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Impact of Water Pollution
on Human Health
and Environmental
Sustainability

A. Elaine McKeown
Independent Researcher, USA

George Bugyi
Pennsylvania State University, USA

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Title: Impact of water pollution on human health and environmental
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 101

Chapter 5
Impacts of Artisanal and
Small-Scale Gold Mining
on Water Quality in
Mozambique and Zimbabwe
Never Mujere
University of Zimbabwe, Zimbabwe

Manuel Isidro
University of Zimbabwe, Zimbabwe

ABSTRACT
Artisanal and small scale gold mining (ASGM) is an informal economic activity. ASGM is the process of
extracting gold ore from the ground in the absence of land rights, mining license, exploration or mining
mineral exploration permit or any legitimate document that allows the operation. Its haphazard nature,
location close to and dependence on water have negative effects on the physical, chemical and biologi-
cal composition of water. The socio-economic benefits of small scale mining, which include employment
and income generation, are seriously outweighed by devastating environmental costs and impacts. The
objective of this chapter is to examine effects of ASGM on water quality in Mozambique and Zimbabwe.
Findings show that ASGM causes land disturbance, loss of biodiversity, deforestation and depletion of
water resources, increased levels of siltation, turbidity and heavy metal content and the disturbance of
aquatic life and its habitats. ASGM also negatively effects the health of people and animals. Based on
the research findings, it is important to support and formalize, as much as possible, the mining opera-
tions so that it becomes environmentally friendly and sustainable.

INTRODUCTION

Mining is an important economic activity in Southern Africa. According to Pereira (2009), it generates
about 60% of foreign exchange, makes up to 11% of the region’s gross domestic product (GDP) and 5%
of total employment in the Southern Africa Development Community (SADC). With regards to gold,
Africa possesses a third of the world’s mineral wealth. Gold mining in the region involves conventional
and ASGM operations (Baird, 1999).
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-4666-9559-7.ch005

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Impacts of Artisanal and Small-Scale Gold Mining

ASGM covers a broad spectrum of activities which depend on size of work force, timing, methods
used to carry out the operations and whether operations are legal, illegal, formal or informal (Dreschler,
2001). The mining is done mainly by poverty driven rural individuals, groups, families or cooperatives
with minimal or no mechanization, knowledge or technology in mining and mining safety. It is commonly
associated with informal, unregulated, unregistered, unlicensed, under-capitalized and under-equipped
mining operations (Chenje, Sola, & Paleczy, 1998; Manuel, 2011).
Mineral resources are state property in Mozambique and Zimbabwe. Therefore, it is illegal to mine
without a license from the local government. Artisanal and small scale gold miners are organized in two
sectors (Manuel, 2011). They are either the

1. Formal sector in which miners have mining leases from government and are regulated. It is com-
prised of either: small enterprises belonging to individuals or group of people who are formally
registered and have their claims; artisanal gold miner’s associations composed of the formal artisanal
gold miners; or individual gold miners holding mining certificates or passes.
2. Informal sector comprised of individuals or groups of miners who undertake the activities infor-
mally and illegally. Miners seldom have a legal right to the mineral deposits they exploit. Informal
artisanal miners may be organized in small groups of two to seven people. Usually, they operate
within large companies’ claims with or without authorization or in farmlands with permission from
the farm owners. The informal sector is largely uncontrolled by government.

ASGM is largely seasonal. Miners utilize rudimentary forms of mining equipment, techniques and
mineral extraction processes. Miners dig into river banks, river beds, surface trenching, paleo-channels,
floodplains and stockpiles of abandoned gold mines using simple tools like picks and shovels. The activities
usually involve the displacement of less than 50 tons of solid earth per person, with a monthly production
of less than 100 grams of gold per person. Miners often operate under hazardous, labor-intensive and
highly disorganized conditions and have few concerns for the environment (Svotwa & Mtetwa, 1999).

Positive Impacts of ASGM in Southern Africa

ASGM is labor intensive and thus provides employment and income to large numbers of people who are
generally poor and live in remote areas where fewer opportunities exist for formal employment. ASGM
contributes to national economies and economically empowers disadvantaged groups by virtue of its low
investment costs and short lead time from discovery to production. ASGM also contributes to poverty
alleviation through the encouragement of alternative economic activities for sustainable rural develop-
ment where technical and management skills are lacking. In Southern Africa, up to 10 million people
are employed or benefit directly from ASGM activities (International Labour Organization [ILO], 1999).
ASGM also leads to development of basic socio-economic infrastructure and services such as roads,
water, education, banking, health care and sanitation; opportunities are created for skills training and
capacity development. Opportunities are made for cultural contacts between mine workers of various
ethnic groups in the mining areas and social activities such as entertainment, socialization and marriages
(ILO, 1999).
In most SADC countries, gold mining is an alternative economic activity to agriculture and employ-
ment within the mining sector increases many fold during the recurrent droughts in the region (ILO,

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Impacts of Artisanal and Small-Scale Gold Mining

1999). In countries such as Zimbabwe and Tanzania, small-scale gold miners contribute up to 25% of
the total gold production.

Negative Impacts of ASGM in Southern Africa

Despite the positive impacts, ASGM has considerable negative environmental, socio-economic and
human health impacts. It has caused irreparable havoc to the gold deposits, arable land, water, wildlife,
forests, game reserves, public health and safety. The costly effects of ASGM are of greatest concern in
Southern Africa (Malm, 1998; Hinton & Veiga, 2003):

• Reduction of grazing areas and biodiversity,

• Increased levels of toxic heavy metals, especially mercury (Hg), sodium of cyanide, silver, and
arsenic,
• Direct dumping of tailings and effluents into rivers,
• River damage in alluvial areas and degradation of river banks and water sources,
• Increased river siltation,
• Soil degradation due to erosion, deforestation and landscape destruction.

These conditions are imposed on communities at mining sites and downstream. The affected com-
munities are either involved in the mining activity or are they included in the mining benefits, and hence
the impacts are externalities.

Chapter Objectives

• Establish some background information on Mozambique and Zimbabwe’s natural resources and
workforce.
• Explain the use of mercury in gold mining and its negative consequences for human health.
• Examine the non-mercury effects of ASGM on water quality in Manica district of Mozambique
and in Mzingwane district of Zimbabwe. Specifically, the chapter focuses on findings of a re-
search study assessing the physio-chemical as well as the biological variables of water from these
regions.

Note: The research study was descriptive, adopting a multi-method approach. The majority of the analysis
involves desk-based research using publicly available documents, primary and secondary sources. Field
visits were made in Mozambique to ASGM works, squatter mining camps and the affected river systems
and dams. Unstructured interviews and informal discussions were conducted with main stakeholders.

BACKGROUND

Mozambique and Zimbabwe are well endowed with natural resources such as mineral deposits, forests,
wildlife, lands and water resources. The countries’ endowment with gold resources has given rise to
ASGM activities.

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Impacts of Artisanal and Small-Scale Gold Mining

Mozambique

Mozambique is located on Africa’s south eastern coastline and faces seaward across the Mozambique
Channel to the island of Madagascar. The Manica district is part of the larger province of Manica which
is to the central west of Mozambique. The province covers an area of 62,272 km2 and has a population
of around 1.7 million inhabitants (Instituto Nacional de Estatistica [INE], 2013). The geology of the
study area is composed of the Greenstone Belt and the surrounded by Granite-gneissic terrains. Main
deposits of gold are identified in regional east to west (E-W) shear zones, quartz veins, and faults litholo-
gies as banded iron formations (BIFs), early granite, felsic porphyry and mafic lavas. Gold occurs also
as alluvial placers widespread in the Revué River and some of its tributaries (Torcato, 1941; Forster,
Koenaman, & Knittel, 1990; Manuel, 1992). The Revué River flows 234 km from Penhalonga Mountains
close to the border with Zimbabwe from an estimated altitude of 1750 m before discharging into Búzi
River (Manzanares, 1957). Water in the upper Revué River catchment is used for domestic water sup-
ply, hydro-power production, irrigation, industry, livestock, mining, forestry and environmental flows.
Downstream of the river is Chicamba Dam which provides water for different uses namely domestic,
irrigation, manufacturing, mining, livestock industry and fisheries activities (Veiga et al. 2005).
In Mozambique the gold production from ASGM represents over 90% of the gold produced in the
country. Most mined gold is illegally traded and as result the government does not receive any revenue
from the trade. The actual volume of gold production is difficult to know due to insufficient production
data (Manuel, 2011). Most artisanal miners are nomadic and seasonal. Currently, both the formal and
informal ASGM sectors in Mozambique are employing large numbers of young men, women and even
children, providing a source of income in rural areas and contributing to rural economy.

Zimbabwe

Zimbabwe is a landlocked country that is situated directly west of Mozambique and just north of South
Africa. Mzingwane district lies in the western part of Zimbabwe. The district covers a surface area of
2,820 km2 and its population is estimated at 58,569. The district’s 20 wards are a hub of artisanal gold
panning. Geologically, most of the catchment is underlain by mafic greenstone, clastics and granitoid
terrain (Ashton, Love, Mahachi, & Dirks, 2001). The soil types vary from clay and loam in the north to
sandy soil in the south with stony high ground. The soil types are largely determined by the underlying
geology. Mzingwane’s average rainfall is approximately 590 mm per year resulting in a dry landscape.
Zimbabwe has a population of 13.15 million of which 70% live in rural areas. ASGM in Zimbabwe
produces an estimated 1,500 kg of gold a year, 10% of the country’s total gold output, which has a value
of US $63.3 million. There are more than 25,000 registered and 500,000 unregistered ASGM miners. Like
Mozambique, mined gold is illegally traded and as result the government does not receive any revenue
from the trade. At least two million people in Zimbabwe are directly or indirectly affected by ASGM
through ancillary services and secondary economic activities. ASGM is largely unplanned, unregulated
and unmanageable which has resulted in a legacy of severe adverse and irreversible environmental and
health impacts (Maponga & Meck, 2003).
Most people in the area have turned to gold mining to sustain their livelihoods. ASGM is a social
safety net for the unemployed and those who have no other opportunities, as well as subsistence farm-
ers in this dry region. People in the district see it as the only way to alleviate poverty due to the lack of
other economic opportunities. Mudyazhezha and Kanhukamwe (2014) note that more than 50% of those

104

Impacts of Artisanal and Small-Scale Gold Mining

actively involved in the sector are women and children. Dreschler (2001) argues that at least 80% of
gold miners derive all their income from mining. A lot of alluvial gold panning activities take place on
river beds and banks of Umzingwane and Mtshabezi Rivers. Artisanal small scale gold mining occurs
in approximately 20% of the total surface area which is 564 km2.

USE OF MERCURY IN ASGM

The use of mercury in ASGM is equally extensive in both Mozambique and Zimbabwe. Mercury use is
popular because of its ability to simplify the process of gold recovery, its low cost and its high recovery
rates. An estimated 6 tons of mercury is used annually by illegal gold mining in Zimbabwe. Unfortunately,
about 50% of that mercury is lost on amalgam plates, barrels, to the atmosphere and during retorting
and is thus a direct threat to the environment (Dreschler, 2001). Retorting practices utilized by ASGM
miners are primitive and very ineffective in containing the vaporized mercury.
ASGM miners use mercury amalgamation to extract the gold from the ore. The burning of the
amalgam is done at the mill sites but some workers, especially women, burn amalgam at their homes.
When the amalgam is heated, mercury evaporates from the mixture, leaving the gold behind (Mabhena,
2012). This method of gold extraction is cheaper than most alternative methods hence can be used by
one person independently, and is quick and easy (Mabhena, 2012). Gravimetric material flow analysis
show that 70-80% of the mercury is lost to the atmosphere during processing, while the remaining 20-
30% is lost to tailings, soils, stream sediments and water. For every 1 gram (g) of gold (Au) produced,
1.2-1.5 g mercury is lost to the environment (van Straaten, 2000).
Nitric acid is used to remove impurities from the mercury-gold amalgam. Most of the miners have
burns on their hands due to the unsafe use of nitric acid (Mabhena, 2012). Artisanal gold mining with
mercury is a subject of interest and debate by the public, international agencies and many environmental
pressure groups, because of mercury’s toxicity to living organisms (Mabhena, 2012). Mercury forms
part of the toxic elements that are of priority globally. In addition to problems arising from the use
of mercury, ASGM is fraught with very poor health and safety conditions as a result of lack of skills,
resources and ignorance. Chemical water pollution, especially by mercury, is one of the most pressing
environmental problems in ASGM. Mercury contamination associated with small-scale gold mining and
processing represents a major environmental and human health concern in eastern and southern Africa
(van Straaten, 2000).
Mercury is typically released untreated into the atmosphere and waterways where it is then trans-
formed by microbes into toxic methylmercury (Maponga & Meck, 2003). Exposure to acute levels can
produce dysfunctional kidneys, unitary tract infection, vomiting, and, potentially, death (Pereira, 2009).
Mabhena (2012) estimates that 3.5 million people are at risk from negative health effects in the ASGM
sector of which 2.5 million are in Africa.
Zimbabwe discovered that gold panners along the Mazowe in Zimbabwe use much more rudimentary
methods of mercury amalgamation than formal miners and are largely responsible for elevated levels
of mercury found in surrounding soils, rivers, and plants. Mercury concentrations are high above the
drinking water standard of 2 ppb (parts per billion) (United States Environmental Protection Agency
[USEPA], 2014). This scenario is believed to be similar in countries like Zambia and Mozambique since
use of mercury by ASGM is extensive in these countries as well. Mercury is poisonous to humans and
aquatic based food chains through bio accumulation. Dreschler (2001) notes that the use of mercury in

105
 
Impacts of Artisanal and Small-Scale Gold Mining

Zimbabwe is widespread, effective, simple and cheap with as much as one gram of gold recovered for
every two grams of mercury used. It is used with the view that the more mercury used the more gold
is recovered.
ASGM releases mercury in two forms, mercury vapor and metallic mercury. Mercury vapors in the
air around amalgam burning sites can be alarmingly high and exceed the WHO limit for public expo-
sure of 1.0 μg/m3 (Mabhena, 2012). Mercury is a persistent, highly toxic heavy metal whose continued
inhalation can cause death. Although inhalation is a serious occupational and economic hazard, the
conversion of re-deposited mercury vapor into methylmercury, a readily available and highly toxic form
of mercury, represents a critical health risk to residents consuming methylmercury contaminated foods
and water. Due to the behavior of mercury in aquatic ecosystems, mercury levels in carnivorous fish, a
crucial protein resource for many riparian communities, can be high.
Mercury in the air may settle into water bodies and affect water quality. Mercury is usually converted
into methylmercury in the muddy sediments of rivers and lakes by anaerobic bacteria and microorgan-
isms (Baird, 1999). This process of methylmercury formation could possibly result in low mercury con-
centration in the water column (United Nations Industrial Development Organization [UNIDO], 2007).
Methylmercury accumulates in fish at levels that may harm fish and the other animals that eat them.
Wildlife exposure to methylmercury can cause mortality, reduced fertility, slower growth and develop-
ment and abnormal behavior that affects survival. Research indicates that the endocrine system of fish,
which plays an important role in fish development and reproduction, may be altered by the levels of
methylmercury found in the environment. Once present in aquatic ecosystems, elemental and inorganic
mercury can undergo chemical transformation to methylated mercury and enter the food web. High level
predators such as birds, sea mammals and humans could be in danger of contamination.

Human Health Impacts of Mercury Exposure

Studies and breath test samples conducted in 2005 and 2006 in Manica District revealed that the average
level of mercury in the miners was 8.23 µg/m3, which corresponds to eight times the WHO recommended
levels of mercury in humans. Air in the area contained an average mercury contamination level of 0.4
μg/m3 (Veiga et al. 2005; Spiegel, Savorni, Shoko, & Veiga, 2006).
Evidence indicates that ASGM related mercury contamination is contributing to serious health and
ecological impacts and has raised concern among environmentalists. Mercury attacks the central nervous
system, affects brain function and, in extreme cases, exposure will lead to death. Effects on brain func-
tion may result in irritability, tremors, changes in vision or hearing and memory problems. Exposure to
high levels of mercury vapors may cause lung damage, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, increases in blood
pressure or heart rate, skin rashes, and eye irritation. In extreme cases, mercury exposure will be fatal.
The mercury that is not inhaled in the retorting process settles into the nearby environment and can
circulate throughout numerous food web tendrils and ecological subsystems (Manuel & Muacanhia,
1995; Muacanhia & Deniasse, 2007).
A survey by Dreschler (2001) to examine mercury poisoning in miners revealed that 60% of the
population had general body weakness, 55% had symptoms of nausea, 50% had lost teeth, 45% had a
history of respiratory distress and 40% had high salivation and tremors, 40% had high mercury levels
in hair and 30% had high mercury levels in blood. All these symptoms are associated with occupational
mercury poisoning.

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Impacts of Artisanal and Small-Scale Gold Mining

EFFECTS OF ASGM ON WATER QUALITY IN

MANICA DISTRICT IN MOZAMBIQUE

The quality of any body of surface or ground water is a function of either natural influences and human
activities, or both. Levels of water quality are assessed in terms of: physical characteristics of color,
temperature, taste, turbidity, hardness and odor; chemical characteristics such as conductivity, dissolved
salts and oxygen demand; and biological markers by the amount of micro-organisms present such as
bacteria, protozoa and algae parameters (World Health Organization [WHO], 2011). The definition of
water quality takes into account the fact that even when water is polluted it can be used for other purposes.
Siltation, another important water quality issue, is reported to have been increasing at the rate of more
than 5% per annum in Mozambique as well as in Zimbabwe (Chiwawa, 1993; Pereira, 2009; Manuel,
2011). Siltation has resulted in the reduction of conveyance and storage capacities of rivers and dams
and is believed to play a major role in the frequency and magnitude of flooding affecting Mozambique
and Zimbabwe. Siltation is also responsible for the destruction of habitats for fish and other aquatic
organisms (Zwane, 2004; Zwane, Love, Hoko & Shoko, 2006).
ASGM in Manica District physically disturbs the river bed and banks. This has directly and indirectly
enhanced river siltation due to the following mining activities:

• Intensive direct panning activities in the river waters

• Digging into river banks and river beds
• Unintentional release of tailings into waterways through erosion
• Dumping tailings directly into the river systems
• Diversion of rivers and streams from the normal courses to make mineralized alluvial
• Gravel accessible on the riverbed or to obtain water needed for washing
• Trenching paleochannels and floodplains and washing them directly into river waters
• Washing stockpiles of abandoned gold mines in the river

Water Pollution in the Upper Revué Catchment

The siltation and high turbidity in the Chicamba Dam and Revué River in Manica District of Mozam-
bique and its tributaries has rendered the water unsuitable for drinking, washing and irrigation. Before
the 1990’s, waters of the Revué River and its tributaries were transparent, clean and healthy with very
low turbidity. Today those rivers show cloudy reddish-brown waters from the Chicamba Dam and
downstream. The waters contain suspended fine particles of silt, clay and sand. The waters also contain
phytoplankton (suspended algae), bits of decaying vegetation, industrial wastes and sewage.
The siltation of the Revué River and its tributaries and Chicamba Dam blocks the penetration of light
into the water, depleting oxygen levels in the water, thus reducing the efficiency of photosynthesis carried
on by aquatic flora. The increased sedimentation and siltation also results in harm to habitat areas for
fish and other aquatic life. High turbidity will dramatically reduce the aesthetically pleasing appearance
of clean water and this will in turn have a harmful impact on recreation and tourism.
Siltation is of particular concern to the Chicamba Dam on the Revué River, which is important for
electricity generation and the water supply of Chimoio, capital of Manica Province, as well as Gondola

107
 
Impacts of Artisanal and Small-Scale Gold Mining

and Manica towns. The high turbidity increases the cost of water treatment for drinking at Chicamba
Dam. Transportation and accumulation of clay and silt particles accelerates the reduction in depth of
the Chicamba Dam.
It is a common practice in Manica District to divert rivers and collect water in open pools for gold
washing by legally and organized ASGM miners. However, the majority of artisanal and illegal gold
miners don’t divert the rivers waters, washing the gold ore directly in the rivers. This practice destroys
the river banks and creates massive sedimentation which perturbs the river’s ecological balance.
The upstream area had good quality water which could be used as potable water. In the upstream area
the metals concentrations were generally lower except for Cd, Mo and Ni compared with other areas.
The higher concentrations of Cd, Mo and Ni in the upstream area could be correlated directly with mafic
and ultramafic rocks occurring in this area which contained significant concentrations of these metals
(Zacarias, 2002). The typical rocks occurring in those areas were mainly gabbros, basalts, komatiites,
peridotites and serpentinites.
In order to characterize the impact of ASGM on surface water quality, three points along the Revué
River were selected for monitoring. These were (Table 1):

Table 1. Water quality data measured along the Revué River and the 1996 WHO recommended values
of drinking water

Parameter Upstream of mining Within the mining Downstream of mining WHO

area area area standards
Temp (oC) 18.9 21.7 19.2 25
TDS (mg/L) 74.34 90.27 143.37 --
Conductivity (uS/cm) 155.3 179.9 219.8 --
Turbidity (NTU) 7.28 16.9 92.2 0.5-1.0
pH acid/base balance 7.3 7.7 7.3 6.5-8.5
Ni (mg/l) nickel 0.0018 0.00061 0.0023 <0.02
Cr (mg/l) chromium 0.0064 0.0051 0.0062 <0.05
As (mg/l) arsenic 0.011 0.012 0.015 <0.05
Fe (mg/l) iron 0.02 0.05 0.06 <0.3
Ba (mg/l) barium 0.09 0.08 0.17 <0.1
Pb (mg/l) lead 0.0096 0.0088 0.026 <0.01
Mn (mg/l) manganese 0.024 0.044 0.18 <0.02
Ca (mg/l) calcium 3.8 4.3 7 <200
Mo (mg/l) molybdenum 0.0065 0.00096 0.0081 <0.05
Al (mg/l aluminum 0.04 0.1 0.08 <0.2
K (mg/l) potassium 0.396 0.504 1.061 <10
CaCO3 (mg/l) 32.4 47.6 58.4 NS
Calcium carbonate
Sr (mg/l) strontium 0.02 0.02 0.04 NS

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Impacts of Artisanal and Small-Scale Gold Mining

1. Upstream of mining area which is an untouched area without influence of mining

2. Within the mining area; and
3. Downstream of the mining area.

Table 1 shows that within the mining area, there were clear negative impacts of ASGM activities.
There occurred high physical degradation in this area along the river banks, in the river waters and in
the old formal gold mining areas along the Revué Basin. The levels of most metals in river waters within
the mining area were higher than the upstream area except for Cd, Mo and Ni. The ASGM activities are
directly responsible for the higher metals concentrations in the water. The gold mining activities are the
major source of pollution in the Revué River. The metals Ba, Mn and Pb had concentrations exceeding
the WHO recommended standards for drinking water. Thus, the water should not have been used as
source of potable water.
Total solids refer to matter suspended or dissolved in water, and is related to both specific conduc-
tance and turbidity. Total suspended solids (TSS) are solids in water that can be trapped by a filter. High
TSS can block light from reaching submerged vegetation. Electrical conductivity (EC) is a measure of
a substance ability to conduct electricity. The electrical conductivity is proportional to the total dis-
solved solids (TDS). In the Revué River the electrical conductivity ranged from 155.3 to 308.65 uS/cm
while the concentration of total dissolved solids ranged from 74.34 to 191.16 mg/1. The lowest values
of these two determinants were observed upstream of the mining area. Compared to the upstream area,
the values of electrical conductivity and total suspended solids (TSS) rose gradually in the mining area
where ASGM activities are intense. The area downstream from the mining area contained high values
of electrical conductivity and total suspended solids (TSS).
In the Chicamba Dam (downstream of the mining area), most metals undergo a general auto-puri-
fication action of either precipitation or absorption which should improve the water quality. Modeling
indicates that the concentrations of metals Cr, AI, Mn and Fe are controlled by the precipitation pro-
cesses while concentrations of As, Cd, Zn, Cu, Ni, Pb, Ba and Ca are controlled by adsorption on the
sediment surfaces. Settling sediments act as a sink and scavenger of dissolved metals thus inducing an
auto-purification process in the impounded water of Chicamba Dam. Modeling predicts that this process
should be capable of removing Ba, Pb, Cd, Zn, Cu and Ni totally from the water. In reality Ba and Pb
concentrations remain above the WHO recommended standards for drinking water.
Concentrations of elements such as Al, Ba, K, Pb and Sr show an increase in the Chicamba Dam,
perhaps due to the inflow of water from Zonue, Messica and Nhamanguena Rivers which cross the
granite-gneiss complex. Ideally the water in Chicamba Dam should undergo water treatment prior to
distribution as potable water in Chimoio City to reduce Ba and Pb concentrations to acceptable levels.
Currently only disinfection is practiced. Because of the poor economy of the country and lack of trained
human resources, any water treatment scheme needs to be relatively inexpensive and be constructed of
reliable and proven technology.
From Table 1, it is clear that turbidity data show that there were high values above the standard
downstream of the gold panning activities. This was a result of the digging up of river beds and banks
thus feeding a lot of soil into the river system, which caused high turbidity. Mines discharge a lot of
dissolved and suspended material which give rise to turbidity.

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Impacts of Artisanal and Small-Scale Gold Mining

Water Quality Problems for Agriza Messinga Agricola Lda

The Manica uplands are a highly productive agricultural area with excellent natural advantages of good
rainfall and soils in wide valleys at about 800 m above sea level. Agriza Messinga Agricola Lda. is an
agriculture company founded in 2001 which produces tobacco, fruits such as bananas and litchis and
maize, beans and vegetables. The Agriza Messinga Agricola Lda. uses the waters of Chua and Revué
rivers for irrigation and drinking purposes in their various farms in Messinga, locality of Mharidza, in
Machipanda-Manica District. In the past these rivers were very clean and healthy. Currently there is
intense informal artisanal mining along the Chua and Revué Rivers causing river bank destruction, high
levels of red siltation creating notably increased value of turbidity and water flow modifications. As
consequences, the company has experienced financial loss because:

• High performance irrigation pumps and irrigation expressers have been damaged. The cost to rent
equipment while damaged equipment was repaired was approximately 1,200,000 Mozambican
metical (MT).
• In 2008, the average bunch of bananas weighed 40 kg, in 2009--32 kg and 2010--20 kg. This de-
crease was caused by water pollution.
• Tobacco quality and production also decreased.
• Vegetable and maize production have been eliminated because of siltation turbidity problems.
• Apart of these loses Agriza Messinga Agricola Lda misses the opportunity to be financed by
World Bank.

Additional Health Impacts of ASGM in Manica District from Arsenic

Skin diseases are the most typical symptoms of chronic exposure to arsenic in drinking water. Other
symptoms include pigmentation disorders, hyperkeratosis, skin cancer, renal, gastrointestinal, neuro-
logical, hematological, cardiovascular and respiratory problems. Lung cancer results from inhalation
of arsenic and cancer of the bladder and kidneys from the ingestion of arsenic (Baird, 1999). Sever
vomiting and diarrhea is a result of gastrointestinal damage due to consumption of acute dosages. The
symptoms become visible within eight minutes after ingesting a contaminated liquid and up to ten hours
after ingesting a contaminated solid (Baird, 1999).

EFFECTS OF ASGM ON WATER QUALITY IN

MZINGWANE DISTRICT IN ZIMBABWE

Water Quality Along Ngwabalozi River in Mzingwane District in Zimbabwe

Small scale miners along Ngwabalozi River in Mzingwane district do not have proper waste disposal
facilities, hence mercury is continuously discharged into Ngwabalozi River in western Zimbabwe. A
study was conducted by Mudyazhezha and Kanhukamwe (2014) to analyze and compare water samples
for sulphates, mercury, iron, arsenic and turbidity at one point 900 m upstream (control point) and another
point downstream of the mining area (Table 2).

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Impacts of Artisanal and Small-Scale Gold Mining

Table 2. The means of selected chemical parameters from the sampling sites

Parameter Upstream Downstream WHO standards

mercury (mg/l) 0.01 0.31 ≤ 0.01 or 0.05 mg L-1
Iron (mg/l) 0.10 0.11 ≤ 1.0
Sulphates mg/l 8.47 13.57 ≤ 250
Arsenic mg/l 0.01 0.10 ≤ 0.05
Turbidity (NTU) 3.45 201.11 1-5
pH 2.5 3.0 6.5 to 7.5
Source: Mudyazhezha and Kanhukamwe, 2014, p.125.

Mercury concentrations were lower upstream (the control point) of the gold panning activities and
increased thirty fold downstream. Gold panners are contributing significantly to the built up of mercury
concentration in the river.
Turbidity was lower upstream than downstream of the gold panning site. They remained invariably
constant throughout the stream, ranging from 0.1 mg/L upstream to 0.11 mg/l downstream. Arsenic
concentrations were lowest upstream of gold mining activities (0.01 mg/l). The concentrations increased
eleven fold downstream as a result of liberation from gold panning activities.
Sulphate concentrations increased downstream by about 48%. The majority of materials and met-
als extracted from the Earth by mining occur naturally as sulphide ores or are associated with sulphide
minerals. Surface ore and waste stockpiles commonly contain significant amounts of sulphides and,
with the passage of time, heavy metals, sulphates and other pollutants are dissolved and leached out by
precipitation into local streams and community water sources (Shandro, Veiga, & Chouinard, 2009).
Turbidity also increased from 3.45 Nephelometric Turbidity Units (NTU) upstream to 201.11 NTU
downstream of the gold panning site. The digging up of river beds and banks by gold panners is freeing
a lot of sand that is then transported into the river system resulting in high turbidity. The four major
dams downstream are under threat from siltation due to land degradation. This has affected the dams’
storage capacity and water quality of the waters contained by the dams.

Water Pollution and Other Mining Related Issues in Zhulube Catchment

Tunhuma, Keldermana, Love & Uhlenbrook (2007) conducted a study to assess the impacts of gold
panning in the Zhulube catchment in Mzingwane district in Zimbabwe and the Tshazi River (Table
3). The results show that small scale gold resource exploitation in Zhulube catchment have negative
impacts on the environment in general and water resources in particular. These activities caused land
clearance, erosion, sedimentation and introduction of pollutants among other environmental impacts.
Officials in the Mzingwane District claims that more than 20 people are injured or killed every year as
a result of collapse of sidewalls and hanging walls which are undercut without underground support
systems (Dreschler, 2001). The most significant source of environmental degradation, gold panning, was
observed to cause an increase in sedimentation, an elevation of sulphates entering water bodies and an
introduction of the toxic metal mercury into the aquatic environment. Table 3 lists the most significant
negative effects of gold mining.

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Impacts of Artisanal and Small-Scale Gold Mining

Table 3. Water quality levels in Zhulube and Tshazi Rivers

Parameter Tshazi River Zhulube River

pH 7.425 7.25
Hardness (mg/l) 67 34.5
Total dissolved solids (mg/l) 893.375 665.94
Total suspended solids (mg/l) 726 317
Nitrates (mg /l) 1.485 2.36
Phosphate (mg /l) 0.175 0.08
Ni (mg/l) 0.14 0.14
Source: Tunhuma et al. (2007)

Nitrates and phosphates measured in the water samples are less than the amount for drinking water
in Zimbabwe and within the WHO drinking water standards. The WHO standard for nickel is 0.07mg/l
but in the entire campaign, for both rivers, an average value of 0.14mg/L was found. This implies that
the value cannot be attributed to any exploitation activity since it is the same in both rivers, thus rather
can only be regarded as a background value.
Panning activities increase at the onset of the rainy season due to the availability of water. The increase
in suspended sediment in Tshazi is therefore mainly attributed to this activity. In comparison with water
standards for effluent discharge, both rivers have most of their values in the red class, which means they
far exceed Zimbabwean safe water standards.

SOLUTIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

The following section will refer only to artisanal mining sector as a convenience for not listing ASGM
and artisanal mining sector each time. The author believes that the entire mining industry should be
legalized and regulated is such a manner that all miners, their families and communities, benefit from
the reasonable and environmentally friendly exploitation of resources available.

Formalizing the Artisanal Mining Sector

It is imperative that the artisanal mining sector be formalized as part of a program to develop the economy
and empower the people in Mozambique and Zimbabwe. Formalizing should not just be an issue of
legalizing artisanal mining but also of creating a good business model, ensuring sustainability and so-
cial acceptance of the activity. For formalization to succeed the costs and risks associated with a formal
artisanal mining sector should be lower than the costs and risks associated with the current informal and
illegal scenario. Costs incurred by the government must include financial and human resources while
artisanal miners will have to pay administrative fees, royalties, corporate taxes and land leases.
The process of formalizing the artisanal mining sector should follow certain steps. First is to legalize
artisanal mining by creating a ministerial policy on artisanal mining or at the very least including it in
the National Minerals Policy. The policy will then be used as a guideline by law-makers in legalizing all

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Impacts of Artisanal and Small-Scale Gold Mining

forms of artisanal mining within environmentally sustainable bounds. Once the law is in place it is im-
portant that it be administered in a decentralized, transparent and efficient manner. The government must
ensure the efficient implement the law by providing adequate human, material and financial resources.

Law Enforcement

Limited enforcement of and compliance with national law is also partially responsible for the negative
effects of artisanal small mining. It is therefore recommended that local communities should be involved
in policy making, environmental protection and law enforcement. Furthermore, a continuous and sys-
tematic environmental monitoring system should be set up. This system would then act as the basis of
decision making in areas of small scale resource exploitation.

Incentives

The artisanal mining sector should include attractive incentives. Artisanal mining is a profit-motivated
activity and if there are no economic benefits to operate legally, miners will continue to operate illegally.
These incentives can be either direct or indirect. Direct incentives could include access to finance and
direct subsidies while indirect incentives could include a positively beneficial tax structure and technical
assistance. Artisanal miners should also be able to use formal markets, formal banking systems and the
legality of the operations as a marketing argument with fair trade organizations.

Organizing ASGM

Finally, artisanal miners should be well organized in unions, cooperatives and partnerships to secure their
permits, attract investment and obtain loans. Government officials should then make mining technologies
and specialized mining services available to the artisanal miners. It is important that the government and
the miners decide on what organizational form will best suit the artisanal mining sector. The smaller the
organizational units, the more the mining permits the Government has to issue. Slower processing times
and inefficiency will be reduced by instituting best practices for regulation of the industry.

Ratification of the Minamata Convention on Mercury

Concerns on the negative impacts of mercury gave rise to the Conference of Plenipotentiaries on the
Minamata Convention on Mercury (United Nations Environmental Program [UNEP], 2013). The conven-
tion is an international treaty designed to protect human health and the environment from anthropogenic
emissions and releases of mercury and mercury compounds. The convention was a result of international
action aimed at managing mercury in an efficient, effective and coherent manner, while member states
work towards its total elimination. Zimbabwe and Mozambique have signed the convention and are
working towards ratification. The document obliges member states to ensure there is informed consent
from the receiving state in relation to the trade in mercury or mercury based products. Trade in mercury
or mercury based products will be restricted to allowed purposes under the instrument and also domes-
tic law, and only in quantities needed for those purposes. The instrument put restrictive measures on
the use of mercury especially in the mining sector. There is a need for the development of sustainable

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technologies to extract gold in preparation for the restrictions that will be imposed on trade in mercury.
Once ratified, the main benefit of the document is that it will be a reference point to provide direction
on how national legislation can be developed to tackle the on-going problem of controlling the use and
influx of mercury into the country and prevent the possibility of Zimbabwe being a dumping ground of
such hazardous substances. Large-scale public health crises due to mercury poisoning, such as Minamata
disease, drew attention to the issue.
Some projects are underway in the Manica district to reduce the occupational health hazards of
artisanal gold miners by promoting a safer, healthier and more cost-effective use of mercury in their
mining operations. The effort is aimed at managing mercury use and emissions by promoting control
measures utilizing local resources. Retorts, for example, which are protective containers which hold the
mercury during gold processing, were fabricated with local materials. Training workshops introduced
the homemade retorts, and a portable mercury monitor revealed effective mercury reduction.

DISCUSSION AND FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS

ASGM is an important activity in developing countries where poverty-stricken people use natural re-
sources to process the gold ores. This paper highlighted that ASGM has socio-economic benefits and
demerits. With regards to the environment, it is largely blamed for the siltation of rivers, dams and lakes.
Water quality is subjected to physical, chemical and biological pollution resulting in the deterioration of
water. Turbidity and mercury pollution are major pollutants in Manica and Mzingwane districts.
Available literature (Zacarias & Manuel, 2003; Zacarias, 2002; Veiga et al. 2005; Spiegel et al., 2006)
shows that there is not a lot of available information to understand the scope and depth of the problems
associated with artisanal mining. There is a need for the further, intense study of mercury use and its
associated problems in locations, other than Manica province, where artisanal mining takes place. The
waters of the Revué River and its tributaries, although basic testing has been conducted, has not been
sufficiently researched in terms of mercury contamination. Compared to other catchments, however, the
Revué River Catchment is the one with the most non-mercury data available.
Turbidity is linked to TSS because waters with high TSS levels typically look murkier and have higher
turbidity measurements than those with lower TSS levels. Increased turbidity due to siltation reduces
water quality by creating favorable conditions for harmful microbes. Turbidity promotes regrowth of
pathogens in the distribution system, leading to waterborne disease outbreaks, which cause significant
cases of gastroenteritis.
ASGM operators use simple technology, their operations are rudimentary in design, and for various
reasons which have not been investigated for the purposes of this chapter, they have few concerns for the
environment. In Manica and Mzingwane districts, pollution from mercury alongside land degradation
is one the most pressing environmental problems. With small-scale mining activities intensifying, it is
highly likely that these problems will worsen, making it crucial that practical environmental strategies
are a focus of future research, design and implementation. In light of this, it is important for stakehold-
ers to take an integrated approach in making small-scale mining activities environmentally, socially and
economically sustainable.

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Impacts of Artisanal and Small-Scale Gold Mining

CONCLUSION

ASGM is a widespread activity in Southern Africa due to recurrent droughts and economic hardships
within the region. It contributes positive to the socio-economic being of many African countries but has
also contributed to the deterioration of environmental quality. Artisanal and small-scale mining activities
or operations lack capital, are labor intensive, have poor access to markets and support services, low
standards of health and safety and have a significant impact on the environment. Miners are organized
in groups or co-operatives of ten or more individuals, which are entirely financed by existing resources
at a certain limit, and carried out on a full-time basis using simple traditional techniques and tools of
low mechanization levels.
This paper examines the effects of artisanal and small-scale gold mining on water quality in Zimbabwe
and Mozambique. The exploitation of gold has resulted in serious damage to river basins, posing serious
threats on future water supplies. The use of mercury for gold concentration and amalgamation ends up
polluting water. With regards to health, mercury harms major human organs such as kidneys and causes
irreversible neurological damage. ASGM settlements are unplanned and sited close to watercourses with
poor sanitary facilities resulting in considerable pollution from human waste, which was not investigated
for the purposes of this chapter.
As a result, efforts are being made to globally reduce the use and release of mercury for health and
environmental reasons. The Conference of Plenipotentiaries on the Minamata Convention on Mercury
(UNEP, 2013), which many countries including Mozambique and Zimbabwe agreed to, is a global, le-
gally binding instrument on management of mercury. Therefore, the realization that small scale mining
is largely a poverty driven economic activity demands a coordinated and collaborative approach which
is geared towards poverty alleviation, improving knowledge and skills as well as improving the mining
system from production to marketing. This requires cooperation by national governments, the mining
industry, local communities and the small scale miners themselves.

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KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS

Alluvial: Has to do with the areas around the edges of rivers where the river waters sometimes flow.
Amalgamation: Is the process of combining multiple chemical components into one form. In the
case of gold mining, the two primary chemicals are gold and mercury.
Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining: Refers to legal or illegal mining activities or operations that
exploit marginal or small deposits using rudimentary methods and processes to extract mineral resources.

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Minamata Disease: Is methylmercury poisoning that occurs in people who eat seafood contaminated
by methylmercury.
Paleochannels: Are remains of an inactive river or creek that has been filled in by years of erosion
or siltation.
Retort: is a protective container that holds the mercury during gold extraction process. It may have
a rounder base and long neck.
Tailings: are waste that remains after a mineral has been separated from an ore.
Trans-Boundary Pollutants: Are contaminating materials or chemicals that cross borders between
countries. The pollutants can use any transportation mode available to them and may travel hundreds
or thousands of kilometers.
Turbidity: is the measure of relative clarity of a liquid hence describes the state, condition or quality
of opaqueness or reduced clarity of a liquid, due to the presence of suspended matter.
Water Pollution: Is the change in the physical, chemical, radiological or biological and aesthetic
properties or quality of water which determine its fitness for a variety of uses and for protecting the
health and integrity of aquatic ecosystems.
Water Quality: Is a measure of the amount and types of substances contained in water with respect
to what it is intended to be used for. Hence describes the degree of usefulness of water for a particular
purpose.

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