Chapter 6 How do metals respond

Mechanical Behavior to external loads?

Chapter Outline

 Stress Versus Strain

 Metals
Mechanical testing machines can  Ceramics and Glasses
be automated to simplify the  Polymers
analysis of the mechanical  Elastic Deformation
performance of materials in a  Plastic Deformation
variety of product applications.
 Hardness
 Creep and Stress Relaxation
 Viscoelastic Deformation
 Inorganic Glasses
 Organic Polymers
 Elastomers

1
 Metals
The load necessary to produce a given
1) How strong is it? elongation is monitored as the specimen is
2) How much deformation must I pulled in tension at a constant rate.
expect given a certain load?

6.1 Stress Versus Strain

Fig. 6.1 Tensile test Figure 6-2 Load-versus-elongation curve obtained in

a tensile test. The specimen was aluminum 2024-T81.

Floor type UTM Table-top type UTM

2
 Tensile test Types of Loading

Aluminum Alloy Plain Carbon Steel Tempered Alloy Steel

Titanium Alloy Gray Cast Iron Necking

Concepts of stress and strain Concepts of stress and strain

Engineering stress:   F / A0
To compare specimens of different sizes, the load is calculated per unit area. F : load applied perpendicular to specimen cross-section;
A0 : cross-sectional area (perpendicular to the force)
before application of the load.

Engineering strain:   l / l0
l : change in length;
l0: original length.

These definitions of stress and strain allow one to

compare test results for specimens of different
cross-sectional area A0 and of different length l0.

Figure 6-3 Stress-versus-strain curve

Figure 6-2 Load-versus-elongation Figure 6-3 Stress-versus-strain curve Stress and strain are positive for tensile
curve obtained in a tensile test. The obtained by normalizing the data of
specimen was aluminum 2024-T81. Figure 6.2 for specimen geometry. loads, negative for compressive loads

3
 Concepts of stress and strain
Important Concepts
Elastic Deformation: Temporary deformation associated with the stretching of atomic bonds.
Engineering Stress: Load on a sample divided by the original (stress-free) area)
Plastic Deformation: Permanent deformation associated with the distortion and reformation of
atomic bonds. Engineering Strain: Increase in sample length at a given load divided by the
Yield Strength: The strength of a material associated with the approximate upper limit of original (stress-free) length.
Hooke’s Law behavior. Gage Length: Region of minimum cross-sectional area in a mechanical test
specimen.
Plastic
deformation Elastic Deformation: Temporary deformation associated with the stretching of
atomic bonds.
Plastic Deformation: Permanent deformation associated with the distortion and
reformation of atomic bonds.
Elastic Yield Strength: The strength of a material associated with the approximate upper
deformation limit of Hooke’s Law behavior.
Modulus of Elasticity: Slope of the stress-strain curve in the elastic region.
Figure 6-4 The yield strength is defined
relative to the intersection of the stress-strain Hooke’s Law: The linear relationship between stress and strain during elastic
curve with a 0.2% offset. This is a convenient deformation.
Figure 6-3 Stress-versus-strain curve indication of the onset of plastic deformation.

Elastic recovery after plastic Mechanical Properties

deformation obtained from a Tensile Test
1) modulus of elasticity, E;
2) yield strength, Y.S.;
3) tensile strength, T.S.;
4) ductility, 100 x failure (note that elastic
recovery occurs after fracture);
5) toughness =   d (measured under
load; hence, the dashed line is vertical).
Yield Strength: The strength of a material
associated with the approximate upper
limit of Hooke’s Law behavior.
Modulus of Elasticity: Slope of the stress-
strain curve in the elastic region.
Figure 6-6 The key mechanical properties
obtained from a tensile test. Hooke’s Law: The linear relationship
Figure 6-5 Elastic recovery occurs when stress is removed from a between stress and strain during elastic
specimen that has already undergone plastic deformation. deformation.
  E

4
 Important Concepts Engineering vs. True Stress-Strain Curves

Specific strength (Strength to weight ratio): Strength per unit density.

Residual stress: The stress remaining within a structural material after all applied loads are  At the ultimate tensile strength, the sample begins to neck down within the
removed. gage length.
Tensile strength: The maximum engineering stress experienced by a material during a  The true stress (tr = P/Aactual).
tensile test.
Strain hardening: The strengthening of a metal by deformation (due to the increasing
difficulty for dislocation motion through the increasingly dense array of dislocations).
Figure 6-7 Neck down of a
Cold work: Mechanical deformation of a metal at relatively low temperatures. tensile test specimen within its
gage length after extension
beyond the tensile strength.

Figure 6-8 True stress (load

Figure 6-6 The key mechanical divided by actual area in the
necked-down region) continues to
properties obtained from a tensile test. The True Stress continues to
rise to the point of fracture, in
rise to the point of fracture.
contrast to the behavior of
engineering stress.

Fracture in metals True stress-True strain

Ductile Fracture Brittle Fracture True stress : tr = P/Aactual

 The region of the true stress vs. true strain curve between the onset of plastic
deformation (i.e. Y.S.) and the onset of necking (i.e. UTS) can be approximated by

 T  K  Tn Eq. 6.4
K : constant
n: strain hardening exponent

Strain hardening exponent: The slope of a log-log plot of true stress vs.
true strain between the onset of plastic deformation of a metal alloy and
the onset of necking. This parameter is an indicator of the alloy’s ability
to be deformed. Figure 6-8.

5
 Ductility and Toughness Upper and Lower yield points

Ductility: Deformability. (Percent elongation at failure). The distinctive ripple

pattern following the
yield point is associated
with nonhomogeneous
deformation that begins
Toughness: Total area under the at a point of stress
stress-strain curve. concentration (often near
the specimen grips).

Figure 6-9 The toughness of an alloy depends
on a combination of strength and ductility.
Figure 6-3 Typical stress-strain curve Figure 6-10 For a low-carbon steel, the
for a wide range of metal alloys. stress-versus-strain curve includes both an
upper and lower yield point.
Yield point (upper yield point): Distinct break from the elastic region in the stress-strain
curve for a low-carbon steel.
Lower yield point: The onset of general plastic deformation in a low-carbon steel.
Figure 6-6
Stress concentration: The concentration or amplification of an applied stress at the tip of a notch or small crack.

Poisson’s ratio Shear stress

Poisson’s ratio: Mechanical property indicating the contraction perpendicular to the
extension caused by a tensile stress. Shear stress: Load per unit area (parallel to the applied load).

Ps
 Eq. 6.6
As
P: load on the sample
As: area of the sample parallel
to the applied load.

Figure 6-11 The Poisson's ratio (v) characterizes the contraction Figure 6-12 Elastic deformation under a shear load.
perpendicular to the extension caused by a tensile stress. See Table 6.4

6
 Shear strain Ceramics and Glasses
Shear strain: Elastic displacement produced by pure shear loading. Ceramics and Glasses does not exhibit a significant amount of plastic
y deformation (under tensile test).
  tan   Eq. 6.7 Brittle fracture: Failure of a
z0 material following mechanical
deformation with the absence of
significant ductility.
Shear modulus (Modulus of rigidity), G: Elastic modulus under pure shear loading.


G Eq. 6.8
 Ceramics are relatively
weak in tension but
relatively strong in
The shear modulus, G, and the elastic modulus, E, are related, for small strains, by compression.
Figure 6-13 The brittle nature of fracture in ceramics is illustrated by these
Poisson’s ration: stress-strain curves, which show only linear, elastic behavior. In (a), fracture
E  2G (1  v ) Eq. 6.9 The ratio of G/E is relatively occurs at a tensile stress of 280 MPa. In (b) a compressive strength of 2100
fixed for most alloys at about 0.4. MPa is observed. The sample in both tests is a dense, polycrystalline Al2O3.

Ceramics and Glasses Griffith theory

Modulus of Rupture (Flexural strength): Failure stress of a material, as measured in
bending. Griffith crack model: Prediction of stress intensification at
the tip of a crack in a brittle material.
3FL
MOR  Eq. 6.10
2bh 2 Griffith assumed that in any real material there will be
numerous elliptical cracks at the surface and/or in the
F : applied force
interior. It can be shown that the highest stress m at the
b, h and L : dimensions tip of such a crack is
1
c 2
Figure 6-14 The bending test that generates a m  2   Eq. 6.11
modulus of rupture. This strength parameter 
is similar in magnitude to a tensile strength.
Fracture occurs along the outermost sample : applied stress
edge, which is under a tensile load. c: crack length Figure 6-15 Stress (m) at
: radius of crack tip. the tip of a Grifth crack.

7
 Griffith theory Polymers
 Cracks are caused during production and handling. Flexural modulus (Modulus of elasticity in bending): Stiffness of a material, as measured in
bending.
 Ceramics and Glasses are relatively weak in tension.
L3m
 A compressive load tends to close cracks, therefore they are strong in compression. E flex  Eq. 6.11
 Drawing of small-diameters is one way to avoid Griffith cracks. 4bh 3
m: slope of the tangent to the initial straight-line portion of the load-deflection curve.

Dynamic modulus of elasticity : Parameter representing the stiffness of a polymeric

material under an oscillating load.

Edyn  CI f 2 Eq. 6.11

C: a constant dependent upon specific test geometry
I : moment of inertia of the beam and weights used in the dynamic test
F: frequency of vibration for the test.

Polymers

6.2 Elastic Deformation

There is strong effect
of temperature.

Figure 6-16 Stress-versus-strain curves for Figure 6-17 Stress-versus-strain curves for a nylon
a polyester engineering polymer. 66 at 23C showing the effect of relative humidity.

8
 Elastic Deformation

The fundamental mechanism of

elastic deformation is the
stretching of atomic bonds.

6.3 Plastic Deformation

Figure 6-18 Relationship of elastic

deformation to the stretching of atomic bonds.

Role of dislocation in the shear

Plastic Deformation of a crystal along a slip plane
Plastic deformation: Permanent deformation associated with the distortion and
reformation of atomic bonds.

Plastic deformation of crystalline

solids is difficult without dislocations.

Critical shear stress: Stress operating

on a slip system and great enough to
produce slip by dislocation motion.

Figure 6-20 A low-stress alternative for Figure 6-21 Schematic illustration of the motion of a
Figure 6-19 Sliding of one plane of atoms past an plastically deforming a crystal involves the dislocation under the influence of a shear stress. The
adjacent one. This high-stress process is necessary to motion of a dislocation along a slip plane. net effect is an increment of plastic (permanent)
plastically (permanently) deform a perfect crystal. deformation

9
 Goldie the caterpillar Slip system
Slip system: A combination of families of
crystallographic planes and directions that
Goldie slips along corresponds to dislocation motion.
nicely by passing a
dislocation along the
length of her body.

Figure 6-23 Dislocation slip is more difficult

Figure 6-22 Goldie the caterpillar illustrates (a) how difficult it is to along (a) a low-atomic-density plane than Figure 6-24 Slip systems for (a) fcc
move along the ground without (b) a .dislocation. mechanism. along (b) a high-atomic-density plane. aluminum and (b) hcp magnesium.

Solution hardening Solution hardening

Introduction (alloying) of a relatively large substitutional impurity atom
 The dislocation imposes lattice strains in the vicinity of the dislocation line.
Solution hardening: Mechanical strengthening of a material associated with the
restriction of plastic deformation due to solid-solution formation.  Compression above the line where the atoms are squeezed together and tension below the line
where the atoms are pulled apart.
 A large impurity atom into the lattice will be surrounded by a compressive strain field.
 This solute atom will wander or diffuse thru the
Restricting plastic deformation by forming lattice. And will be attracted to the tensile strain region
solid solutions. near the dislocation just below the dislocation line.
Hardening, or increasing strength, occurs  The compressive strain field surrounding the solute
because the elastic region is extended, atom will partially cancel the tensile lattice strains
producing a higher yield strength. imposed by the dislocation.
 As a result of the relaxed strain field, a greater
externally imposed shear stress is required to move the
Figure 6-25 How an impurity atom generates a dislocation than is necessary in the pure metal.
strain field in a crystal lattice, causing an  Macroscopically, this results in increase strength and
obstacle to dislocation motion. hardness.

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 Important points Resolved shear stress

 Obstacles to dislocation motion harden metals, but high temperatures can help to Figure 6-26 Definition of the resolved shear stress, , which
overcome these obstacles and thereby soften the metals. directly produces plastic deformation (by a shearing action)
as a result of the external application of a simple tensile
 The dislocation density is dramatically reduced with increasing temperature, which stress,  .
permits a relatively simple deformation mechanism.
 The temperature at which atomic mobility is sufficient to affect mechanical properties Resolved shear stress: Stress operating on a slip
is approximately one-third to one-half times the absolute melting point, Tm. system (in the slip plane and in the slip direction).
 More complex crystal structures correspond to relatively brittle materials
(intermetallic compounds, ceramics). F cos  F
  cos  cos    cos  cos  Eq. 6.14
A cos  A

The fundamental deformation mechanism is a shearing

action based on the projection of the applied force onto
the slip system.

Critical resolved shear stress

Critical resolved shear stress: Stress operating on a slip system and great enough to
produce slip by dislocation motion.

 c   c cos  cos  Eq. 6.15

6.4 Hardness
In considering plastic deformation, we should
always keep in mind this connection between
macroscopic stress values and the
micromechanical mechanism of dislocation slip.

Figure 6-26

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Hardness
The measure of a material’s resistance to deformation
by surface indentation or by abrasion
Hardness Test Features
• Simple, inexpensive, easy and relatively non-destructive
• No absolute standards
• Other mechanical properties often may be estimated from hardness
data (such as tensile strength)
Hardness Testing
A common & relatively inexpensive material test; a property which is used when
discussing material characteristics.
 For instance steel is harder than aluminum which is harder than lead.
 Hardness is the property of a material that enables it to resist plastic deformation,
penetration, indentation, and scratching. A bit like stress, but not the same.
 A Hardness Test consists of pushing a shape into a surface and observing the
size and shape of the indentation. Shapes can be Hardened Steel Balls or a
diamond pyramid.
 Hardness is not a fundamental property since it depends upon the shape of the
indenter used & the load applied.
Common hardness tests are:
Brinell [HB], Rockwell [Rc, RB], Vickers [HV], Knoop [HK], Mohs, Durometer.
Brinell Hardness (HB)
 Indenter: hardened steel ball (or tungsten carbide)
 Uses a 10mm diameter ball and standard loads between 500 and 3000kg.
 Load is maintained between 10 and 30s.
 Brinell hardness number:
P P
BHN ( HB )  
A Dt
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 Vickers Hardness (HV)
 Indenter: a square-based diamond pyramid
 Utilize smaller load and a diamond tip and must use a microscope to
measure the indent.
 Load range: 1-1,000 grams.
 Careful specimen surface preparation is necessary.
 Vickers hardness number (HV): read from table based on the measured
square impression by the indenter.
Rockwell Hardness (HR)
 Various indenter and load combinations
 Arbitrary definition based on the depth of indentation
 Scales depend on indenter/load combination
 Most common, numerous scales to test the full range of materials from soft to
hard.
 With this system, a hardness number is determined by the difference in depth
of penetration resulting from application of an initial minor load followed by a
larger major load.

 Two types
 Rockwell (Minor load: 10kg; Major loads: 60, 100 and 150kg)
 Superficial Rockwell ((Minor load: 3kg; Major loads: 15, 30 and 45kg)

Other hardness tests… Types of Indentation Tests

Moh Hardness:
This is a scratch test; the capability of one material to scratch
another.
The scale is 1 to 10, with diamond set at 10 [mainly a geology
test].

Durometer Hardness:
Used on soft non-metallic materials such as rubber.
An indenter with a constant load is applied to the surface. The
depth of penetration is measured after one second.

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 Hardness and yield Hardness
Hardness is NOT a fundamental property of material
Hardness is related to yield strength

Figure 6-27 Hardness test.

Hardness
A clear trend of Brinell Hardness Number (BHN) with tensile strength can be found.
The tensile strength is generally used for this correlation rather than the yield strength because
the hardness test includes a substantial component of plastic deformation.

6.5 Creep and Stress Relaxation

Figure 6-28 (a) Plot of data from Table 6.11. A general trend of BHN with T.S. is shown. (b) A
more precise correlation of BHN with T.S. (or Y.S.) is obtained for given families of alloys.

14
 Elastic strain: Independent of
Creep test
time at room temperature
Creep: Plastic (permanent) deformation occurring at a relatively high temperature
under constant load over along time period.

Figure 6-29 Elastic strain induced in an alloy at room temperature is independent of time.

But what would happen if we increase the temperature (environment)?

Figure 6-30 Typical creep test. Figure 6-31 Creep curve. In contrast to Figure 6.29, plastic
The results will be different! strain occurs over time for a material stressed at high
temperatures (above about one-half the absolute melting point).

Stages of creep Dislocation climb

1. Instantaneous deformation, mainly elastic.
2. Primary/transient creep. Slope of strain vs.
time decreases with time: work-hardening
Dislocation climb: A mechanism for
3. Secondary/steady-state creep. Rate of creep deformation, in which the
straining is constant: balance of work- dislocation moves to an adjacent slip
hardening and recovery. plane by diffusion.
4. Tertiary. Rapidly accelerating strain rate up
to failure: formation of internal cracks, voids,
grain boundary separation, necking, etc.

Figure 6-32 Mechanism of dislocation climb. Obviously,

Figure 6-31 Creep curve. many adjacent atom movements are required to produce
climb of an entire dislocation line.

15
 Variation of creep curve with
Arrhenius Equation for creep
stress and time

 The slope gives the activation

With increasing stress or temperature:
 The instantaneous strain increases
 The steady-state creep rate increases
 The time to rupture decreases
energy for the creep mechanism.
 Extension of high-temperature,
short-term data permits prediction of
long-term creep behavior at lower
service temperatures.

Figure 6-33 Variation of the creep curve with (a) stress or (b)
temperature. Note how the steady-state creep rate ( ) in the secondary
Figure 6-34 Arrhenius plot of ln  versus 1/T
stage rises sharply with temperature (see also Figure 6.34).
, where  is the secondary stage creep rate
and T is the absolute temperature.

Shorthand characterization of creep behavior Useful creep data for design engineers

Figure 6-35 Simple characterization of creep behavior is obtained from the

secondary-stage strain rate (  ) and the time to creep rupture (t ). Figure 6-36 Creep rupture data for the nickel-based superalloy Inconel 718.

16
 Creep-rate in ceramics Creep in polymers

 Creep is more important in ceramics than in metals Creep is a significant design factor for polymers given their relatively low melting points.
because high temperature applications are so widespread.
 The role of diffusion mechanisms in the creep ceramics is
more complex than in the case of metals (diffusion is more
complex in ceramics).
 Grain boundaries play a major role in the creep of
ceramics.
 Creep can occur by the mechanism of grain boundary
sliding due to the viscous deformation of the glassy phase.

Figure 6-37 Arrhenius-type plot of creep-rate data for several

polycrystalline oxides under an applied stress of 50 psi (345 x 103 Pa).
Note that the inverse temperature scale is reversed (i.e., temperature Figure 6-38 Creep data for a nylon 66 at 60C and 50% relative humidity.
increases to the right).

Creep and stress Relaxation Stress relaxation

 Creep deformation involves increasing strain
with time for materials under constant stresses.
 Relaxation stress involves decreasing stress with
time for polymers under constant strains. The
mechanism of stress relaxation is viscous flow
(i.e. molecules gradually sliding past each other
over an extended period of time).
 Viscous flow converts some of the fixed elastic
strain into nonrecoverable plastic deformation.
Stress relaxation is characterized by relaxation time.
Relaxation time, : The time necessary for the stress on a polymer to fall to 0.37
(=1/e) of the initial applied stress.
Stress relaxation: Mechanical
phenomenon in certain polymers in
which the stress on the material
drops exponentially with time    0 e t  Eq. 6.17
under a constant strain.
e.g. RUBBER BAND: does not snap back to : stress
its original size upon stress removal after 0: initial stress
being stressed for a long period of time.
t: time

17
 Arrhenius equation for stress relaxation Mechanisms of Creep

Different mechanisms are responsible for creep in different materials and under
different loading and temperature conditions. The mechanisms include
 Stress-assisted vacancy diffusion
1
 Ce Q RT Eq. 6.18  Grain boundary diffusion
 Grain boundary sliding
  Dislocation motion

C: preexponential constant
Q: activation energy (per mole) for viscous flow
t: time
R: universal gas constant
T: absolute temperature

Alloys for high-temperature use

(turbines in jet engines, hypersonic airplanes, nuclearreactors, etc.)

Creep is generally minimized in materials with:

 High melting temperature
 High elastic modulus
 Large grain sizes (inhibits grain boundary sliding) 6.6 Viscoelastic Deformation
The following materials are especially resilient to creep:
 Stainless steels
 Refractory metals (containing elements of high melting point, e.g. Nb, Mo, W, Ta)
 “Superalloys” (Co, Ni based: solid solutionhardening and secondary phases)

18
 Viscoelastic deformation Viscoelastic deformation
For  Inorganic glass or organic polymer!!!
Glass transition temperature: The temperature range,
above which a glass becomes a supercooled liquid,
and below which it is a true, rigid solid. In terms of mechanical behavior:
Supercooled liquid: is the material cooled just below  Elastic deformation: occurs below Tg.
the melting point, where it still behaves like a liquid.
 Viscous (liquidlike) deformation: occurs above Tg.
Softening temperature (point): Temperature at which
a glass has a viscosity of 107.6 poises (P),
corresponding to the lower end of the working range.

The softening temperature marks the point where the

There is a distinct break in the expansion
material has become so fluid that it can no longer
curve at the temperature Tg. support the weight of the length-monitoring probe (
a small refractory rod).
Figure 6-39 Typical thermal expansion measurement of an
inorganic glass or an organic polymer indicates a glass
transition temperature, Tg, and a softening temperature, Ts. Figure 6-39

Specific volume - Temperature Viscosity

Poise: unit for viscosity;

F d 1Poise= 1g/(cms) = 0.1Pa s


 Upon heating, a crystal undergoes modest thermal
expansion up to its melting point (Tm), at which a sharp
increase in specific volume occurs.
 Upon further heating, the liquid undergoes a greater A dx
thermal expansion.
: proportionality constant between shearing force
 Slow cooling of the liquid would allow crystallization
per unit are (F/A) and velocity gradient (dv/dx).
abruptly at Tm and a retracing of the melting plot.
 Rapid cooling of the liquid can suppress
crystallization producing a supercooled liquid.
 In the vicinity of the glass transition temperature (Tg),
gradual solidification occurs.
 A true glass is a rigid solid with thermal expansion
similar to the crystal but an atomic-scale structure
similar to the liquid (see Figure 4.23).
Figure 6-40
Figure 6-41 Illustration of terms used to define viscosity, , in Equation 6.19.

19
 Inorganic Glasses
Figure 6-42 Viscosity of a typical soda-lime-
silica glass from room temperature to 1500C.
Above the glass transition temperature ( 450C
in this case), the viscosity decreases in the
Arrhenius fashion (see Equation 6.20).
Arrhenius equation for viscosity
Viscoelastic deformation: Mechanical behavior
involving both fluidlike (viscous) and solidlike
(elastic) characteristics.
Melting range: Temperature range over which the
viscosity of a glass is between 50 and 500 P.
  0 e  Q RT
0 = preexponential constant
Working range: Temperature range in which
glass product shapes are formed (corresponding Q = activation energy for
to a viscosity range of 104 to 108 P). viscous deformation
Softening temperature (point): Temperature at R = universal gas constant
which a glass has a viscosity of 107.6 poises (P), T = absolute temperature
corresponding to the lower end of the working
range.
Annealing point: Temperature at which a glass * Exponential term: Positive for viscosity and Negative for fluidity.
has a viscosity of 1013.4 P and at which internal
stresses can be relieved in about 15 minutes.

Viscous deformation in tempered glass Organic Polymers

Tempered glass: A strengthened glass involving a heat treatment that serves to place the exterior
surface in a residual compressive state.

 The glass is first equilibrated above the glass-transition

temperature, Tg, followed by a surface quench that forms a There are four distinct regions of viscoelastic
rigid surface skin at a temperature below Tg. behavior:
Interior compressive stresses are largely relaxed, (1) rigid (at low temperatures well below Tg)
and a modest tensile stress is present in the surface (2) leathery (in the glass transition, Tg, range)
skin.
(3) rubbery (just above Tg)
 Slow cooling to room temperature allows the interior to (4) viscous (as the melting point, Tm, is approached)
contract considerably more than the surface, causing a net
compressive residual stress on the surface balanced by a
smaller tensile residual stress in the interior.

The high breaking strength of this product is Figure 6-44 Modulus of elasticity as a
due to the residual compressive stress at the function of temperature for a typical
Figure 6-43 Thermal and stress profiles occurring material surfaces. thermoplastic polymer with 50%
during the production of tempered glass. crystallinity.

20
 Organic Polymers Organic Polymers
The vulcanization of rubber
Sulfur atoms form primary bonds with adjacent polyisoprene mers. This is possible because the
polyisoprene chain molecule still contains double bonds after polymerization. [It should be noted that
sulfur atoms can themselves bond together to form a molecule chain. Sometimes, cross-linking is by
an (S)n chain, where n > 1.].
The completely crystalline material is
similar to a metal or ceramic in
remaining rigid up to its melting point.

Cross-linking: Joining of adjacent,

linear polymeric molecules by
chemical bonding.

Figure 6-45 In comparison to the plot of Figure 6.44,

the behavior of the completely amorphous and
completely crystalline thermoplastics falls below and
above that for the 50% crystalline material. Figure 6-46 Cross-linking produces a network structure by the
formation of primary bonds between adjacent linear molecules.

Organic Polymers
Polyisoprene: a polymer of isoprene occurring naturally in rubber and
gutta-percha and also produced synthetically

Isoprene: a flammable liquid unsaturated hydrocarbon C5H8 used

especially in synthetic rubber.

Figure 6-47 Increased cross-linking of a thermoplastic

polymer produces increased rigidity of the material.

21

Elastomers
Elastomers: Polymer with a pronounced rubbery plateau in its plot of modulus of elasticity
versus temperature.
This subgroup of thermoplastic
polymers includes the natural and
synthetic rubbers (such as
polyisopropene)
Figure 6-48 The modulus of elasticity versus temperature
plot of an elastomer has a pronounced rubbery region.
Elastomers
 The dynamic elastic modulus in this case
was measured in a torsional pendulum (a
shear mode).
 The DTUL is the deflection temperature
under load, the load being 264 psi.
 This parameter is frequently associated
with the glass transition temperature.
Figure 6-51 Modulus of elasticity versus
temperature for a variety of common polymers.
Elastomeric deformation exhibits
Elastomers hysteresis; that is, the plots during
loading and unloading do not coincide.
Figure 6-49 Schematic illustration of the Figure 6-50 The stress-strain curve for an elastomer is an
uncoiling of (a) an initially coiled linear example of nonlinear elasticity.
molecule under (b) the effect of an external
stress. This illustration indicates the
 The initial low-modulus (i.e., low-slope) region
molecular-scale mechanism for the stress corresponds to the uncoiling of molecules (overcoming
versus strain behavior of an elastomer. weak, secondary bonds).
 The high-modulus region corresponds to elongation of
extended molecules (stretching primary, covalent bonds).
Summary
 Stress Versus Strain
 Metals
 Ceramics and Glasses
 Polymers
 Elastic Deformation
 Plastic Deformation
 Hardness
 Creep and Stress Relaxation
 Viscoelastic Deformation
 Inorganic Glasses
 Organic Polymers
 Elastomers
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