17.03.

2015

Çukurova Üniversitesi Biyomedikal Mühendisliği

BMM220-Biyolojik Sistemler ve Radyasyon

Giriş, genel bilgiler

Sunu-1,2

Prof.Dr.Mustafa Güven

Biyolojik Sistemler ve Radyasyon

1. Elektromanyetik ışıma- giriş-genel bilgiler
2. Radyasyonun biyolojik etkilerine göre sınıflaması
3. Non-iyonize ışınlar, fiziksel ve biyolojik etkileri
4. Non-iyonize ışınların biyomedikal uygulamaları
5. İyonize radyasyon kaynakları, fiziksel ve biyolojik etkileri
6. İyonize radyasyonun biyomedikal uygulamaları
7. X-ışını kullanan diğer medikal tanı ve tedavi yöntemleri
8. Arasınav
9. Nükleer tıp, giriş-genel bilgiler
10.İzotop kavramı, radyoaktif bozunma
11.Nükleer tıp cihazları, gama kamera, PET
12.Nükleer ışımanın biyolojik etkileri ve doz kavramı
13.Radyasyonun ile ilgili hastane ortamının incelenmesi ve kurallar
14.Radyasyonun medikal sektördeki endüstriyel uygulamaları
15.Seçme konular
16.Final sınavı

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Radiation is energy in the form of waves or streams of particles.

There are many kinds of radiation all around us. When people hear the
word radiation, they often think of atomic energy, nuclear power and
radioactivity, but radiation has many other forms. Sound and visible light
are familiar forms of radiation; other types include ultraviolet radiation (that
produces a suntan), infrared radiation (a form of heat energy), and radio
and television signals. Figure presents an overview of the electromagnetic
spectrum;

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Noktasal bir enerji kaynağından yarıçaplar doğrultusunda çevreye her

türlü kütleli, yüklü, enerjetik tanecik veya dalgasal enerji yayılmasına
ışıma (radyasyon), adı verilir.

Elektromagnetik dalgalar,
dalga boyu km'lerle ifade
edilen radyo dalgalarından
dalga boyu 10-16 m
dolaylarına kadar inen γ-
ışınlarına kadar geniş bir
aralığı kapsar. Spektrumdaki
farklı bölgelerin oluşum
mekanizmaları da madde ile
etkileşim biçimleri de
farklılıklar gösterir.

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Görünür ışık ve morötesi ışık

atomik enerji düzeyleri
arasındaki geçişlerden,
kızılötesi ışınları ise
moleküler enerji düzeyleri
arasındaki geçişlerden
kaynaklanır. Spektrumun
özel bölgelerine verilen
adlarla bu bölgeler arasında
çok keskin olmayan sınırlar
vardır.

Bütün elektromagnetik dalgalar

boşlukta aynı bir c = 3.108 m/s
hızı ile ve birbirine dik
doğrultudaki elekriksel ve
magnetik alan değişmeleri
şeklinde yayılır. Elektromagnetik
dalgalar hem dalgasal, hem de
tanecik tabiatlı bir enerji
yayılmasıdır. Dalgaların yayılma
hızı (c), frekansı (f) ve dalga Elektromagnetik dalgalar enine dalgalardır
boyu () arasında, ve birbirine dik elektrik ve magnetik alan
c = . f [m/s] değişimlerinin birbirini doğurması şeklinde
ilerler (a). Elektromagnetik enerji paketçiği
şeklinde bir ilişki bulunur. foton simgesi (b).

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Herhangi bir moleküler-atomik sistem hangi enerjili fotonları salabiliyor

ise aynı enerjili fotonları soğurabilmektedir. Bir foton soğurarak uyarılmış
duruma geçen moleküler bir sistem, soğurduğu enerjinin bir kısmını
başka bir biçime dönüştürdükten sonra, daha büyük dalga boylu ışınlar
salabilir. Genel olarak luminesans adı verilen bu ışıma uyarılmadan çok
kısa bir süre içinde gerçekleşiyorsa fluoresans, uzun süreler alıyorsa
fosforesans adı verilir.

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Atoms
All life has evolved in an environment filled with radiation. The forces at
work in radiation are revealed upon examining the structure of atoms.
Atoms are a million times thinner than a single strand of human hair, and
are composed of even smaller particles – some of which are electrically
charged.

proton electron

neutron

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Atoms
Atoms form the basic building blocks of all matter. In other words, all matter in the
world begins with atoms – they are elements like oxygen, hydrogen, and carbon.
An atom consists of a nucleus – made up of protons and neutrons that are kept
together by nuclear forces and electrons that are in orbit around the nucleus. The
nucleus carries a positive charge; protons are positively charged, and neutrons do
not carry a charge. The electrons, which carry a negative charge, move around the
nucleus in clouds (or shells). The negative electrons are attracted to the positive
nucleus because of the electrical force. This is how the atom stays together.

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Atoms
Each element is distinguished by the number of protons in its nucleus. This
number, which is unique to each element, is called the “atomic number”. For
example, carbon has six protons; therefore, its atomic number is 6 on the
periodic table. In an atom an atom of neutral charge, the atomic number is also
equal to the number of electrons. An atom’s chemical properties are determined
by the number of electrons, which is normally equal to the atomic number.

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Isotopes
An isotope is a variant of a particular chemical element. While all isotopes
of a given element have the same number of protons, each isotope has a
different number of neutrons. For example, hydrogen has three isotopes (or
variants):
•hydrogen-1 (contains one proton and no neutrons)
•hydrogen-2, which is called deuterium (contains one proton and one
neutron)
•hydrogen-3, which is called tritium (contains one proton and two neutrons)
Another example is uranium-235, which has 92 protons and 143 neutrons,
as opposed to uranium-238, which has 92 protons and 146 neutrons.

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Isotopes
An isotope is stable when it has a balanced number of neutrons and protons. In
general, when an isotope is small and stable, it contains close to an equal
number of protons and neutrons. Isotopes that are larger and stable have
slightly more neutrons than protons. Examples of stable nuclides include
carbon-12 (six protons and six neutrons for a total mass of 12), phosphorus-30
(15 protons and 15 neutrons) and sodium22 (11 protons and 11 neutrons).

En basit çekirdek olan hidrojen

çekirdeği sadece protondan oluşmuş,
bundan başka bütün diğer çekirdekler
nötron ve protonlardan oluşmuştur.
Nötronların protonlara oranı hafif
izotoplarda bir iken, periyodik
çizelgenin sonundaki ağır elementlere
doğru giderek artar. Bu oran daha çok
arttığında izotopun artık kararlı
olmadığı bir yere gelinir. En ağır kararlı
izotop 83Bi 207 olup, daha ağır izotoplar
dışarıya verecekleri fazla enerjileri
olduğundan kararsızdır. Bunlar kararlı
hale gelene dek enerji fazlalıklarını bazı
ışınlar yayınlayarak giderirler. Bu olaya
“radyoaktivite” veya “radyoaktif
parçalanma” denir. 17

Radioisotopes

Isotopes that are not stable and emit radiation are called radioisotopes. A
radioisotope is an isotope of an element that undergoes spontaneous decay
and emits radiation as it decays. During the decay process, it becomes less
radioactive over time, eventually becoming stable. Once an atom reaches a
stable configuration, it no longer gives off radiation. For this reason, radioactive
sources – or sources that spontaneously emit energy in the form of ionizing
radiation as a result of the decay of an unstable atom – become weaker with
time. As more and more of the source’s unstable atoms become stable, less
radiation is produced and the activity of the material decreases over time to
zero.
Radyizotopların sahip oldukları kararsız
atom sayılarının yarıya inmesi için
geçmesi gereken süreye yarılanma süresi
(yarı ömür) denir ve T1/2 ile gösterilir. (T1/2
=0.693/ ) Her izotopun kendine özgü bir
yarı ömrü vardır ve bu süre saniyeler kadar
kısa veya milyarca yıl gibi uzun
olabilmektedir. Radyoaktif bir maddenin
birim zamandaki parçalanma sayısı, o
andaki mevcut atom sayısı ile orantılıdır. 18

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The time it takes for a radioisotope to decay to half of its starting activity is called
the radiological halflife, which is denoted by the symbol t½. Each radioisotope
has a unique half-life, and it can range from a fraction of a second to billions of
years. For example, iodine-131 has an eight-day half-life, whereas plutonium-
239 has a half-life of 24,000 years. A radioisotope with a short half-life is more
radioactive than a radioisotope with a long half-life, and therefore will give off
more radiation during a given time period.

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There are three main types of radioactive decay:

• Alpha decay: Alpha decay occurs when the atom ejects a particle from the
nucleus, which consists of two neutrons and two protons..
• Beta decay: In basic beta decay, a neutron is turned into a proton and an
electron is emitted from the nucleus.
• Gamma decay: Gamma decay takes place when there is residual energy
in the nucleus following alpha or beta decay, or after neutron capture (a type
of nuclear reaction) in a nuclear reactor.

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• Alpha decay: Alpha decay occurs when the atom ejects a particle from the
nucleus, which consists of two neutrons and two protons. When this happens,
the atomic number decreases by 2 and the mass decreases by 4. Examples
of alpha emitters include radium, radon, uranium and thorium.

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• Beta decay: In basic beta decay, a neutron is turned into a proton and an
electron is emitted from the nucleus. The atomic number increases by one, but
the mass only decreases slightly. Examples of pure beta emitters include
strontium-90, carbon-14, tritium and sulphur-35.

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The number of nuclear disintegrations in a radioactive material per unit time is

called the activity. The activity is used as a measure of the amount of a
radionuclide, and it is measured in becquerels (Bq).

1 Bq = 1 disintegration per second.

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If the original source of the radioactivity is known, it can be predicted how long it
will take to decay to a given activity. The decay is exponential and the isotope must
go through many half-lives to become nonradioactive. Figure depicts the
radioactive decay curve of carbon-14, which has a half-life of about 5,700 years.

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Types and Sources of Radiation

Radiation is energy in the form of waves of particles. There are two forms of
radiation: -non-ionizing and -ionizing

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Types of Radiation

Radiation is energy in the form of waves of particles. There are two forms of
radiation: -non-ionizing and -ionizing

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Non-ionizing radiation: Non-ionizing radiation has less energy than

ionizing radiation; it does not possess enough energy to produce ions.

Examples of non-ionizing radiation are visible light, infrared, radio waves,

microwaves, and sunlight. Global positioning systems, cellular telephones,
television stations, FM and AM radio, baby monitors, cordless phones,
garage-door openers, and ham radios use non-ionizing radiation. Other
forms include the earth’s magnetic field, as well as magnetic field exposure
from proximity to transmission lines, household wiring and electric
appliances. These are defined as extremely low-frequency (ELF) waves
and are not considered to pose a health risk.

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Ionizing radiation: Ionizing radiation is capable of knocking electrons out of

their orbits around atoms, upsetting the electron/proton balance and giving the
atom a positive charge. Electrically charged molecules and atoms are called
ions. Ionizing radiation includes the radiation that comes from both natural and
man-made radioactive materials.
Kararlı durumdaki atomun elektronlarından biri
koparıldığında, protonların sayısı elektronlardan fazla
olacağından atom bir elektrik yükü kazanacaktır. Bu
şekilde bir elektronun atomdan ayrılmasından sonra
geriye kalan atoma “iyon” adı verilir. İyonların meydana
gelişi olayına da “iyonizasyon” denir.

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There are several types of ionizing radiation:

Alpha radiation (α)

Alpha radiation consists of alpha particles that are made up of two protons
and two neutrons each and that carry a double positive charge.

Beta radiation (β)

Beta radiation consists of charged particles that are ejected from an
atom’s nucleus and that are physically identical to electrons.

Photon radiation (gamma [γ] and X-ray) – Alfa parçacıkları

Photon radiation is electromagnetic radiation. – Beta parçacıkları
– Gama ışınları
– Nötron parçacıkları
Neutron radiation (n) – X-Işınları
Apart from cosmic radiation, spontaneous X-Işınları dışındaki
radyasyonlar, atom çekirdeğinden
fission is the only natural source of neutrons. çıkmakta ve bundan dolayı bunlara
nükleer radyasyonlar da
denilmektedir.

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Alpha radiation (α)

Alpha radiation consists of alpha particles that are made up of two protons and
two neutrons each and that carry a double positive charge. Due to their relatively
large mass and charge, they have an extremely limited ability to penetrate matter.
Alpha radiation can be stopped by a piece of paper or the dead outer layer of the
skin. Consequently, alpha radiation from nuclear substances outside the body
does not present a radiation hazard. However, when alpha-radiation-emitting
nuclear substances are taken into the body (for example, by breathing them in or
by ingesting them), the energy of the alpha radiation is completely absorbed into
bodily tissues. For this reason, alpha radiation is only an internal hazard. An
example of a nuclear substance that undergoes alpha decay is radon-222, which
decays to polonium-218.

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Beta radiation (β)

Beta radiation consists of charged particles that are ejected from an atom’s
nucleus and that are physically identical to electrons. Beta particles
generally have a negative charge, are very small and can penetrate more
deeply than alpha particles. However, most beta radiation can be stopped
by small amounts of shielding, such as sheets of plastic, glass or metal.
When the source of radiation is outside the body, beta radiation with
sufficient energy can penetrate the body’s dead outer layer of skin and
deposit its energy within active skin cells. However, beta radiation is very
limited in its ability to penetrate to deeper tissues and organs in the body.
Beta-radiation-emitting nuclear substances can also be hazardous if taken
into the body. An example of a nuclear substance that undergoes beta
emission is tritium (hydrogen-3), which decays to helium-3.

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Photon radiation (gamma [γ] and X-ray)

Photon radiation is electromagnetic radiation. There are two types of photon

radiation of interest for the purpose of this document: gamma (γ) and X-ray.
Gamma radiation consists of photons that originate from within the nucleus, and
X-ray radiation consists of photons that originate from outside the nucleus, and
are typically lower in energy than gamma radiation. Photon radiation can
penetrate very deeply and sometimes can only be reduced in intensity by
materials that are quite dense, such as lead or steel. In general, photon radiation
can travel much greater distances than alpha or beta radiation, and it can
penetrate bodily tissues and organs when the radiation source is outside the body.
Photon radiation can also be hazardous if photon-emitting nuclear substances are
taken into the body. An example of a nuclear substance that undergoes photon
emission is cobalt-60, which decays to nickel-60.

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Neutron radiation (n)

Apart from cosmic radiation, spontaneous fission is the only natural source of
neutrons (n). A common source of neutrons is the nuclear reactor, in which the
splitting of a uranium or plutonium nucleus is accompanied by the emission of
neutrons. The neutrons emitted from one fission event can strike the nucleus
of an adjacent atom and cause another fission event, inducing a chain
reaction. The production of nuclear power is based upon this principle. All
other sources of neutrons depend on reactions where a nucleus is bombarded
with a certain type of radiation (such as photon radiation or alpha radiation),
and where the resulting effect on the nucleus is the emission of a neutron.
Neutrons are able to penetrate tissues and organs of the human body when
the radiation source is outside the body. Neutrons can also be hazardous if
neutron-emitting nuclear substances are deposited inside the body.
Neutron radiation is best shielded or absorbed by materials that contain
hydrogen atoms, such as paraffin wax and plastics. This is because neutrons
and hydrogen atoms have similar atomic weights and readily undergo
collisions between each other.

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Figure summarizes the types of radiation discussed in this document, from

higher-energy ionizing radiation to lower-energy non-ionizing radiation. Each
radiation source differs in its ability to penetrate various materials, such as paper,
skin, lead and water.

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Sources of ionizing radiation

Natural sources of ionizing radiation

Radiation has always been present and is all around us in many forms. Life has
evolved in a world with significant levels of ionizing radiation, and our bodies
have adapted to it.

Many radioisotopes are naturally occurring, and originated during the formation
of the solar system and through the interaction of cosmic rays with molecules in
the atmosphere. Tritium is an example of a radioisotope formed by cosmic rays’
interaction with atmospheric molecules. Some radioisotopes (such as uranium
and thorium) that were formed when our solar system was created have half-
lives of billions of years, and are still present in our environment. Background
radiation is the ionizing radiation constantly present in the natural environment.

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Four major sources of public exposure to natural radiation:

• Cosmic radiation

• Terrestrial radiation

• Inhalation

• Ingestion

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Exposure from cosmic radiation

The earth’s outer atmosphere is

continually bombarded by cosmic
radiation. Usually, cosmic radiation
consists of fast moving particles that exist
in space and originate from a variety of
sources, including the sun and other
celestial events in the universe. Cosmic
rays are mostly protons but can be other
particles or wave energy. Some ionizing
radiation will penetrate the earth’s
atmosphere and become absorbed by
humans which results in natural radiation
exposure.

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cosmic radiation

Güneş sisteminden veya dışından gelen

yüksek enerjili primer kozmik ışınlar
(fotonlar veya muonlar) atmosferin üst
tabakalarındaki atomlarla etkileşerek bir
gama ışınları çığı ve radyoaktif atomlar
meydana getirirler. Bunlar genelde
atmosferde kalırlar, çok az bir oranı
yeryüzüne ulaşır.
Atmosfer ve yerin magnetik alanı kozmik
radyasyona karşı yeryüzünü korur. Bu
nedenle ekvatordan kutuplara gidildikçe
ve aynı zamanda deniz seviyesinden
yükseldikçe kozmik ışınların yoğunluğu
artmaktadır

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Cosmic radiation

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Cosmic radiation

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Exposure from terrestrial radiation

The composition of the earth’s crust is a major source of natural radiation. The
main contributors are natural deposits of uranium, potassium and thorium which,
in the process of natural decay, will release small amounts of ionizing radiation.
Uranium and thorium are found essentially everywhere. Traces of these minerals
are also found in building materials so exposure to natural radiation can occur
from indoors as well as outdoors.

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Terrestrial radiation

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Exposure through inhalation and ingestion

Most of the variation in exposure to natural radiation results from inhalation of
radioactive gases that are produced by radioactive minerals found in soil and
bedrock. Radon is an odourless and colourless radioactive gas that is produced
by the decay of uranium. Thoron is a radioactive gas produced by the decay of
thorium. Radon and thoron levels vary considerably by location depending on the
composition of soil and bedrock.

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Exposure through inhalation and ingestion

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Exposure through inhalation and ingestion

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Exposure through inhalation and ingestion

Trace amounts of radioactive minerals are naturally found in the

contents of food and drinking water. For instance, vegetables are
typically cultivated in soil and ground water which contains radioactive
minerals.Once ingested, these minerals result in internal exposure to
natural radiation.
Naturally occurring radioactive isotopes, such as potassium-40 and
carbon-14, have the same chemical and biological properties as their
non-radioactive isotopes. These radioactive and non-radioactive
elements are used in building and maintaining our bodies. Natural
radioisotopes continually expose us to radiation and are commonly
found in many foods, such as Brazil nuts.

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Artificial (man-made) sources of ionizing radiation

People are also exposed to man-made radiation from medical treatments and
activities involving radioactive material. Radioisotopes are produced as a by-
product of the operation of nuclear reactors, and by radioisotope generators like
cyclotrons. Many man-made radioisotopes are used in the fields of nuclear
medicine, biochemistry, the manufacturing industry and agriculture. The following
are the most common sources:

1.Medical sources

2.Industrial sources

3.Industrial sources

4.Atmospheric testing

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Medical sources: Radiation has many uses in medicine. The best-known

application is in X-ray machines, which use radiation to find broken bones or to
diagnose diseases. X-ray machines are regulated by Health Canada and
provincial authorities. Another example is nuclear medicine, which uses
radioactive isotopes to diagnose and treat diseases such as cancer. A gamma
camera is one piece of medical equipment commonly used in diagnosis .The
CNSC regulates these applications of nuclear medicine, as well as related
equipment. It also licenses reactors and particle accelerators that produce
isotopes destined for medical and industrial applications.

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Industrial sources: Radiation has various industrial uses, which range from
nuclear gauges used in the building of roads to density gauges that measure the
flow of material through pipes in factories. Radioactive materials are also used in
smoke detectors and some glow-in-the dark exit signs, as well as to estimate
reserves in oil fields. Other applications include sterilization, which is performed
using large, heavily shielded irradiators.

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Nuclear fuel cycle: Nuclear power plants (NPPs) use uranium to produce a
chain reaction that produces steam, which in turn drives turbines to produce
electricity. As part of their normal activities, NPPs release small quantities of
radioactive material in a controlled manner to the surrounding environment.
These releases are regulated to ensure doses to the public are well below
regulatory limits. Uranium mines (see Figure 9), fuel fabrication plants and
radioactive waste facilities are also licensed so the radioactivity they release
(that can contribute to public dose) can be controlled by the CNSC.

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Atmospheric testing: The atmospheric testing of atomic weapons from the end
of the Second World War until as late as 1980 released radioactive material,
called fallout, into the air. As the fallout settled to the ground, it was incorporated
into the environment. Much of the fallout had short halflives and no longer exists,
but some continues to decay. People and the environment receive smaller
and smaller doses from the fallout every year.

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Atmospheric testing

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Bölüm Sonu

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