S-N Curves in Pressure Vessel Steels

Proceedings of PVP2008
2008 ASME Pressure Vessels and Piping Division Conference

July 27-31, 2008, Chicago, Illinois, USA
PVP2008-61592
S-N Curves in Pressure Vessel Steels Using Theory of Critical Distances

Somnath Chattopadhyay
The Pennsylvania State University
DuBois, Pennsylvania 15801
e-mail: sxc72@psu.edu
ABSTRACT Ko crack opening stress intensity factor , MPa

The S-N technology used in the ASME Code √m
and similar design criteria includes both crack ΔKth threshold stress intensity factor range,
initiation and crack propagation phases of fatigue MPa √m
failure. Some of the pressure vessel construction ΔKthl long crack threshold stress intensity
codes have used the simplified fatigue initiation factor range, MPa √m
criterion based on stresses calculated at a ΔKeff effective stress intensity factor range,
distance of 0.05 mm from the surface crack. In MPa √m
this work such techniques have been assessed for l0 distance parameter due to El Haddad et al
pressure vessels in light of the theory of critical [4], m
distances. This method has been used to N number of cycles
generate S-N curves for typical materials such as r radial distance from the crack tip
medium carbon steels, nickel chrome steels and Smax maximum stress, MPa
stainless steels. Separate techniques have been Smin minimum stress, MPa
highlighted for obtaining the number of cycles to So crack opening stress, MPa
nucleate a crack from a free surface, and also the ΔS stress range, MPa (remote from crack)
number of cycles to drive the nucleated surface α constraint factor
crack to propagate to a length equal to the critical σo flow stress, MPa
distance parameter related to the process zone. Δσ stress range, MPa
The two estimates on the number of cycles when Δσe endurance limit stress range, MPa
combined constitute a reasonable estimate of the
number of cycles to initiate a crack and form the INTRODUCTION
basis of the S-N design curves. The method The theory of critical distances as popularized
requires the material property information on by Taylor[1] attempts to predict the effect of
elastic-plastic fracture toughness and short crack notches and other stress concentration features
propagation characteristics including crack by considering the stress field in the region close
closure effects. to the notch tip. This theory requires two
parameters, a characteristic distance and a
NOMENCLATURE critical stress or strain characterizing failure. In
one version of the critical distance theory,
a crack length, m termed as the Point Method, the failure occurs
ath threshold crack size, m when the stress becomes equal to the failure
d distance parameter due to Roche [5], m stress at a given distance from the notch root. In
E modulus of elasticity, GPa the other version of the critical distance theory,
J J-integral, N/m termed as the Line Method, the failure is
ΔJ J-integral range, N/m assumed to occur when the stress becomes equal
K stress intensity factor, MPa √m to the failure stress when computed as an
Kmax maximum stress intensity factor, MPa √m average value over a line of given length. Early
Kmin minimum stress intensity factor, MPa √m example of the use of the Point Method is found
Copyright © ASME 2008

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in the work of Peterson [2], and that of the Line 76μm for the material, and have observed no
Method in the work of Neuber [3]. Both these obvious effects of stress ratios on these values.
studies were directed at the high cycle fatigue of Recently Ostash [10] has used the
metallic materials. Taylor [1] also introduces process zone size (a critical distance parameter)
Area Method as another facet of the critical as the transition between the growths of a micro
distance theory. crack to a macro crack in a number of aluminum
El Haddad et al [4] introduced an alloys, two steels, and two cast irons. However
effective crack length to predict the propagation no specific initiation criterion has been provided
behavior of short cracks. In their formulation the for the nucleation of micro cracks.
effective crack length is equal to the crack length In this paper the concept of critical
plus an amount “l0”, which is related to the distance is used to obtain fatigue initiation
critical distance. This value “l0” was stated by characteristics of three pressure vessel steels in
the authors as a characteristic of the material and terms of the S-N curves. For the nucleation of
the material condition accounting for the non- micro cracks we have employed the approach of
continuum behavior of very small cracks. Roche Miller [11] that uses experimental data for
[5] outlined a practical rule for fatigue initiation medium carbon steels and assumes that micro
in steels based on the strain ranges at a distance crack initiation occurs immediately in fatigue.
“d” from the crack tip, where “d” is a material The nucleation period is characterized by the
characteristic. This rule is based on Peterson’s growth of micro crack from a zero length to the
[2] hypothesis that fatigue failure does not occur size corresponding to the threshold stress
when the peak surface stress reaches the intensity factor range. The subsequent growth
endurance limit, but rather when the endurance period is assumed to take place from the
limit is reached at some finite distance “d” threshold size to the critical distance as outlined
below the surface. Thus according to this rule, in the work of El Haddad et al [4] and an
for crack like discontinuities, no analysis is approach similar to Dowling [12] with
required for the material located less than a modification to address crack closure. The S-N
distance “d” from the surface. Furthermore the curves so obtained have been compared with the
value of “d” was proposed to be 0.05 mm for corresponding curves used in pressure vessel
steel whose maximum specified ultimate construction codes such as ASME [13]
strength at room temperature is less than 600
MPa. This rule finds use in French nuclear ANALYSES USING TWO VALUES OF
pressure vessel code, RCC-MR [6]. DISTANCE PARAMETER
In a recent study, Taylor [7] has
developed an analytical method for finding the Following Roche [5], the stress range at a
critical distance for a given material and came up distance “d” from the crack tip is denoted as Δσ,
with an appropriate distance as twice the a value that is less than the endurance stress
constant of El Haddad’s [4]. The corresponding range, Δσe (twice the endurance limit, Se).
value in Roche’s (1990) work is found to be one- Denoting ΔS as the nominal stress range, for
half that of El Haddad’s [4]. In this paper, the short cracks, an equation can be written as,
approaches due to Roche [5] and El Haddad et al K
[4] have been compared and contrasted. Taylor    S (1)
2 d
[8] provides similar comparison of the various
results of the theory of critical distances to the The above equation has not been used in
work of El Haddad et al [4]. subsequent calculations and has been just used
Lanning et al [9] have investigated the for comparison as shown in Figure 1.
effect of notch geometry on high cycle fatigue The criterion for initiation can then be
predictions for notched Ti-6Al-4V specimens expressed as,
using critical distance concepts. They K
 e   S (2)
hypothesized the critical distance as a single 2 d
distance or depth in the vicinity of stress
Denoting ΔKthl as the long crack threshold
concentration over which a stress or a strain
stress intensity factor range, and recognizing the
oinitiation. They have also come up with
fact that for long cracks, ΔS approaches zero,
concepts similar to Point Method and Line
equation (2) yields,
Method due to Taylor [7]. In particular they
have obtained a range of values of the critical
distance based on Line Method from 20μm to

2
2
 K l 
d th 
1
(3)
  
2
 e 
Denoting the crack length as “a”, and
1
substituting ΔK = ΔS √(πa), and the value of “d” S   e (6)
a
from equation (3) into equation (2) we obtain the 1
criterion for initiation as, l0
As an example in Figure 1 we have compared
 e the results due to El Haddad et al [4] in
S  (4) Equation (6) and due to Roche [5] in Equation
a
1 (4) using the material A533B for which ΔKthl =
2d 8 MPa √m, Δσe= 540 MPa. The ordinate values
The corresponding distance parameter used in in the two curves represent fatigue limit and the
El Haddad’s [4] work is denoted as l0 and is abscissa values represent the crack lengths.
given by, Similar predictions of the fatigue limits for SAE
1045 steel using different versions of the critical
2
1  K thl  distance theory (Point Method, Line Method and
l 0    (5) Area Method) have been obtained by Taylor [8]
   e  and compared with the results due to El Haddad
and et al [4].
It is worth noting here that the parameter l0 due

Stress Amplitude as a Function of Crack Size to El Haddad et al is fairly large compared to the
1000 grain diameter. It has been used, however for the
final limit of the short crack propagation in the
subsequent discussions. For all practical
purposes this simplification seems adequate..
∆S/2(Mpa)
100
10
0.1 1 10 100 1000 10000 100000
a(µm)
Figure 1: A Comparison of Two Methods

(Upper Curve, El Haddad [4], Lower Curve,
Roche [5])

3
GENERATION OF S-N CURVES Integrating this equation from the crack
In this paper, the number of cycles to failure lengths going from zero to ath,
is determined by adding the two cases, namely,
(a) small crack initiation stage followed by its ath
1 da
growth to a long crack (from zero to initiation
size, ath (b) the growth of long crack from the
Ni 
1.475 x10  41
(S ) 11.49  (l
0 0  a)
value at initiation, ath to the value corresponding
1  l0 
to the distance parameter, d.
  41
ln   (9)
(S )  l 0  ath
11.49
1.475 x10 
(a) Number of cycles to initiate, Ni
The initiation size (denoted by ath) for a (b) Number of cycles to propagate a long crack
particular stress range is determined first, and is from ath to d, Np
followed by the determination of the number of The large crack growth data for A533B are
cycles (Ni) required to grow the crack from a due to Dowling [12] where the crack growth per
zero length to this size. This size is determined cycle (da/dN) is provided in terms of the cyclic
as elastic-
plastic J-integral (ΔJ). Using SI units the
relationship is:
1  K th 
2
ath    (7 )
  S  da
 3.0 x10 3 J 1.587 (10)
For initiation, the equation provided by Miller dN
[11] is employed. This is valid for medium The incorporation of closure effects in terms
carbon steels and will be assumed to apply for all of the effective stress intensity factor range, ΔKeff
pressure vessel steels. Miller [11] obtained a involves data on crack opening stress, So as well
best-fit equation to the micro structural short as the maximum stress Smax and the minimum
crack growth data for medium carbon steels in stress Smin. Elber [14] provides the effective stress
the form of a fatigue crack growth parameter intensity factor range
da/dN proportional to the stress range raised an as:
exponent times the difference of the grain
diameter and the crack length. In this work, the
grain diameter is interpreted as the distance
parameter “l0” as obtained by El Haddad et al
[4]. The upper bound on micro structural short  S  So 
crack growth is considered a constant equal to K eff   max K (11)
the distance parameter “l0”. If the threshold  S max  S min 
crack length exceeds “l0,” failure does not occur,
but non-propagating cracks may be found.
However, if, the threshold crack length is less
than “l0,” failure occurs. The equation due to
Miller [11] is then:
For the case of completely reversed stress,
Newman et al [15] obtain the crack opening
da stress ratio So /Smax in terms of Smax /σ0 (where σ0
 1.475 x 10 41(S )11.49 (l0  a) (8) is the flow stress) as:
dN
1
So   S max 
 (0.825  0.34  0.05 2 ) cos 
S max  2 0 
S max
 (0.415  0.071 ) (12)
0

4
calculated using equation (14) for values of α
The constraint factor, α represents the between 1.0 and 2.0. It was found that So/Smax
contribution of the material in the vicinity of the stays practically constant for large cracks at this
crack on the crack opening stress. The values for stress level with a value of 0.11. Using this
α of 1.1 for plane stress and 1.73 for plane strain value in equation (11) the following relationship
were used by Newman et al [15] for an is obtained:
aerospace aluminum alloy. In that work, the
crack opening stress ratio, So/Smax was calculated
as a function of the crack size for various values K eff  0.445K (13)
of crack heights under completely reversed
loading (Smin / Smax = -1) with an initial defect Using the square relationship to estimate
ΔJeff., the following expression results
size. It was shown that the defect height greatly
influences the closure behavior of small cracks.
For defect heights above a certain critical value,
the initial defect surfaces are found not to close J eff  (0.445) 2 J (14)
even under compressive loading. The calculated The crack growth rate, da/dN is now
crack opening stresses are not found to be expressed using equations (10) and (14) as:
influenced by the crack height. Newman et al’s
results show that So/Smax goes from a minimum
value of –1 at the minimum crack size and then da
crosses the zero value and extends into the  2 x10 4 (J )1.587 (15)
dN
positive region with increasing crack sizes and
The numbers of cycles (Ni) required to initiate
asymptotically approaches the value
the crack and grow it from zero to ath is the same
corresponding to the large cracks.
as calculated in equation (9); however to
calculate the number of cycles (Np) to propagate
For all pressure vessel steels considered in
a long crack from ath to l0, equation (15) is used.
this paper, the proportional results for aluminum
Integrating this equation for crack lengths going
alloy were assumed to be applicable. For Smax /σ0
from ath to l0 the following expression is
of 0.6, and a completely reversed stress (Smin /
obtained for the number of cycles:
Smax = -1), the crack opening stress was
J 
K 2 
S a 
2

 (S ) 2
a
E E E
1.587
da   (S ) 2 
 2 x10 3   a1.587
dN  E 
l
1 da
Np  [ 1.587
] (16)
  (S ) 2
 a1.587
2 x10 
3

a th
 E 
 
 

Np  
1   1   0.587  0.587
2 1.587   0.587 
 
ath  l0   (17)
 2 x10    ( S )  
 E  
 3
   

5
S-N CURVES FOR VARIOUS STEELS
In this work three materials have been evaluated;
these are SA533 Gr B medium carbon steel),
AISI 304 stainless steel and a Ni-Fe-Cr alloy. S-N Curve for SA533 Gr.B
The material properties of these materials are
listed in Table 1. The critical distance parameter 10000
l0 for these alloys is the constant due to El
Stress, MPa
Haddad et al and have been calculated using 1000
Equation (5). 100
10
Table 1 Material Properties of Selected Alloys
1
Material Δσ0 ΔKth l0 1.00E+00 1.00E+03 1.00E+06 1.00E+09 1.00E+12
[MPa] [MPa [mm]
m1/2 ]
SA533 Gr 540 8 0.070
B [12] Cycles to Failure
304 720 12 0.088
Stainless
Steel[16] Figure 2: Calculated S-N Curve for SA 533-B
Ni-Fe-Cr 900 12.8 0.064
alloy
[16]
The S-N curves are constructed by performing

S-N Curve for SS 304
calculations for various values of elastic stress
Stress Amplitude, MPa
ranges, ΔS. The value of the threshold crack size 10000

ath is then calculated using Equation (7) for each
1000
value of ΔS. Next the number of cycles for
initiation of the small crack, Ni is obtained from 100
Equation (9) and the number of cycles to small 10

crack Np is obtained from Equation (17). In each 1
of these curves the abscissa is the stress 1.00E+ 1.00E+ 1.00E+ 1.00E+ 1.00E+ 1.00E+
amplitude which is one-half of ΔS, while the 00 02 04 06 08 10
ordinate is the number of cycles to initiation Nf =
Ni + Np. The computed S-N curves for SA 533
Gr. B, AISI 304 Stainless steel, and Ni-Cr steels Cycles to Failure
are shown in Figures 2,3, and 4 respectively.
Figure 3: Calculated S-N Curve for SS 304

6
S-N Curve for Ni-Cr Steel
10000
Stress AMplitude, MPa
1000
100
10
1
1.00E+0 1.00E+0 1.00E+0 1.00E+0 1.00E+0 1.00E+1
0 2 4 6 8 0
Cycles to Failure
Figure 4: Calculated S-N Curve for Ni-Cr-Fe

Calculated & ASME S-N :304 SS
Stress, MPa
10000
Comparison curves are provided for the three 1000 Calculated
different steels in Figures 5, 6, and 7. Design 100 ASME
fatigue curves for the steels as obtained from the 10
ASME Code are also provided as a comparison. 1
The curves in Figures 5, 6 and 7 indicate hows 1 1000 1E+06 1E+09
the factor of safety inherent in the ASME Code
S-N curves (a factor of 2 on the stress range and
a factor of 20 on cycles).
Cycles to Failure
Figure 6: Comparison Curves for 304 SS
Calculated and ASME S-N: SA533 Gr.B
10000
Calculated
1000
Stress, MPa
100 ASME
10
1 Calculated & ASME S-N: Ni-Cr

1 100 10000 1000000
10000
Stress, MPa
Cycles to Failure Calculated

1000
100 ASME
Figure 5: Comparison Curves for SA533 Gr.B
10
1
1 100 10000 1000000 1E+08
Cycles to Failure
Figure 7: Comparison Curves for Ni-Cr-Fe

7
CONCLUSIONS Fatigue Fract Engng Mater Struct, 24, 215-224,
In keeping with the modern design philosophy of 2001.
defect tolerant design, this work recognizes the
presence of cracks in structural components. A [8] Taylor, D. “Geometrical Effects in Fatigue: A
rational process combining the nucleation of a Unifying Theoretical Model, “International
crack on an assumed smooth surface (from a Journal of Fatigue, 21, 413-420, 1999.
zero to the threshold value of crack length) and
its subsequent growth to a characteristic [9] Lanning, D. B., Nicholas, T. and Palazatto,
dimension is assumed to govern the phenomenon A. N. “Fatigue Failure Predictions in Stress
of fatigue crack initiation. The number of cycles Concentrations Using Critical Distance
to initiate a crack is a feature that has been Methods.” AIAA 2004-1999, 45th
directly linked to the microstructure, and forms AIAA/ASME/ASCE/AHS/ASC Structures,
an important contribution of this study. By Structural Dynamics & Materials Conference,
making use of an assumed crack initiation law 2004.
and long crack growth law, the S-N curve for a
structural material has been obtained. The [10] Ostash O. P. “New Approaches in Fatigue
combined effect of the initiation and growth of Fracture Mechanics,” Materials Science, 42, 1,
small cracks along with crack closure constitute 5-19, 2006.
a correct representation of the fatigue damage.
[11] Miller, K. J. “Initiation and Growth of
Short Fatigue Cracks,” Fundamentals of
REFERENCES Deformation and Fracture, (B.A. Bilby, K.J.
Miller and J. R. Willis, eds), Cambridge
[1] Taylor, D. The Theory of Critical Distances, University Press, 477-500, 1985.
Elsevier, 2007.
[12] Dowling, N.E., “Crack Growth during Low
[2] Peterson, R. E. “Notch Sensitivity,” in Metal Cycle Fatigue of Smooth Specimens,” Cyclic
Fatigue (Ed: G. Sines and J. L. Waisman), Stress Strain and Plastic Deformation Aspects of
McGraw Hill, New York, 293-306, 1959. Fatigue Crack Growth, ASTM STP 637, 97-121,
[3] Neuber, H. Theory of Notch Stresses, 1977.
Springer, Berlin, 1958.
[13] ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code,
[4] El Haddad, M. H., Dowling, N. E., Topper, Section III, Nuclear Power Components, New
T. H., and Smith. K. N. “J Integral Applications York, 2007.
for Sort Fatigue Crack at Notches,” International
Journal of Fracture, 16, 15-30, 1980. [14] Elber, W. in Damage Tolerance in Aircraft
Structures, ASTM STP 486, 230-242(1971),.
[5] Roche, R.L. “Fatigue Analysis of Crack-like
Geometrical Discontinuities,” Res Mechanica, [15] Newman, J.C., Swain, M.H., and Phillips,
29, 79-94, 1990. E. P. (1986), “An Assessment of the Small-
Crack Effect for 2024-T3 Aluminum Alloy,”
[6] RCC-MR Design and Construction Ruless Small Fatigue Cracks, R.O. Ritchie and J.
for Components of Fast Breeder Reactors, Lankford (Eds.) TMS-AIME, 426.
AFCEN, Paris, 1985.
[16] Frost, N. E. “Non-propagating Cracks in V-
[7] Taylor, D. “A Mechanistic Approach to notched Specimens Subjected to Fatigue
Critical-Distance Methods in Notch Fatigue,” Loading,” Aeronautical Quarterly, VIII, 1-20,
1957.

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S-N Curves in Pressure Vessel Steels

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Proceedings of PVP2008

2008 ASME Pressure Vessels and Piping Division Conference

S-N Curves in Pressure Vessel Steels Using Theory of Critical Distances

ABSTRACT Ko crack opening stress intensity factor , MPa

Copyright © ASME 2008

Copyright © ASME 2008

It is worth noting here that the parameter l0 due

Figure 1: A Comparison of Two Methods

Copyright © ASME 2008

Copyright © ASME 2008

Copyright © ASME 2008

The S-N curves are constructed by performing

ranges, ΔS. The value of the threshold crack size 10000

Equation (9) and the number of cycles to small 10

Figure 3: Calculated S-N Curve for SS 304

Copyright © ASME 2008

Figure 4: Calculated S-N Curve for Ni-Cr-Fe

1 Calculated & ASME S-N: Ni-Cr

Cycles to Failure Calculated

Figure 7: Comparison Curves for Ni-Cr-Fe

Copyright © ASME 2008

Copyright © ASME 2008

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