and painted with underglazes, glazes, over glazes,
enamels, etc. Which makes Stoneware a popular clay to use for tableware.
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Figure 182: stoneware clay
4. Porcelain Clay
Porcelain or China ceramics are incredibly popular, especially for dinnerware. They are
created with a large part of pure mineral kaolin, otherwise known as “China Clay.” and other
materials
Porcelains do have a color range, but all the colors are very subtle and light. At the greenware
stage, they’ll show a very light grey-ish tone. After firing, they are off-white to white. Porcelain
glazes, and enamels, can be applied to give color only and don’t need glazing to repel water
Uses
Kaolin clays are the least plastic clays, hence quite hard to work with. They fire at high
temperatures. Porcelain is mixed with various minerals to lower its firing temperature and
increase workability. Mainly used in wheel throwing and cast slipping to create tableware,
vases, and other decorative objects.
There are three types of porcelain ceramics: Hard-Paste, Soft-Paste, and Bone China.
• Hard-paste or “true” porcelain is the most common type. It contains an added mineral to the
kaolin, usually feldspar or mica. It’s fired at very high temperatures (2345℉ or 1285℃) Cone
10 and yields sturdier objects.
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• Soft-paste porcelain is the least common type. It was invented by Europeans, who fired at
lower temperatures (about 2167℉ or 1186℃) Cone 5. It’s considered as weak porcelain. It
doesn’t need a fixed mineral to be created. Kaolin is mixed with bone ash, quartz, glass, and
soapstone to yield this type, with ball clay often added into the mix.
• Bone china has mostly replaced true porcelain in modern times. It’s the strongest kind of
porcelain. It’s very resistant to chip damage and has great physical strength. It usually produces
a white or translucent result. It contains kaolin, bone ash, feldspar, and phosphates.
Figure 183: porcelain clay

The process of manufacturing of bricks from clay involves preparation of clay, molding and then
drying and burning of bricks. The bricks are building materials which are generally available as
rectangular blocks. The bricks do not require any dressing and brick laying is very simple compared
to stone masonry.
Site selection for manufacturing of bricks
For the manufacturing of bricks, the site should be selected based on some important considerations
such as:
• The ground should be of plain surface.
• The site should be connected with communicating roads for transporting materials etc.,
• Good brick earth should be easily available.
• The site should offer all facilities to the worker
Manufacturing process of bricks
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There are four different operations are involved in the process of manufacturing of bricks:
1. Preparation of clay
2. Molding
3. Drying
4. Burning
1. Preparation of clay
Preparation of clay for bricks manufacturing is done in six steps:
i. Removal of Top Soil: The removal of top soil involves the loose materials present at the top
of the soil for a depth of about 200 mm. These materials should be removed as they contain a
lot of impurities and are not used in the preparation of bricks.
ii. Digging and Spreading: After digging the soil for about 200 mm, the soil is spread on the
level ground, and the heaps of clay are about 600 to 1200 mm
iii. Cleaning: After spreading the soil on the ground, it should be cleaned of stones, vegetable
matter, pebbles, etc... If excess non-clay materials are present, the clay should be washed and
screened. This whole process will become expensive and clumsy. The lumps in soil should be
crushed into a powder form.
iv. Weathering: The soil is then exposed to the atmosphere for softening for a few weeks
depending on the nature of the soil, which imparts plasticity and strength to the soil.
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v. Blending: To increase the quality of soil, additionally, sandy or calcareous clays may be added
in suitable proportions along with coal, ash, etc. and the whole mass is mixed uniformly with
water.
vi. Tempering: After adding the sufficient quantity of water, the soil is kneaded under the feet of
men or cattle to make it stiff and homogeneous. In general, for handmade bricks, the soft plastic
clay could be prepared by using about 25 to 30 per cent water. For making superior bricks on
a large scale of about 20,000, the earth is tempered in a pug mill.
Tools used in clay products preparation

i. Potter needles
ii. Cut – off wires
iii. Fettling knives
iv. Scrapers
v. Loop, wire and ribbon tools
vi. Sponges
vii. Brushes
viii. Calipers
2. Moulding of clay products

Moulding of Bricks
Bricks are made in metric sizes called modular bricks, as prescribed by the Bureau of Indian Standards.
Nominal size of the bricks is 20cm X 10cm X 10cm, which include the thickness of the mortar and
the actual size of modular brick is 19cm X 9cm X 9cm.
A brick mould is a rectangular box of steel or wood, which is open at the top and bottom of the box
and inside dimensions of the mould are 20cm X 10cm X 10cm.
Moulding of bricks can be done using either hand or machine
.
Hand Moulding
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There are two types in hand moulding, i.e. ground moulding and table moulding. In this type, bricks
are moulded manually and preferred where only a small quantity of bricks is needed.
Ground Moulding: The process of moulding bricks on the ground manually by labour is called ground
moulding. On an average, a moulder can mould about 750 bricks per day. When the bricks have dried
sufficiently, they are moved to the drying shed and placed in an orderly manner.
Figure 184: hand molding clay
Table Molding: This molding is done on a table of size 2m X 1m X 0.7m instead of on the ground.
This table molding process is almost similar to ground molding expect for some minor changes.
Machine Molding
Molding machines are used when a large scale of bricks are to be manufactured in less time. These
types of bricks are heavier and stronger than the hand moulded ones and possess a sharp regular shape,
a smoother surface and sharp edges. There are two types in machine moulding
Plastic Method: In this method, pugged earth is used, which is placed in the machine that contains a
rectangular shape of size equal to the length and width of the brick. A beam of the molded earth comes
out of it and is cut into strips by wires fixed in the frames. These bricks are also called wire-cut bricks.
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Figure 185: molding using machine
Dry Method: In this method, the machine first converts the hard earth into a powder form and a small
quantity of water is added to the powder to make it a stiff plastic paste. This paste is placed in the
mould and pressed by the machine to form hard and correct-shaped bricks. These bricks are known as
pressed bricks, which do not require any drying and can be sent directly to the burning section.
3. Drying clay molds

Molded bricks cannot be burnt directly, as they may get damaged. So before burning they should be
dried either naturally or artificially for about two weeks.
Natural Drying: It is also called hack drying, which comprises placing molded bricks in rows on their
edges, slightly above the ground called a hack. These bricks are air and sun-dried that is strong enough
to use for the construction of small structures.
Artificial Drying: When bricks are needed to dry on a large scale, then this artificial drying is
preferred. They are dried in special dryers which receive heat from specially made furnaces for
artificial drying.
4. Firing clay molds

After the process of moulding and drying, bricks are burnt in kilns to impart hardness, strength and to
increase the density of the brick. Some physical and chemical changes take place in the burning of
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bricks. Heating brick to about 640°C produces only physical changes. If a brick is heated up to 700-
1,000°C, it undergoes chemical changes. During this reaction, the materials present in brick alumina
and silica fuse together to make the brick strong and stable to prevent from cracking and crumbling.
Clamp or Open Kiln: This is a temporary structure with some advantages like low initial cost, low fuel
cost and a few skilled laborers are sufficient to complete the process. The disadvantage is only a small
quantity of bricks is manufactured at a time and in that only 60% are good quality bricks.
Figure 186: firing of clay

Intermittent Kiln: When a large number of good quality bricks are needed, intermittent or continuous
kilns are preferred. In this kilns, the process of burning is discontinuous.
Continuous Kilns: In this process, the burning is continuous and they are of three type’s i.e., Bull's
Trench Kiln, tunnel Kiln and Hoffman's Kiln.
To get a good quality brick it has to be heated to the required temperature. The bricks begin to lose
their shape and materials get vitrified if heating of brick earth goes beyond 1,300°C
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Figure 187: brick manufacturing flow chart
Storage of clay products
Stacking and Storing of Bricks at Site
• Stack the bricks close to the site of work so that less effort is required to unload and transport
the bricks again by loading on pallets or in barrows.
• Different types of bricks (such as clay bricks, clay fly ash bricks etc) shall be stacked
separately.
• Bricks of different strengths and sizes (i.e. modular and non-modular) should be stacked
separately.
• Bricks of different types such as solid bricks, hollow bricks, and perforated bricks should be
stacked separately.
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Figure 188: stacking of bricks
While stacking the bricks, following guidelines must be followed for easy quality inspection and
counting.
1. Stack the bricks on dry firm ground.
2. Stack should be 50 bricks long, 10 bricks high and not more than 4 bricks in width.
3. Clear distance between adjacent stacks should not be less than 0.8m.
4. Put bricks of each truck load in one stack.
Quality control in clay products

Various types of tests on bricks are conducted to check the qualities of bricks for construction
purposes. Tests on bricks are conducted at construction site as well as in laboratory.
Types of Tests on Bricks for Construction Purpose
1. Absorption test
2. Crushing strength test
3. Hardness test
4. Shape and size
5. Color test
6. Soundness test
7. Structure of brick
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8. Presence of soluble salts (Efflorescence Test)
1. Absorption Test on Bricks
Absorption test is conducted on brick to find out the amount of moisture content absorbed by brick
under extreme conditions. In this test, sample dry bricks are taken and weighed. After weighing these
bricks are placed in water with full immersing for a period of 24 hours. Then weigh the wet brick and
note down its value. The difference between dry and wet brick weights will give the amount of water
absorption. For a good quality brick the amount of water absorption should not exceed 20% of weight
of dry brick.
Figure 189: absorption test of bricks

Crushing Strength or Compressive Strength Test on Bricks
Crushing strength of bricks is determined by placing brick in compression testing machine. After
placing the brick in compression testing machine, apply load on it until brick breaks. Note down the
value of failure load and find out the crushing strength value of brick. Minimum crushing strength of
brick is 3.50N/mm2.if it is less than 3.50 N/mm2, then it is not useful for construction purpose.
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Figure 190: crushing test
Hardness Test on Bricks
A good brick should resist scratches against sharp things. So, for this test a sharp tool or finger nail is
used to make scratch on brick. If there is no scratch impression on brick then it is said to be hard brick.
Figure 191: hardness of bricks

Shape and Size Test on Bricks
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Shape and size of bricks are very important consideration. All bricks used for construction should be
of same size. The shape of bricks should be purely rectangular with sharp edges. Standard brick size
consists length x breadth x height as 19cm x 9cm x 9cm.
To perform this test, select 20 bricks randomly from brick group and stack them along its length ,
breadth and height and compare. So, if all bricks similar size then they are qualified for construction
work
Color Test of Bricks

A good brick should possess bright and uniform color throughout its body.
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Soundness Test of Bricks
Soundness test of bricks shows the nature of bricks against sudden impact. In this test, 2 bricks are
chosen randomly and struck with one another. Then sound produced should be clear bell ringing sound
and brick should not break. Then it is said to be good brick.
Figure 192: soundness test of bricks

Structure of Bricks
To know the structure of brick, pick one brick randomly from the group and break it. Observe the
inner portion of brick clearly. It should be free from lumps and homogeneous.
Figure 193: structure test of bricks

Efflorescence Test on Bricks
A good quality brick should not contain any soluble salts in it. If soluble salts are there, then it will
cause efflorescence on brick surfaces.
To know the presence of soluble salts in a brick, placed it in a water bath for 24 hours and dry it in
shade. After drying, observe the brick surface thoroughly. If there is any white or grey color deposits,
then it contains soluble salts and not useful for construction.
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Figure 194: efflorescence test on bricks

1. Carry out crushing strength test on the brick provided
2. Carry out soundness test on the brick provided
3. Carry out absorption test on the brick provide
2. Soil test lab fully equipped
1. Why is earthenware clay important for beginners in molding industry?
2. How is porcelain clay used?
3. Which main processes are involved in brick manufacture?
4. How is clay prepared ready for brick making?
5. What is tempering?
6. What is meant by quality control of bricks?
7. How is absorption test carried out?
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8. How should bricks be stored or stacked?
9. How would you fire bricks for best results?
10. Why are bricks dried before firing?

Tools
• Mixer
• Tamper
• Wheelbarrow
• Helmet
• Dumper
• Spades

• Bricks
• Water
• Additives
• Clay products
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6.2.3.1 References
1. https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&cad=rja&uact=8&
ved=2ahUKEwj3mt7oiJTvAhXEA2MBHWUMCZUQFjAFegQIBhAD&url=https%3A%2F
%2Fpotterycrafters.com%2Fwhat-are-the-four-types-of-
clay%2F&usg=AOvVaw3w0aG0mcp8JA1wvYWyYSSc
2. Hossain Faruque, (2020). The fundamentals of brick manufacturing
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1. Why is earthenware clay important for beginners in molding industry?
Earthenware is very plastic and easy to work with
2. How is porcelain clay used?
Mainly used in wheel throwing and cast slipping to create tableware, vases, and
other decorative objects
3. Which main processes are involved in brick manufacture?
i. Preparation of clay
ii. Molding
iii. Drying
iv. Burning
4. How is clay prepared ready for brick making?
i. Removal of Top Soil
ii. Digging and Spreading
iii. Cleaning:
iv. Weathering
v. Blending
vi. Tempering
5. What is tempering?
This is the process of kneading clay to make it stiff and homogenous
6. What is meant by quality control of bricks?
This is the process of checking the qualities of bricks for construction purposes.
7. How is absorption test carried out?
Absorption test is conducted on brick to find out the amount of moisture content
absorbed by brick under extreme conditions. In this test, sample dry bricks are
taken and weighed. After weighing these bricks are placed in water with full
immersing for a period of 24 hours. Then weigh the wet brick and note down its
value. The difference between dry and wet brick weights will give the amount of
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water absorption. For a good quality brick the amount of water absorption
should not exceed 20% of weight of dry brick.
8. How should bricks be stored or stacked?
i. Stack the bricks on dry firm ground.
ii. Stack should be 50 bricks long, 10 bricks high and not more than 4 bricks
in width.
iii. Clear distance between adjacent stacks should not be less than 0.8m.
iv. Put bricks of each truck load in one stack.
9. How would you fire bricks for best results?

Firing a brick up to 700-1,000°C, makes it undergo chemical changes. During
this reaction, the materials present in brick alumina and silica fuse together to
make the brick strong and stable to prevent from cracking and crumbling.
10. Why are bricks dried before firing?
To avoid damage to the bricks
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6.2.4 Learning Outcome 4: Produce concrete masonry products

This learning outcome specifies the competencies required to produce concrete masonry products. It
entails concrete preparation as well as identification, arrangement and curing of concrete molds.

4.1 Concrete is prepared based on or job specification.
4.2 Concrete molding machine/molds boxes are identified and gathered based on job requirements.
4.3 Molding is carried out and molds arranged in preparation for curing.
4.4 Molds are cured in accordance to best practice.

Definition of terms
Concrete a building material formed by mixing cement, water and aggregates
Introduction
A concrete block is primarily used as a building material in the construction of walls. It is sometimes
called a concrete masonry unit (CMU). A concrete block is one of several precast concrete products
used in construction. The term precast refers to the fact that the blocks are formed and hardened
before they are brought to the job site. Most concrete blocks have one or more hollow cavities, and
their sides may be cast smooth or with a design. In use, concrete blocks are stacked one at a time and
held together with fresh concrete mortar to form the desired length and height of the wall.
Raw materials for concrete products

The concrete commonly used to make concrete blocks is a mixture of powdered portland cement,
water, sand, and gravel. This produces a light gray block with a fine surface texture and a high
compressive strength. A typical concrete block weighs 17.2-19.5 kg. In general, the concrete mixture
used for blocks has a higher percentage of sand and a lower percentage of gravel and water than the
concrete mixtures used for general construction purposes. This produces a very dry, stiff mixture that
holds its shape when it is removed from the block mold.
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Lightweight concrete blocks are made by replacing the sand and gravel with expanded clay, shale, or
slate. Expanded clay, shale, and slate are produced by crushing the raw materials and heating them
to about 2000°F (1093°C). At this temperature the material bloats, or puffs up, because of the rapid
generation of gases caused by the combustion of small quantities of organic material trapped inside.
A typical light-weight block weighs 22-28 lb (10.0-12.7 kg) and is used to build non-load-bearing
walls and partitions. Expanded blast furnace slag, as well as natural volcanic materials such as
pumice and scoria, are also used to make lightweight blocks.
In addition to the basic components, the concrete mixture used to make blocks may also contain
various chemicals, called admixtures, to alter curing time, increase compressive strength, or improve
workability. The mixture may have pigments added to give the blocks a uniform color throughout, or
the surface of the blocks may be coated with a baked-on glaze to give a decorative effect or to
provide protection against chemical attack. The glazes are usually made with a thermosetting
resinous binder, silica sand, and color pigments.
Types of tools used in concrete products production
i. Molds
ii. Shovels and spads
iii. Buckets
iv. Wheelbarrows
Batching
1. The sand and gravel are stored outside in piles and are transferred into storage bins in the
plant by a conveyor belt as they are needed. The portland cement is stored outside in
large vertical silos to protect it from moisture.
2. As a production run starts, the required amounts of sand, gravel, and cement are
transferred by gravity or by mechanical means to a weigh batcher which measures the
proper amounts of each material.
3. The dry materials then flow into a stationary mixer where they are blended together for
several minutes. There are two types of mixers commonly used. One type, called a
planetary or pan mixer, resembles a shallow pan with a lid. Mixing blades are attached to
a vertical rotating shaft inside the mixer. The other type is called a horizontal drum
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mixer. It resembles a coffee can turned on its side and has mixing blades attached to a
horizontal rotating shaft inside the mixer.
4. After the dry materials are blended, a small amount of water is added to the mixer. If the
plant is located in a climate subject to temperature extremes, the water may first pass
through a heater or chiller to regulate its temperature. Admixture chemicals and coloring
pigments may also be added at this time. The concrete is then mixed for six to eight
minutes.
Molding of concrete products

1. Once the load of concrete is thoroughly mixed, it is dumped into an inclined bucket
conveyor and transported to an elevated hopper. The mixing cycle begins again for the
next load.
2. From the hopper the concrete is conveyed to another hopper on top of the block machine
at a measured flow rate. In the block machine, the concrete is forced downward into
molds. The molds consist of an outer mold box containing several mold liners. The liners
determine the outer shape of the block and the inner shape of the block cavities. As many
as 15 blocks may be molded at one time.
3. When the molds are full, the concrete is compacted by the weight of the upper mold head
coming down on the mold cavities. This compaction may be supplemented by air or
hydraulic pressure cylinders acting on the mold head. Most block machines also use a
short burst of mechanical vibration to further aid compaction.
4. The compacted blocks are pushed down and out of the molds onto a flat steel pallet. The
pallet and blocks are pushed out of the machine and onto a chain conveyor. In some
operations the blocks then pass under a rotating brush which removes loose material from
the top of the blocks.
Curing of concrete molds
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1. The pallets of blocks are conveyed to an automated stacker or loader which places them
in a curing rack. Each rack holds several hundred blocks. When a rack is full, it is
rolled onto a set of rails and moved into a curing kiln.
2. The kiln is an enclosed room with the capacity to hold several racks of blocks at a time.
There are two basic types of curing kilns. The most common type is a low-pressure
steam kiln. In this type, the blocks are held in the kiln for one to three hours at room
temperature to allow them to harden slightly. Steam is then gradually introduced to
raise the temperature at a controlled rate of not more than 60°F per hour (16°C per
hour). Standard weight blocks are usually cured at a temperature of 150-165°F (66-
74°C), while lightweight blocks are cured at 170-185°F (77-85°C). When the curing
temperature has been reached, the steam is shut off, and the blocks are allowed to soak
in the hot, moist air for 12-18 hours. After soaking, the blocks are dried by exhausting
the moist air and further raising the temperature in the kiln. The whole curing cycle
takes about 24 hours.
3. Another type of kiln is the high-pressure steam kiln, sometimes called an autoclave. In
this type, the temperature is raised to 300-375°F (149-191°C), and the pressure is raised
to 80-185 psi (5.5-12.8 bar). The blocks are allowed to soak for five to 10 hours. The
pressure is then rapidly vented, which causes the blocks to quickly release their trapped
moisture. The autoclave curing process requires more energy and a more expensive
kiln, but it can produce blocks in less time.
Storage of concrete products

1. The racks of cured blocks are rolled out of the kiln, and the pallets of blocks are unstacked
and placed on a chain conveyor. The blocks are pushed off the steel pallets, and the empty
pallets are fed back into the block machine to receive a new set of molded blocks.
2. If the blocks are to be made into split-face blocks, they are first molded as two blocks
joined together. Once these double blocks are cured, they pass through a splitter, which
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strikes them with a heavy blade along the section between the two halves. This causes the
double block to fracture and form a rough, stone-like texture on one face of each piece.
3. The blocks pass through a cuber which aligns each block and then stacks them into a cube
three blocks across by six blocks deep by three or four blocks high. These cubes are
carried outside with a forklift and placed in storage.
Quality control in concrete products

The manufacture of concrete blocks requires constant monitoring to produce blocks that have the
required properties. The raw materials are weighed electronically before they are placed in the
mixer. The trapped water content in the sand and gravel may be measured with ultrasonic sensors,
and the amount of water to be added to the mix is automatically adjusted to compensate. In areas
with harsh temperature extremes, the water may pass through a chiller or heater before it is used.
As the blocks emerge from the block machine, their height may be checked with laser beam sensors.
In the curing kiln, the temperatures, pressures, and cycle times are all controlled and recorded
automatically to ensure that the blocks are cured properly, in order to achieve their required strength.

1. Prepare a standard concrete mold
2. Use the concrete mold to prepare concrete blocks
2. Molds
1. Which are the main raw materials used for concrete making?
2. What is batching?
3. How should concrete be mixed to ensure uniformity?
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4. What is a concrete mold?
5. How is quality of concrete blocks controlled?
6. How are concrete blocks cured?
7. What is meant by hollow blocks and how are they used?
8. Which two methods are used for concrete batching?
9. Which type of water should be used for concreting?
10. When is rapid hardening cement used?

Tools
• Stepping ladder
• Mason's line
• Plumb bob
• Power tools
• PPE’s
• Spade
Supplies and materials
• Cement
• Sand
• Ballast
• Water
• Formworks
• Additives
• Quarry dust
586
• Gravel
• DPM
• DPC
• Hoop iron
587
6.2.4.7 References
1. http://www.madehow.com/Volume-3/Concrete-Block.html#ixzz6o3JqpTLe
588
1. Which are the main raw materials used for concrete making?
i. Coarse aggregates
ii. Sand
iii. Cement
iv. Water
2. What is batching?
This is the process of measuring concrete mix ingredients either by volume or mass.
3. How should concrete be mixed to ensure uniformity?
Concrete should be mixed with a concrete mixer or else if by hand it should be
turned over at least thrice.
4. What is a concrete mold?
A concrete mold is a frame or model on which concrete is poured so as to set and
produce a block with the desired shape
5. How is quality of concrete blocks controlled?
The manufacture of concrete blocks requires constant monitoring to produce blocks
that have the required properties. The raw materials are weighed electronically
before they are placed in the mixer. The trapped water content in the sand and
gravel may be measured with ultrasonic sensors, and the amount of water to be
added to the mix is automatically adjusted to compensate. In areas with harsh
temperature extremes, the water may pass through a chiller or heater before it is
used.
As the blocks emerge from the block machine, their height may be checked with
laser beam sensors. In the curing kiln, the temperatures, pressures, and cycle times
are all controlled and recorded automatically to ensure that the blocks are cured
properly, in order to achieve their required strength.
6. How are concrete blocks cured?
589
Blocks are held in the kiln for one to three hours at room temperature to allow them
to harden slightly. Steam is then gradually introduced to raise the temperature at a
controlled rate of not more than 60°F per hour (16°C per hour). Standard weight
blocks are usually cured at a temperature of 150-165°F (66-74°C), while lightweight
blocks are cured at 170-185°F (77-85°C). When the curing temperature has been
reached, the steam is shut off, and the blocks are allowed to soak in the hot, moist
air for 12-18 hours. After soaking, the blocks are dried by exhausting the moist air
and further raising the temperature in the kiln. The whole curing cycle takes about
24 hours
7. What is meant by hollow blocks and how are they used?
These are blocks which are hollow inside
They are lightweight and mostly used for thermal insulation.
8. Which two methods are used for concrete batching?
i. Batching by weight
ii. Batching by volume
9. Which type of water should be used for concreting?
Water used for concrete mixing should be clean and fit for drinking
10. When is rapid hardening cement used?
Rapid hardening cement is used to produce good strength concrete blocks despite
poor gradation.
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6.2.5 Learning Outcome 5: Produce hand dressed stones

This learning outcome specifies the competencies required to produce hand dressed stones. It
entails identification, selection and dressing of stones based on specifications.

5.1 Stones for dressing are identified and gathered based on job requirements.
5.2 Working drawings are identified based on specifications.
5.3 Stones for dressing are selected based on size, shape and specifications.
5.4 Safety precautions are taken as per OSHA requirements.
5.5 Stones are dressed based on working drawings

Definition of terms
Dressing is a process of surfacing and shaping of rocks available naturally
Introduction
Stone dressing is a process of surfacing and shaping of rocks available naturally. The place where
the rocks are abundantly available is called as a quarry. The process of taking stones from the natural
bed is known as ‘Quarrying’.
The operation of stone dressing is generally carried out at the site of quarry so as to reduce the
transportation cost.
The dressing of stone is generally done using hand tools like Chisel, Pickaxe etc using heavy
machines or blasting using explosives. Once quarried, the stones are cut into the suitable size and
surface finishes. This process is termed as dressing of stones. The effective dressing of stones would
help in making your structure attractive and economical.
Various objectives of dressing are below;
(a) To reduce the size of the big blocks of stones so that they are converted to easily lift-
able pieces. This reduction in size is generally carried out at the quarry itself because
that saves a lot of transportation costs.
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(b) To give a proper shape to the stone. It is known that stones can be used at different
places in the building, e.g., in foundations, in walls, in arches, or for flooring, each
situation will require a proper shape.
(c) To obtain an appealing finish. In a residential building, stones are used not only
because of their extra strength, hardness, and durability but also because of their
aesthetic value.
Stone surfaces can be made very decorative and of appealing appearance, which will last for a
considerable time. A stone house has its distinct individuality in a city of concrete structures
Stages in the Dressing of Stone
The different stages of dressing of stones are:

• Sizing
It is the process of inducing the irregular blocks to the desired dimensions by removing extra
portions. It is done with the help of hand hammers and chisels.
• Shaping
This follows sizing and involves removing the sharp projections. Many stones are used in common
construction after shaping.
• Planing
This is rather an advanced type of dressing in which the stone is cleared off all the irregularities from
the surface.
• Finishing
This is done only in case of specially dressed stones and consists of rubbing of the surface of stones
with suitable abrasive materials such as silicon carbide.
• Polishing
This is the last stage in dressing and is only done on marbles, limestone, and granite.
Methods / Types of Dressing of Stones.

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Dressing of stone can be done both manually as well as mechanically.
Manually, skilled stone-smiths can work wonders on the suitable type of stones with chisels and
hammers and abrasives.
Mechanically, machines can cut the stone to any desired size and shape. Their surfaces can be made
extra smooth by polishing through machines.
Types of Stone Dressing
1. Hammer Dressing :
Hammer dressed stones do not contain any sharp and irregular corners these stones suit well for
masonry construction. These are most adopted type of dressing of stones.
2. Chisel Drafting :
In this method the stone is made of drafts or groups with the help of chisels at different stages of
dressing of stones. In this type of dressing excessive stones at the center are also removed. These
stones are used commonly in plinths and corner of the building.
3. Fine Tooling :
In this type of dressing most of the projections of the stones are removed and a fairly smooth surface
is gained. Due to this the appearance of the stone improves.
4. Rough Tooling :
In this type of dressing a rough tooled surface that has a series of bends are made of the stone. The
bends are more or less parallel to tool marks make all over the surface.
5. Punched Dressing :
This type of dressing is an extension of rough tool dressing. In this type of dressing a rough tooled
surface is further dressed with the series of parallel ridges. The chisel marks are visible on the face.
6. Closed Picked Dressing :
In this type of dressing of stone a punched stone is further dressed to obtain a finer surface.
Safety precautions
1. PPE and safety equipment
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Workers have a duty to use correctly any personal protective equipment (PPE) or safety
equipment provided by their employer. Examples include hearing protection, respiratory
protection, hard hats, steel toe-capped boots, seat belts in vehicles, gloves, safety harnesses and
lanyards
2. High-visibility clothing
The use of high-visibility clothing greatly improves the visibility of workers in a quarry and
reduces their exposure to the risk of an accident. The high-visibility clothing provided by
employers include vests, t-shirts, trousers, jackets, hats and coveralls.
3. Designated pedestrian routes
Quarry operators should provide designated pedestrian routes or prohibit pedestrian access to
areas where pedestrian routes cannot be provided
4. Vehicle checks
Workers who operate a vehicle should carry out a daily check of that vehicle before use. This
check should include testing:
• tyres
• reversing and visibility aids
594
• lights,
• access steps,
• oil and water levels, and
• •brakes.
5. Defects and safety issues
Workers have a legal duty to report any defects or safety, health and hygiene issues at the quarry
unless they are able to remedy the defect/issue safely. They should report the defect/issue to their
supervisor.
6. Removing and replacing guards
Any guard or safety device removed (during maintenance work, for example) must be replaced
before the equipment can be used again.

1. Select a suitable quarry stone.
2. Carry out dressing of the given quarry stone to the given specifications
1. A masonry workshop
2. Stone dressing tools
1. What is stone dressing?
2. What is quarrying?
3. Which main steps are used during dressing of stones?
4. What is hammer dressing?
5. Which are some tools you would find handy during dressing of stones?
6. How would you ensure safety in a quarry?
7. Which are the main objectives of stone dressing?
8. What is fine tooling?
595
• Club hammer
• Mason's hammer
• Chisel
• Spirit level
• Brick bat gauge
• Bolster
• Cold chisel
• Stepping ladder
• Mason's line
• Plumb bob
• Power tools
• PPE’s Spade
• Sieve
• Brush
• Straight edge
• Sputter dash
• Vibrator
• Mixer
• Tamper
• Wheelbarrow
• Helmet
596
• Dumper
• Sledge hammer

• Cement
• Sand
• Ballast
• Water
597
6.2.5.7 References
ved=2ahUKEwjjxPLClZTvAhWPGBQKHUpKB9IQFjAAegQIARAD&url=https%3A%2F
%2Fwww.designingbuildings.co.uk%2Fwiki%2FStone_dressing&usg=AOvVaw3W0nqJB9
yBmeeSe8NpkHDP
2. B G C Sahu and Joygopal Jena, uilding Materials and Construction”
3. Sushil Kumar, “Building Construction And Material” S K Sharma “A Textbook of Building
Construction”
598
1. What is stone dressing?
Stone dressing is a process of surfacing and shaping of rocks available naturally
2. What is quarrying?
This is the process of taking stones from the natural bed
3. Which main steps are used during dressing of stones?
i. Sizing
ii. Shaping
iii. Planing
iv. Finishing
v. Polishing
4. What is hammer dressing?
This is the process of dressing stones so as to remove all sharp and irregular
corners.
5. Which are some tools you would find handy during dressing of stones?
i. Chisels
ii. Mallets
iii. Pick axes
6. How would you ensure safety in a quarry?
i. Wear reflective clothing
ii. Wear safety boots
iii. Wear full PPEs
iv. Avoid hazardous areas
7. Which are the main objectives of stone dressing?
a) To reduce the size of the big blocks of stones so that they are converted to easily
lift-able pieces. This reduction in size is generally carried out at the quarry itself
because that saves a lot of transportation costs.
599
(b) To give a proper shape to the stone. It is known that stones can be used at
different places in the building, e.g., in foundations, in walls, in arches, or for
flooring, each situation will require a proper shape.
(c) To obtain an appealing finish. In a residential building, stones are used not only
because of their extra strength, hardness, and durability but also because of their
aesthetic value.
8. What is fine tooling?
This is a type of dressing where most of the projections of the stones are removed
and a fairly smooth surface is gained
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6.2.6 Learning Outcome 6: Produce stabilized soil masonry units

This learning outcome specifies the competencies required to produce stabilized soil masonry units.
It entails materials preparation as well as identification, arrangement and curing of molds in
accordance to construction practices.

6.1 Materials are prepared based on international standards or job specification.
6.2 Molding machine/ boxes are identified and gathered based on job requirements.
6.3 Molding is carried out and molds arranged in preparation for curing.
6.4 Molds are cured in accordance to best practice

Types of soil
soil is a naturally occurring, loose/un-cemented/weakly cemented/relatively unconsolidated mineral
particles, organic or inorganic in character, lying over the bed rock which is formed by weathering of
rocks. Soil is formed by different particles such as gravel, rock, sand, silt, clay, loam, and humus.
1. Sand soils
It is most extensively used construction material. It consists of particles of rock and hard minerals,
such as silicon dioxide. They are the largest type of soil particles, where each particle is visible to
naked eye. The large, relatively stable sand-particle size increases soil aeration, improves drainage in
tight soils and creates plant-growth supporting qualities, or tilt.
601
2. Silt
Silt is a sediment material with an intermediate size between sand and clay. Carried by water during
flood it forms a fertile deposit on valleys floor. The particle size of silt ranges from 0.002 and 0.06
mm.
Silt is a non-plastic or low plasticity material due to its fineness. Due to its fineness, when wet it
becomes a smooth mud that you can form easily into balls or other shapes in your hand and when silt
soil is very wet, it blends seamlessly with water to form fine, runny puddles of mud.
Advantages of Silty Soils
i. Fertile soils that hold onto nutrients better than sandy soils
ii. Better water holding capacity than sandy soils
iii. Easier to work with than clay soils
Disadvantages of Silty Soils
i. Water filtration can be poor

ii. Has a greater tendency to form a crust
iii. Can become compact and hard
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3. Clay
Clay particles are the finest of all the soil particles, measuring fewer than 0.002 mm in size. It
consists of microscopic and sub-microscopic particles derived from the chemical decomposition of
rocks. Clay is a fine grained cohesive soil. They stick together readily and form a sticky or gluey
texture when they are wet or dry.
Clay is made of over 25 percent clay, and because of the spaces found between clay particles, clay
soils hold a high amount of water. Clay expand when in contact with water and shrink when getting
dry. Compared to sand particles, which are generally round, clay particles are thin, flat and covered
with tiny plates. Organic clay is highly compressible and its strength is very high when dry, which is
why it is used in construction as mud mortar
Advantages of Clay Soils
i. Clay soils hold onto nutrients so the plant has the food it needs
ii. Great for growing things that need a lot of water
603
Disadvantages of Clay Soils
i. Holds onto water, slow to drain
ii. Slow to warm in the spring
iii. Compacts easily
iv. Tends to be alkaline
4. Loam
Loam is a mixture of clay, sand and silt and benefits from the qualities of these 3 different textures,
favouring water retention, air circulation, drainage and fertility. These soils are fertile, easy to work
with and provide good drainage. Depending on their predominant composition they can be either
sandy or clay loam.
The way the other particles combine in the soil makes the loam. For instance, a soil that is 30 per
cent clay, 50 per cent sand and 20 per cent silt is a sandy clay loam, with the soil types before
“loam” listed in the order their particles are most dominant in the loam. The labels “clay loam,” “silt
loam” and “sand loam” are used to refer to soils that are composed predominantly of those
ingredients.
Advantages of Loamy Soils

i. Drought resistant due to water-holding capacity
ii. Faster to warm up in the spring, compared to clay
iii. Can hold nutrients, making soils fertile
iv. Good infiltration of air and water
604
Disadvantages of Loamy Soils
Depending on how it was formed, some loamy soils can contain stones that may affect harvesting of
some crops.
Tools and equipment for soil stabilization
i. Self-Propelled Stabilization Mixers (Writgen WR240i)
A soil stabilizer is a construction vehicle with a powered metal drum that has rows of mixing
blades or paddles. It makes soil cement by blending soil, a binder agent (usually Portland
cement or lime) and water together with paddles in the mixing chamber instead of a concrete
mixer and usually does not cut or mill hard or very thick asphalt or concrete.
Figure 195: stabilisation mixer
ii. Road pavement mill

A Wirtgen road pavement profiler (mill) removes the top surface of the road so that a new one can
be laid.
A road pavement mill is a construction vehicle with a powered metal drum that has rows of tungsten
carbide tipped teeth that cut off the top surface of a paved concrete or asphalt road. Usually (since
sustainability is now very important) extracts the material for recycling into new asphalt. In some
605
applications the entire road pavement can be removed. The reasons for removal may be that the road
surface has become damaged and needs replacing.
iii. Road recycler
A road recycler or road reclaimer is an asphalt pavement grinder or a combination grinder and soil
stabilizer when it is equipped to blending cement, foamed asphalt and/or lime and water with the
existing pavement (usually only very thin asphalt) to create a new, recycled road surface. It usually
refers to the process of blending the asphalt road with a binder and base course in a single pass
Stabilization of soil
Soil stabilization is a method of improving soil properties by blending and mixing other materials.
Benefits of soli stabilization
• Strength improvement including shearing strength and compressive strength
• Mitigating and reducing volume instability and swelling potential and controlling shrinkage
• Reducing plasticity index (PI)
• Reducing permeability
• Reducing soil compressibility, deformation and settlement
• Reducing clay/silt sized particles
• Improving resilient modulus
• Improving durability to resist unfavorable environmental conditions such as freeze-thaw or
wet-dry cycles, erosion and weathering
• Dust control
• Waterproofing
Soil Stabilization with Cement
The soil stabilized with cement is known as soil cement. The cementing action is believed to be the
result of chemical reactions of cement with siliceous soil during hydration reaction. The important
factors affecting the soil-cement are nature of soil content, conditions of mixing, compaction, curing
and admixtures used.
The appropriate amounts of cement needed for different types of soils may be as follows:
• Gravels – 5 to 10%
606
• Sands – 7 to 12%
• Silts – 12 to 15%, and
• Clays – 12 – 20%
The quantity of cement for a compressive strength of 25 to 30 kg/cm2 should normally be sufficient
for tropical climate for soil stabilization.
If the layer of soil having surface area of A (m2), thickness H (cm) and dry density rd (tonnes/m3),
has to be stabilized with p percentage of cement by weight on the basis of dry soil, cement mixture
will be and, the amount of cement required for soil stabilization is given by
Amount of cement required, in tonnes =
Lime, calcium chloride, sodium carbonate, sodium sulphate and fly ash are some of the additives
commonly used with cement for cement stabilization of soil
Soil Stabilization using Lime
Slaked lime is very effective in treating heavy plastic clayey soils. Lime may be used alone or in
combination with cement, bitumen or fly ash. Sandy soils can also be stabilized with these
combinations. Lime has been mainly used for stabilizing the road bases and the subgrade.
Lime changes the nature of the adsorbed layer and provides pozzolanic action. Plasticity index of
highly plastic soils are reduced by the addition of lime with soil. There is an increase in the optimum
water content and a decrease in the maximum compacted density and the strength and durability of
soil increases.
Normally 2 to 8% of lime may be required for coarse grained soils and 5 to 8% of lime may be
required for plastic soils. The amount of fly ash as admixture may vary from 8 to 20% of the weight
of the soil.
Soil Stabilization with Bitumen
Asphalts and tars are bituminous materials which are used for stabilization of soil, generally for
pavement construction. Bituminous materials when added to a soil, it imparts both cohesion and
607
reduced water absorption. Depending upon the above actions and the nature of soils, bitumen
stabilization is classified in following four types:
• Sand bitumen stabilization
• Soil Bitumen stabilization
• Water proofed mechanical stabilization, and
• Oiled earth.
Chemical Stabilization of Soil
Calcium chloride being hygroscopic and deliquescent is used as a water retentive additive in
mechanically stabilized soil bases and surfacing. The vapor pressure gets lowered, surface tension
increases and rate of evaporation decreases. The freezing point of pure water gets lowered and it
results in prevention or reduction of frost heave.
The depressing the electric double layer, the salt reduces the water pick up and thus the loss of
strength of fine grained soils. Calcium chloride acts as a soil flocculent and facilitates compaction.
Frequent application of calcium chloride may be necessary to make up for the loss of chemical by
leaching action. For the salt to be effective, the relative humidity of the atmosphere should be above
30%.
Sodium chloride is the other chemical that can be used for this purpose with a stabilizing action
similar to that of calcium chloride.
Sodium silicate is yet another chemical used for this purpose in combination with other chemicals
such as calcium chloride, polymers, chrome lignin, alkyl chlorosilanes, siliconites, amines and
quarternary ammonium salts, sodium hexametaphosphate, phosphoric acid combined with a wetting
agent.
Electrical Stabilization of Clayey Soils
Electrical stabilization of clayey soils is done by method known as electro-osmosis. This is an
expensive method of soil stabilization and is mainly used for drainage of cohesive soils.
Soil Stabilization by Grouting
608
In this method, stabilizers are introduced by injection into the soil. This method is not useful for
clayey soils because of their low permeability. This is a costly method for soil stabilization.
This method is suitable for stabilizing buried zones of relatively limited extent. The grouting
techniques can be classified as following:
• Clay grouting
• Chemical grouting
• Chrome lignin grouting
• Polymer grouting, and
• Bituminous grouting
Soil Stabilization by Geotextiles and Fabrics
Geotextiles are porous fabrics made of synthetic materials such as polyethylene, polyester, nylons
and polyvinyl chloride. Woven, non-woven and grid form varieties of geotextiles are available.
Geotextiles have a high strength.
When properly embedded in soil, it contributes to its stability. It is used in the construction of
unpaved roads over soft soils.
Reinforcing the soil for stabilization by metallic strips into it and providing an anchor or tie back to
restrain a facing skin element.
Molding of blocks
Curing stabilized blocks

Cement Stabilized Soil Blocks need moisture for the development of hydration products responsible
for establishing water insoluble bonds, and therefore they require curing. Such blocks are stacked
one above the other and water is sprinkled three to four times daily for four weeks After completion
of curing, the blocks are allowed to dry in the stack before being used for construction. In order to
reduce the curing period and to achieve higher strengths, steam curing at low temperatures (80 °C) is
609
often undertaken, at atmospheric pressure for 10–12 hours. Lime–clay reactions are slow at ambient
temperatures and hence need a longer curing period to achieve meaningful strengths; these blocks
can also be cured using steam curing techniques
Figure 196: curing stabilized blocks

Quality control
The manufacture of stabilized blocks requires constant monitoring to produce blocks that have the
required properties. The raw materials are weighed electronically before they are placed in the
mixer. The trapped water content in the sand and gravel may be measured with ultrasonic sensors,
and the amount of water to be added to the mix is automatically adjusted to compensate. In areas
with harsh temperature extremes, the water may pass through a chiller or heater before it is used.
As the stabilized blocks emerge from the block machine, their height may be checked with laser
beam sensors. In the curing kiln, the temperatures, pressures, and cycle times are all controlled and
recorded automatically to ensure that the blocks are cured properly, in order to achieve their required
strength.
610
1. Collect adequate soil samples in the field provided
2. Carry out soil stabilization on the soil samples
1. A fully functional soil laboratory
2. Soil stabilizers
3. A trained technician
1. What is soil stabilization?
2. Which are the main objectives of soil stabilization?
3. Which are some equipment used in soil stabilization?
4. What is entailed by chemical soil stabilization?
5. Which are some ingredients added in soil during stabilization?
6. What are the benefits of soil stabilization?
7. How would you stabilize a soil sample using cement?
8. How are stabilized soil blocks cured?
9. Which are some grouting techniques used in soil stabilization?
10. Which are some types of bitumen stabilization of soil?
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• Club hammer
• Mason's hammer
• Chisel
• Spirit level
• Brick bat gauge
• Bolster
• Cold chisel
• Stepping ladder
• Mason's line
• Plumb bob
• Power tools
• PPE’s Spade
• Sieve
• Brush
• Straight edge
• Sputter dash
• Vibrator
• Mixer
• Tamper
• Wheelbarrow
• Helmet
612
• Dumper
• Sledge hammer

• Cement
• Sand
• Ballast
• Water
• Soil stabilizers
613
6.2.6.1 References
ved=2ahUKEwjZ46DY-
ZTvAhWSo3EKHeebBUwQFjALegQIFxAD&url=https%3A%2F%2Ftheconstructor.org%2
Fgeotechnical%2Fsoil-stabilization-methods-and-
materials%2F9439%2F&usg=AOvVaw2qcrpEG_sW4AOFmghEF1YV
ved=2ahUKEwjZ46DY-
ZTvAhWSo3EKHeebBUwQFjAQegQIBRAD&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencedirect.c
om%2Ftopics%2Fengineering%2Fsoil-stabilization&usg=AOvVaw0p5R6-
kURA4FdxxXqUO5eN
ved=2ahUKEwjZ46DY-
ZTvAhWSo3EKHeebBUwQFjAOegQIBxAD&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2F
wiki%2FSoil_stabilization&usg=AOvVaw3F-tjRzLp-45zgmPInWriN
614
1. What is soil stabilization?
Soil stabilization is a method of improving soil properties by blending and mixing
other materials
2. Which are the main objectives of soil stabilization?
i. Strength improvement
ii. Mitigating and reducing volume instability and swelling potential and controlling
shrinkage
iii. Reducing plasticity index (PI)
iv. Reducing permeability
v. Reducing soil compressibility, deformation and settlement
3. Which are some equipment used in soil stabilization?

i. Road recycler
ii. Road pavement mill
iii. Self-Propelled Stabilization Mixers

4. What is entailed by chemical soil stabilization?
Calcium chloride being hygroscopic and deliquescent is used as a water retentive
additive in mechanically stabilized soil bases and surfacing. The vapor pressure gets
lowered, surface tension increases and rate of evaporation decreases. The freezing
point of pure water gets lowered and it results in prevention or reduction of frost
heave.
5. Which are some ingredients added in soil during stabilization?
i. Lime,
ii. Calcium chloride
iii. Sodium carbonate
iv. Sodium sulphate
615
v. Fly ash
6. What are the benefits of soil stabilization?
i. Reducing clay/silt sized particles
ii. Improving resilient modulus
iii. Improving durability to resist unfavourable environmental conditions such
as freeze-thaw or wet-dry cycles, erosion and weathering
iv. Dust control
v. Waterproofing
7. How would you stabilize a soil sample using cement?

Lime, calcium chloride, sodium carbonate, sodium sulphate and fly ash are some of
the additives commonly used with cement for cement stabilization of soil
8. How are stabilized soil blocks cured?
Cement Stabilized Soil Blocks need moisture for the development of hydration
products responsible for establishing water insoluble bonds, and therefore they
require curing. Such blocks are stacked one above the other and water is sprinkled
three to four times daily for four weeks After completion of curing, the blocks are
allowed to dry in the stack before being used for construction.
9. Which are some grouting techniques used in soil stabilization?
i. Clay grouting
ii. Chemical grouting
iii. Chrome lignin grouting
iv. Polymer grouting
v. Bituminous grouting
10. Which are some types of bitumen stabilization of soil?
i. Sand bitumen stabilization
ii. Soil Bitumen stabilization
iii. Water proofed mechanical stabilization, and
iv. Oiled earth.
616
617

Masonry Level 3 - Learning Guide

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Masonry Level 3 - Learning Guide

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REPUBLIC OF KENYA

PRINCIPAL SECRETARY, VOCATIONAL AND TECHNICAL TRAINING

I am grateful to the trainers involved in the development of this learning guide.

Prof. CHARLES M. M. ONDIEKI, PhD, FIET (K), Con. Eng Tech.

DR. LAWRENCE GUANTAI M’ITONGA, PhD

CBET Competency Based Education and Training

CDACC Curriculum Development, Assessment and Certification Council

PPE Personal protective equipment

Sqm Square meter

ISO International Standards Organisation

BIM Building information modeling

HDPE High-Density Polyethylene

CON Construction Sector

SDG Sustainable Development Goals

KNQA Kenya National Qualifications Authority

NEMA National Environmental Management Authority

OSHA Occupation Safety and Health Act

DWV Drainage Water vent

HVAC Heating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning

PVC Poly Vinyl Chloride

PREFACE ........................................................................................................................................... iii

BACKGROUND INFORMATION .................................................................................................. 1

CHAPTER 1: MENSURATION AND CALCULATION ................................................................... 3

1.1 Introduction to the unit of learning .........................................................................................................3

1.2 Summary of Learning Outcomes ............................................................................................................3

1.2.1 Learning Outcome 1: Distinguish objects to be measured and calculated ..............................................3

1.2.1.1 Introduction to the learning outcome ...........................................................................................3

1.2.1.2 Performance Standard ..................................................................................................................3

1.2.1.3 Information Sheet .........................................................................................................................4

1.2.1.4 Learning activities ..................................................................................................................... 14

1.2.1.5 Self-Assessment ........................................................................................................................ 14

1.2.1.6 Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials ............................................................................... 15

1.2.1.7 References ................................................................................................................................. 17

1.2.2.1 Introduction to the learning outcome ........................................................................................ 20

1.2.2.2 Performance Standard ............................................................................................................... 20

1.2.2.3 Information Sheet ...................................................................................................................... 20

1.2.2.4 Learning Activities.................................................................................................................... 35

1.2.2.5 Self-Assessment ........................................................................................................................ 36

1.2.2.6 Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials ............................................................................... 37

1.2.3 Learning Outcome 3: Calculate parameters of a given object ............................................................. 43

1.2.3.1 Introduction to the learning outcome ........................................................................................ 43

1.2.3.2 Performance Standard ............................................................................................................... 43

1.2.3.3 Information Sheet ...................................................................................................................... 43

1.2.3.4 Learning Activities.................................................................................................................... 66

1.2.3.5 Self-Assessment ........................................................................................................................ 66

1.2.3.6 Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials ............................................................................... 69

1.2.3.7 References ................................................................................................................................. 71

CHAPTER 2: INTERPRETATION OF WORKING DRAWINGS .................................................. 81

2.1 Introduction to the unit of learning ...................................................................................................... 81

2.2 Summary of Learning Outcomes ......................................................................................................... 81

2.2.1.1 Introduction to the learning outcome ........................................................................................ 81

2.2.1.2 Performance Standard ............................................................................................................... 81

2.2.1.3 Information Sheet ...................................................................................................................... 82

2.2.1.4 Learning Activities.................................................................................................................. 105

2.2.1.5 Self-Assessment ...................................................................................................................... 105

2.2.1.6 Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials ............................................................................. 109

2.2.1.7 References ............................................................................................................................... 110

2.2.2 Learning Outcome 2: Differentiate parts of a drawing ...................................................................... 115

2.2.2.1 Introduction to the learning outcome ...................................................................................... 115

2.2.2.2 Performance Standard ............................................................................................................. 115

2.2.2.3 Information Sheet .................................................................................................................... 115

2.2.2.5 Self-Assessment ...................................................................................................................... 125

2.2.2.6 Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials ............................................................................. 126