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4 Nervous System
4 Nervous System
Terms that appear in bold type in the chapter text are defined in the glossary,
which begins on page 603.
185
186 The Nervous System
M
ost of us can probably remember being told, peripheral nervous system (PNS) consists of cranial nerves
when we were children, not to touch the stove and spinal nerves. The PNS includes nerves to and from
or some other source of potential harm. Because skin and skeletal muscles. It also includes the autonomic
children are curious, such warnings often go unheeded. nervous system (ANS), with nerves to visceral effectors, and
The result? Touching a hot stove brings about an imme- the enteric nervous system, which is located in the wall of
diate response of pulling away and a vivid memory of the alimentary tube (and will be covered in Chapter 16).
painful fingers. This simple and familiar experience illus- The peripheral nervous system relays information to
trates the functions of the nervous system: and from the central nervous system, and the brain is the
center of activity that integrates this information, initiates
1. To detect changes and feel sensations
responses, and makes us the individuals we are.
2. To initiate appropriate responses to changes
3. To organize information for immediate use and store NERVE TISSUE
it for future use
Nerve tissue was briefly described in Chapter 4, so we will
The nervous system is one of the regulating systems begin by reviewing what you already know and then add
(the endocrine system is the other and is discussed in to it.
Chapter 10). The electrochemical impulses of the nervous Nerve cells are called neurons, or nerve fibers. What-
system make it possible to obtain information about the ever their specific functions, all neurons have the same
external or internal environment and do whatever is nec- physical parts. The cell body contains the nucleus
essary to maintain homeostasis. Some of this activity is (Fig. 8–1) and is essential for the continued life of the
conscious, but much of it happens without our awareness. neuron. As you will see, neuron cell bodies are found in
the central nervous system or close to it in the trunk of
NERVOUS SYSTEM DIVISIONS the body. In these locations, cell bodies are protected by
The nervous system has two divisions. The central nervous bone. There are no cell bodies in the arms and legs,
system (CNS) consists of the brain and spinal cord. The which are much more subject to injury.
The Nervous System 187
Axon
Cell body
Nucleus
Nucleus
Axon
Schwann cell nucleus
Myelin sheath
Cell body
Node of
Ranvier
Functional dendrite
Schwann cell
Myelin sheath
Axon
Neurolemma
Layers of myelin sheath
C
Receptors
A Axon terminal B
Figure 8–1 Neuron structure. (A) A typical sensory neuron. (B) A typical motor neuron. The
arrows indicate the direction of impulse transmission. (C) Details of the myelin sheath and
neurolemma formed by Schwann cells.
QUESTION: The axon terminal of the motor neuron would be found at what kinds of effectors?
Dendrites are processes (extensions) that transmit dendrites, cell body, and axon that carries the electrical
electrical impulses toward the cell body. The one axon nerve impulse.
of a neuron transmits impulses away from the cell body, In the peripheral nervous system, axons and dendrites
perhaps to another neuron, or to an effector cell of mus- are “wrapped” in specialized cells called Schwann cells
cle or glandular tissue. It is the cell membrane of the (see Fig. 8–1). During embryonic development, Schwann
188 The Nervous System
cells grow to surround the neuron processes, enclosing (glial cells), the specialized cells found only in the brain
them in several layers of Schwann cell membrane. These and spinal cord. Because no Schwann cells are present,
layers are the myelin sheath; myelin is a phospholipid however, there is no neurolemma, and regeneration of
that electrically insulates neurons from one another. neurons does not occur. This is why severing of the
Without the myelin sheath, neurons would short-circuit, spinal cord, for example, results in permanent loss of
just as electrical wires would if they were not insulated function. Microglia are another kind of neuroglia; these
(see Box 8–1: Multiple Sclerosis). cells are phagocytes and are constantly moving. They
The spaces between adjacent Schwann cells, or seg- clean up cellular debris and damaged cells and phago-
ments of the myelin sheath, are called nodes of Ranvier cytize pathogens.
(neurofibril nodes). These nodes are the parts of the neu- Yet another type of glial cell is the astrocyte (literally,
ron cell membrane that depolarize when an electrical “star cell”). In the embryo, these cells provide a frame-
impulse is transmitted (see “saltatory conduction” in the work for the migrating neurons that will form the brain.
next section). Thereafter, the extensions of astrocytes are wrapped
The nuclei and cytoplasm of the Schwann cells are around neurons and around brain capillaries (see
wrapped around the outside of the myelin sheath and are Table Fig. 8–A in Table 8–1), and these cells are not pas-
called the neurolemma (or neurilemma), which becomes sive supports. Astrocytes help regulate localized blood
very important if nerves are damaged. If a peripheral nerve flow within the brain. They are believed to detect the
is severed and reattached precisely by microsurgery, the release of neurotransmitters by neurons, and to increase
axons and dendrites may regenerate through the tunnels blood flow when their neurons become more active. As-
formed by the neurolemmas. The Schwann cells are also trocytes also contribute to the blood–brain barrier,
believed to produce a chemical growth factor that stimu- which prevents potentially harmful waste products in the
lates regeneration. Although this regeneration may take blood from diffusing out into brain tissue. These waste
months, the nerves may eventually reestablish their proper products are normal in the blood and tissue fluid, but
connections, and the person may regain some sensation brain tissue is much more sensitive to even low levels of
and movement in the once-severed limb. them than are other tissues such as muscle tissue or con-
In the central nervous system, the myelin sheaths nective tissue. The capillaries of the brain also contribute
are formed by oligodendrocytes, one of the neuroglia to this barrier because their cells are tightly packed edge
A Oligodendrocyte B Microglia
Neuron
Neuron
Myelin
sheath
Neuron
Capillary
Cilia
Neuron
Table Figure 8–A Neuroglia. (A) Oligodendrocyte. (B) Microglia. (C) Astrocytes.
(D) Ependymal cells.
QUESTION: Which of these CNS cells is the counterpart of Schwann cells in the PNS, and why?
to edge, making brain capillaries less permeable than medications cannot cross it, and the antibodies produced
other capillaries. Some harmful chemicals, such as alco- by lymphocytes cross only with difficulty. This becomes
hol and nicotine, do cross the blood–brain barrier, and an important consideration when treating brain infec-
the rabies virus is a pathogen that can cross it. A disad- tions or other diseases or disorders (Table 8–1 summa-
vantage of the blood–brain barrier is that some useful rizes the functions of the neuroglia).
190 The Nervous System
THE NERVE IMPULSE response to a stimulus takes place very rapidly and is
The events of an electrical nerve impulse are the same as measured in milliseconds. An individual neuron is capable
those of the electrical impulse generated in muscle fibers, of transmitting hundreds of action potentials (impulses)
which is discussed in Chapter 7. Stated simply, a neuron not each second. A summary of the events of nerve impulse
carrying an impulse is in a state of polarization, with Na+ transmission is given in Table 8–2.
ions more abundant outside the cell and K+ ions and nega- Transmission of electrical impulses is very rapid. The
tive ions more abundant inside the cell. The neuron has a presence of an insulating myelin sheath increases the ve-
positive charge on the outside of the cell membrane and a locity of impulses, since only the nodes of Ranvier depo-
relative negative charge inside. A stimulus (such as a neuro- larize. This is called saltatory conduction. Many of our
transmitter) makes the membrane very permeable to Na+ neurons are capable of transmitting impulses at a speed of
ions, which rush into the cell. This brings about depolariza- many meters per second. Imagine a person 6 feet (about
tion, a reversal of charges on the membrane. The outside now 2 meters) tall who stubs a toe; sensory impulses travel from
has a negative charge, and the inside has a positive charge. the toe to the brain in less than a second (crossing a few
As soon as depolarization takes place, the neuron synapses along the way, and although diffusion across
membrane becomes very permeable to K+ ions, which synapses is slow, the synapses are so small that this does
rush out of the cell. This restores the positive charge out- not significantly affect the velocity of impulses in a living
side and the negative charge inside and is called repolar- person). Electrical impulses enable the nervous system to
ization. (The term action potential refers to depolarization communicate very rapidly with all parts of the body, mak-
followed by repolarization.) Then the sodium and potas- ing it such an important regulatory system.
sium pumps return Na+ ions outside and K+ ions inside, You may have read or heard that nerve impulses can be
and the neuron is ready to respond to another stimulus called “messages,” as in, “sensory neurons send messages
and transmit another impulse. An action potential in to the brain,” or “the brain sends messages to muscles.” To
Polarization (the neuron is ■ Neuron membrane has a positive (+) charge outside and a
not carrying an electrical negative (!) charge inside.
impulse) ■ Na+ ions are more abundant outside the cell.
■ K+ ions and negative ions are more abundant inside the cell.
Sodium and potassium pumps maintain these ion concentrations.
Depolarization (generated by ■ Neuron membrane becomes very permeable to Na+ ions, which
a stimulus) rush into the cell.
■ The neuron membrane then has a negative (!) charge outside
and a positive (+) charge inside.
Propagation of the impulse ■ Depolarization of part of the membrane makes adjacent membrane
from point of stimulus very permeable to Na+ ions, and subsequent depolarization, which
similarly affects the next part of the membrane, and so on.
■ The depolarization continues along the membrane of the neuron
to the end of the axon.
Repolarization (immediately ■ Neuron membrane becomes very permeable to K+ ions, which
follows depolarization to rush out of the cell. This restores the positive (+) charge outside
complete the action and negative (!) charge inside the membrane.
potential) ■ The Na+ ions are returned outside and the K+ ions are returned
inside by the sodium and potassium pumps.
■ The neuron is now able to respond to another stimulus and
generate another impulse.
The Nervous System 191
understand how the nervous system works, however, this small gap or space between the axon of one neuron and
may not be the best analogy. A message says something; the dendrites or cell body of the next neuron is called
e-mails, letters, or phone calls say something specific and the synapse. Within the synaptic knob (terminal end)
rarely the same. Nerve impulses, however, are all exactly of the presynaptic axon is a chemical neurotransmitter
the same—the same electrical action potentials. The effect that is released into the synapse by the arrival of an elec-
of a nerve impulse is not a quality of the impulse itself, but trical nerve impulse (Fig. 8–2). The neurotransmitter
rather of its destination. For example, when a person takes diffuses across the synapse, combines with specific re-
a step, nerve impulses from the left foot arrive in the cuta- ceptor sites on the cell membrane of the postsynaptic
neous area for the left foot in the right parietal lobe of the neuron, and there generates an electrical impulse that
cerebrum, and the person feels the left foot hit the floor. If is, in turn, carried by this neuron’s axon to the next
those impulses could be routed to the area for the right foot synapse, and so forth. A chemical inactivator at the cell
in the left parietal lobe (this type of experiment has been body or dendrite of the postsynaptic neuron quickly in-
done with rats), we would feel as if the right foot were hit- activates the neurotransmitter. This prevents unwanted,
ting the floor instead of the left. continuous impulses, unless a new impulse from the
Destination is all that matters; the recipient is all that first neuron releases more neurotransmitter.
matters. Just as the electricity (all the same) carried by the Many synapses are termed excitatory, because the neu-
wires of a house can enable different appliances to fulfill rotransmitter causes the postsynaptic neuron to depolarize
their purposes (from refrigerators to hair dryers to light (become more negative outside as Na+ ions enter the cell)
bulbs), so too can nerve impulses enable bodily functions. and transmit an electrical impulse to another neuron, mus-
Impulses arriving at sweat glands bring about secretion cle cell, or gland. Some synapses, however, are inhibitory,
of sweat, because that is what these glandular cells do. Im- meaning that the neurotransmitter causes the postsynaptic
pulses arriving in the visual area of the occipital lobe bring neuron to hyperpolarize (become even more positive out-
about a sensation of seeing something, because that is side as K+ ions leave the cell or Cl! ions enter the cell) and
what these neurons do. Impulses arriving at skeletal mus- therefore not transmit an electrical impulse. Such inhibitory
cle cells bring about contraction, because that is what mus- synapses are important, for example, for slowing the heart
cle cells do. Therefore, a nerve impulse is not in itself a rate and for balancing the excitatory impulses transmitted
message. If anything, a nerve impulse may be considered to skeletal muscles. With respect to the skeletal muscles, this
more like a switch or simple signal, in that it activates (or inhibition prevents excessive contraction and is necessary
inhibits) the cell, tissue, or organ of its destination. for coordination.
In keeping with this idea, the brain may be likened to the One important consequence of the presence of synapses
conductor of an orchestra. And let us say the musicians are is that they ensure one-way transmission of impulses in a
the skeletal muscles (of the legs, trunk, and arms) needed living person. A nerve impulse cannot go backward across
to climb a mountain. Each muscle is structured so as to do a synapse because no neurotransmitter is released by the
a particular job, as each musician is trained on a specific in- dendrites or cell body. Neurotransmitters can be released
strument. The conductor does not play the bassoon or only by a neuron’s axon, which does not have receptor sites
trumpet or timpani or cello but will cue the musicians to for it, as does the postsynaptic membrane. Keep this in
play their parts. These cues will also signal the proper time mind when we discuss the types of neurons later in the
for each, and in the proper sequence; for muscle activity, chapter.
this would be coordination. The cues by the conductor— An example of a neurotransmitter is acetylcholine,
the signals—are very much the same. The signals are not which is found at neuromuscular junctions, in the CNS,
the effect; the recipients of the signals create the effect. and in much of the peripheral nervous system. Acetyl-
On their way to their recipient (or effector) cells, elec- choline usually makes a postsynaptic membrane more
trical nerve impulses cross one or more synapses. You may permeable to Na+ ions, which brings about depolarization
recall from Chapter 4 that at the synapses, nerve impulse of the postsynaptic neuron. Cholinesterase is the inacti-
transmission changes from electrical to chemical and vator of acetylcholine. There are many other neurotrans-
depends on the release of neurotransmitters. mitters, especially in the central nervous system. These
include dopamine, GABA, norepinephrine, glutamate,
SYNAPSES and serotonin. Each of these neurotransmitters has its own
Neurons that transmit impulses to other neurons (or to chemical inactivator. Some neurotransmitters are reab-
effector cells) do not actually touch one another. The sorbed into the neurons that secreted them; this process
192 The Nervous System
Dendrite of
postsynaptic
neuron
Na+
Na+
Na+
Inactivated
neurotransmitter
Mitochondrion
Neurotransmitter
(acetylcholine)
Figure 8–2 Impulse transmission at a synapse. The arrow indicates the direction of the electrical
impulse.
is called reuptake and also terminates the effect of the afferent neurons. The central nervous system interprets
transmitter. these impulses as a sensation. Sensory neurons from
The complexity and variety of synapses make them fre- receptors in skin, skeletal muscles, and joints are called
quent targets of medications. For example, drugs that alter somatic; those from receptors in internal organs are
mood or behavior often act on specific neurotransmitters called visceral sensory neurons.
in the brain, and antihypertensive drugs affect synapse Motor neurons (or efferent neurons) carry impulses
transmission at the smooth muscle of blood vessels. from the central nervous system to effectors. The two
types of effectors are muscles and glands. In response to
impulses, muscles contract or relax and glands secrete.
TYPES OF NEURONS Motor neurons linked to skeletal muscle are called so-
Neurons may be classified into three groups: sensory matic; those to smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, and glands
neurons, motor neurons, and interneurons (Fig. 8–3). are called visceral.
Sensory neurons (or afferent neurons) carry impulses Sensory and motor neurons make up the peripheral
from receptors to the central nervous system. Receptors nervous system. Visceral motor neurons form the auto-
detect external or internal changes and send the infor- nomic nervous system, a specialized subdivision of the
mation to the CNS in the form of impulses by way of the PNS that will be discussed later in this chapter.
The Nervous System 193
Cell bodies of
sensory neurons
100 "
Central canal
Interneuron
Synapse
Dorsal column
Dorsal root
Corticospinal tract
Dorsal root
ganglion Rubrospinal tract
Gray matter
Synaptic knobs
Effector muscle
100 "
Cell bodies of
motor neurons
Figure 8–3 Cross-section of the spinal cord and the three types of neurons. Spinal nerve roots
and their neurons are shown on the left side. Spinal nerve tracts are shown in the white matter
on the right side. All tracts and nerves are bilateral (both sides). Cell bodies of sensory and
somatic motor neurons are also shown.
QUESTION: The dorsal column is an ascending tract, and the corticospinal tract is descending. Explain
what this means.
194 The Nervous System
Interneurons are found entirely within the central tracts) carry sensory impulses to the brain. Descending
nervous system. They are arranged so as to carry only sen- tracts (such as the corticospinal and rubrospinal tracts)
sory or motor impulses, or to integrate these functions. carry motor impulses away from the brain. Lastly, find the
Some interneurons in the brain are concerned with think- central canal; this contains cerebrospinal fluid and is
ing, learning, and memory. continuous with cavities in the brain called ventricles.
A neuron carries impulses in only one direction. This
is the result of the neuron’s structure and location, as well SPINAL NERVES
as its physical arrangement with other neurons and the There are 31 pairs of spinal nerves, those that emerge
resulting pattern of synapses. The functioning nervous from the spinal cord. The nerves are named according
system, therefore, is an enormous network of “one-way to their respective vertebrae: 8 cervical pairs, 12 thoracic
streets,” and there is no danger of impulses running into pairs, 5 lumbar pairs, 5 sacral pairs, and 1 very small coc-
and canceling one another out. cygeal pair. These are shown in Fig. 8–4; notice that each
nerve is designated by a letter and a number. The 8th cer-
NERVES AND NERVE TRACTS vical nerve is C8, the 1st thoracic nerve is T1, and so on.
In general, the cervical nerves supply the back of the
A nerve is a group of axons and/or dendrites of many neu-
head, neck, shoulders, arms, and diaphragm (the phrenic
rons, with blood vessels and connective tissue. Sensory
nerves). The first thoracic nerve also contributes to nerves
nerves are made only of sensory neurons. The optic nerves
in the arms. The remaining thoracic nerves supply the
for vision and olfactory nerves for smell are examples of
trunk of the body. The lumbar and sacral nerves supply
nerves with a purely sensory function. Motor nerves are
the hips, pelvic cavity, and legs. Notice that the lumbar
made only of motor neurons; autonomic nerves are motor
and sacral nerves hang below the end of the spinal cord
nerves. A mixed nerve contains both sensory and motor
(in order to reach their proper openings to exit from the
neurons. Most of our peripheral nerves, such as the sciatic
vertebral canal); this is called the cauda equina, literally,
nerves in the legs, are mixed nerves.
the “horse’s tail.” Some of the important peripheral nerves
The term nerve tract refers to groups of neurons within
and their destinations are listed in Table 8–3.
the central nervous system. All the neurons in a nerve tract
Each spinal nerve has two roots, which are neurons en-
are concerned with either sensory or motor activity. These
tering or leaving the spinal cord (see Fig. 8–3). The dorsal
tracts are often referred to as white matter because the
root is made of sensory neurons that carry impulses into
myelin sheaths of the neurons give them a white color; this
the spinal cord. The dorsal root ganglion is an enlarged
term is used for parts of both the brain and spinal cord.
part of the dorsal root that contains the cell bodies of the
sensory neurons (see Fig. 8–3). The term ganglion means
THE SPINAL CORD a group of cell bodies outside the CNS. These cell bodies
The spinal cord transmits impulses to and from the brain are within the vertebral canal and are thereby protected
and is the integrating center for the spinal cord reflexes. from injury (see Box 8–2: Shingles).
Although this statement of functions is very brief and The ventral root is the motor root; it is made of the
sounds very simple, the spinal cord is of great importance axons of motor neurons carrying impulses from the spinal
to the nervous system and to the body as a whole. cord to muscles or glands. The cell bodies of these motor
Enclosed within the vertebral canal and the meninges, neurons, as mentioned previously, are in the gray matter
the spinal cord is well protected from mechanical injury. of the spinal cord. When the two nerve roots merge, the
In length, the spinal cord extends from the foramen mag- spinal nerve thus formed is a mixed nerve.
num of the occipital bone to the disc between the first and
second lumbar vertebrae. SPINAL CORD REFLEXES
A cross-section of the spinal cord is shown in Fig. 8–3; When you hear the term reflex, you may think of an action
refer to it as you read the following. The internal gray mat- that “just happens,” and in part this is so. A reflex is an
ter is shaped like the letter H; gray matter consists of the involuntary response to a stimulus, that is, an automatic
cell bodies of motor neurons and interneurons. The ex- action stimulated by a specific change of some kind.
ternal white matter is made of myelinated axons and den- Spinal cord reflexes are those that do not depend directly
drites of interneurons. These nerve fibers are grouped into on the brain, although the brain may inhibit or enhance
nerve tracts on the basis of their functions. Ascending them. We do not have to think about these reflexes, which
tracts (such as the dorsal columns and spinothalamic is very important, as you will see.
The Nervous System 195
C1
C2 Cervical plexus
C3
Spinal cord C4
C5
Phrenic nerve C6
Brachial plexus
C7
C8
T1
Intercostal nerves
T2
T3
T4
T5
T6
T7
T8
T9
T10
Radial nerve
T11
L1
Ulnar nerve
L2
Lumbar plexus
Cauda equina L3
L4
L5
Femoral nerve
S1
Sacral plexus
S2
S3
S4
Figure 8–4 The spinal cord and S5
spinal nerves. The distribution of CO1
spinal nerves is shown only on the
left side. The nerve plexuses are
labeled on the right side. A nerve Sciatic nerve
plexus is a network of neurons from
several segments of the spinal cord
that combine to form nerves to spe-
cific parts of the body. For example,
the radial and ulnar nerves to the arm
emerge from the brachial plexus (see
also Table 8–3).
Stimulus
Biceps
femoris
muscle
(relaxes)
make a decision every time we swayed a bit, all our con- an integrated whole. The major parts of the brain are the
centration would be needed just to remain standing. Since medulla, pons, and midbrain (collectively called the brain-
these are spinal cord reflexes, the brain is not directly in- stem), the cerebellum, the hypothalamus, the thalamus,
volved. The brain may become aware that a reflex has and the cerebrum. These parts are shown in Fig. 8–6. We
taken place, but that involves another set of neurons car- will discuss each part separately, but keep in mind that
rying impulses to the brain. they are all interconnected, by way of those trillions of
Flexor reflexes (or withdrawal reflexes) are another synapses, and work together.
type of spinal cord reflex. The stimulus is something
painful and potentially harmful, and the response is to pull VENTRICLES
away from it. If you inadvertently touch a hot stove, you The ventricles are four cavities within the brain: two lat-
automatically pull your hand away. Flexor reflexes are eral ventricles, the third ventricle, and the fourth ventricle
three-neuron reflexes because sensory neurons synapse (Fig. 8–7). The ventricles are lined with ciliated ependymal
with interneurons in the spinal cord, which in turn cells (see Table Fig. 8–A in Table 8–1) and filled with cere-
synapse with motor neurons. Again, however, the brain brospinal fluid (CSF). Each ventricle contains a capillary
does not have to make a decision to protect the body; the network called a choroid plexus, which forms the cere-
flexor reflex does that automatically (see Box 8–3: Spinal brospinal fluid from blood plasma. Cerebrospinal fluid is
Cord Injuries). The brain may know that the reflex has the tissue fluid of the central nervous system; its circula-
taken place, and may even learn from the experience, but tion and functions will be discussed in the section on
that requires different neurons, not the reflex arc. meninges.
MEDULLA
THE BRAIN The medulla extends from the spinal cord to the pons
The brain is made of approximately 100 billion neurons and is anterior to the cerebellum. Its functions are those
and contains trillions of synapses, all of which function as we think of as vital (as in “vital signs”). The medulla
Corpus callosum
Parietal lobe
Frontal lobe
Occipital lobe
Hypothalamus
Pituitary gland Pons
Temporal lobe
Medulla
Hippocampus
A Spinal cord
Longitudinal fissure
Cerebral cortex
Corpus callosum
Lateral ventricle
Thalamus
Third ventricle
Basal
ganglia
Hypothalamus
Temporal
lobe Optic tracts
Figure 8–6 (A) Midsagittal section of the brain as seen from the left side. This medial plane
shows internal anatomy and the lobes of the cerebrum. (B) Frontal section of the brain in
anterior view.
QUESTION: Find the corpus callosum in parts A and B, and describe its shape. What is its function?
200 The Nervous System
Lateral ventricles
Parietal lobe
Occipital lobe
Cerebral aqueduct
Third ventricle
Cerebellum
Pons
Central canal of spinal cord
Medulla
Figure 8–7 Ventricles of the brain as projected into the interior of the brain, which is seen
from the left side.
contains cardiac centers that regulate heart rate, vaso- connects the third and fourth ventricles. Several different
motor centers that regulate the diameter of blood vessels kinds of reflexes are integrated in the midbrain, includ-
and, thereby, blood pressure, and respiratory centers ing visual and auditory reflexes. If you see a wasp flying
that regulate breathing. You can see why a crushing in- toward you, you automatically duck or twist away; this
jury to the occipital bone may be rapidly fatal—we can- is a visual reflex. Keeping an eye on that wasp (actually
not survive without the medulla. Also in the medulla are both eyes) until it flies away is called tracking; the coor-
reflex centers for coughing, sneezing, swallowing, and dinated eye movements that make this possible are also
vomiting. a reflex. Other examples are following the flight of a
home run ball or a long touchdown pass. The ability to
PONS read depends in part on the coordinated movement of
The pons bulges anteriorly from the upper part of the the eyeballs from word to word; this is scanning and is
medulla. Within the pons are two respiratory centers another reflex mediated by the midbrain. Turning your
that work with those in the medulla to produce a nor- head (ear) to a sound is an example of an auditory reflex,
mal breathing rhythm. (The function of all the respira- as is the “startle” reflex, a jump or cringe upon hearing a
tory centers is discussed in Chapter 15.) The many sudden loud sound such as thunder. The midbrain is also
other neurons in the pons (pons is from the Latin for concerned with what are called righting reflexes, those
“bridge”) connect the medulla with other parts of the that keep the head upright and maintain balance or equi-
brain. librium. When a cat falls from a tree and lands on its feet
(if it was not too high up), its midbrain helped get its
MIDBRAIN head upright, and other parts of the brain then swung
The midbrain extends from the pons to the hypothala- the trunk and legs into position for a landing. Human
mus and encloses the cerebral aqueduct, a tunnel that midbrains are not nearly that efficient.
The Nervous System 201
know where the painful sensation is coming from. The neurons, which carry out the many functions of the cere-
sensory areas of the cerebrum are required for localization brum. Internal to the gray matter is white matter, made
and precise awareness. of myelinated axons and dendrites that connect the lobes
The thalamus may also suppress unimportant sensa- of the cerebrum to one another and to all other parts of
tions. If you are reading an enjoyable book, you may not the brain.
notice someone coming into the room. By temporarily In the human brain the cerebral cortex is folded ex-
blocking minor sensations, the thalamus permits the cere- tensively. The folds are called convolutions or gyri, and
brum to concentrate on important tasks. the grooves between them are fissures or sulci (you can
Parts of the thalamus are also involved in alertness and see the folding of the cortex in the frontal section of the
awareness (being awake and knowing we are), and others brain in Fig. 8–6). This folding permits the presence of
contribute to memory. For these functions, as for others, millions more neurons in the cerebral cortex. The cere-
the thalamus works very closely with the cerebrum. bral cortex of an animal such as a dog or cat does not
have this extensive folding. This difference enables us to
CEREBRUM read, speak, do long division, write poetry and songs,
The largest part of the human brain is the cerebrum, and do so many other “human” things that dogs and cats
which consists of two hemispheres separated by the lon- cannot do.
gitudinal fissure. At the base of this deep groove is the cor- The cerebral cortex is divided into lobes that have the
pus callosum, a band of 200 million neurons that connects same names as the cranial bones external to them.
the right and left hemispheres. Within each hemisphere is Therefore, each hemisphere has a frontal lobe, parietal
a lateral ventricle. lobe, temporal lobe, and occipital lobe (Fig. 8–8). These
The surface of the cerebrum is gray matter called the lobes have been mapped; that is, certain areas are known
cerebral cortex. Gray matter consists of cell bodies of to be associated with specific functions. We will discuss
Motor area
Premotor area General sensory area
Frontal lobe
Sensory association
area
Occipital lobe
Visual association
area
Visual area
Auditory
association
area Auditory area
Temporal lobe
Figure 8–8 Left cerebral hemisphere showing some of the functional areas that have been
mapped.
the functions of the cerebrum according to these The parts of the frontal lobes just behind the eyes are the
mapped areas. prefrontal or orbitofrontal cortex. This area is concerned
with things such as keeping emotional responses appropriate
Frontal Lobes to the situation, realizing that there are standards of behavior
Within the frontal lobes are the motor areas that generate (laws or rules of a game or simple courtesy) and following
the impulses for voluntary movement. The largest portions them, and anticipating and planning for the future. An ex-
are for movement of the hands and face, those areas with ample may be helpful to put all this together: Someone with
many muscles capable of very fine or precise movements. damage to the prefrontal area might become enraged if a pen
It is the large size of the motor area devoted to them that ran out of ink during class, might throw the pen at someone,
gives these muscles their precision. The left motor area con- and might not think that a pen will be needed tomorrow and
trols movement on the right side of the body, and the right that it is time to go buy one. As you can see, the prefrontal
motor area controls the left side of the body. This is why a cortex is very important for social behavior. This is the part
patient who has had a cerebrovascular accident, or stroke, of the brain that enables us to realize that other people might
in the right frontal lobe will have paralysis of muscles on not always think the way we do. This is the part that thinks
the left side (see Box 8–4: Cerebrovascular Accidents). “Ooops” and allows us to apologize for words or actions that
Anterior to the motor areas are the premotor areas, were perhaps poorly considered. The prefrontal cortex
which are concerned with learned motor skills that require greatly contributes to what makes us human and able to
a sequence of movements. Tying shoelaces, for example, enjoy the humanity of others.
seems almost automatic to us; we forget having learned it. Also in the frontal lobe, usually only the left lobe for
It is not a reflex, however; rather, the premotor cortex has most right-handed people, is Broca’s motor speech area,
learned the sequence so well that we are able to repeat it which controls the movements of the mouth involved in
without consciously thinking about it. speaking.
Parietal Lobes Also in the temporal and parietal lobes in the left hemi-
The general sensory areas in the parietal lobes receive sphere (for most of us) are other speech areas concerned
impulses from receptors in the skin and feel and interpret with the thought that precedes speech. Each of us can
the cutaneous sensations. The left area is for the right side probably recall (and regret) times when we have “spoken
of the body and vice versa. These areas also receive without thinking,” but in actuality that is not possible. The
impulses from stretch receptors in muscles for conscious thinking takes place very rapidly and is essential in order
muscle sense. The largest portions of these areas are for to be able to speak (see Box 8–5: Aphasia).
sensation in the hands and face, those parts of the body
Occipital Lobes
with the most cutaneous receptors and the most muscle
receptors. The taste areas, which overlap the parietal and Impulses from the retinas of the eyes travel along the optic
temporal lobes, receive impulses from taste buds on the nerves to the visual areas in the occipital lobes. These areas
tongue and elsewhere in the oral cavity. “see.” The visual association areas interpret what is seen and
enable the thinking cerebrum to use the information. Imag-
Temporal Lobes ine looking at a clock. Seeing the clock is far different from
The olfactory areas in the temporal lobes receive im- being able to interpret it. At one time we learned to interpret
pulses from receptors in the nasal cavities for the sense of the clock face and hands, and now we do not have to con-
smell. The olfactory association area learns the meaning sciously decide what time the clock is showing. We can sim-
of odors such as the smell of sour milk, or fire, or brownies ply use that information, such as hurrying a bit so as not to
baking in the oven, and enables the thinking cerebrum to be late to class. Other parts of the occipital lobes are con-
use that information effectively. cerned with spatial relationships; that is, things such as
The auditory areas, as their name suggests, receive im- judging distance and seeing in three dimensions or the abil-
pulses from receptors in the inner ear for hearing. The au- ity to read a map and relate it to the physical world.
ditory association area is quite large. Part of it is concerned The cerebral cortex has the characteristic of neural plas-
with the meanings of words we hear, that is, with speech. ticity, the ability to adapt to changing needs, to recruit dif-
Other parts are for the interpretation of sounds such as thun- ferent neurons for certain functions, as may occur during
der during a storm, an ambulance siren, or a baby crying. childhood or recovery from a stroke. Another example is
Without proper interpretation, we would hear the sound but the visual cortex of a person who is born blind. The neurons
would not know what it meant or be able to integrate it with in the occipital lobes that would have been used for vision
other senses and could not respond appropriately. will often be used for another function; some may become
part of an auditory area that is used to localize sounds and ventricle. The two hippocampi seem to collect information
estimate their distance. Those of us who can see may not from many areas of the cerebral cortex. When you meet
rely on hearing for localization; we simply look at where we a friend, for example, the memory emerges as a whole:
think the sound came from. A blind person cannot do this, “Here’s Fred,” not in pieces. People whose hippocampi are
and may have an extensive mental catalogue of sounds, damaged cannot form new memories that last more than a
meanings of sounds, distances of sounds, and so on, some few seconds and have difficulty recalling old memories.
of these in the part of the cortex that normally is for vision. The right hippocampus is also believed to be involved
The younger the person, the more plastic the brain. The in spatial cognition (literally: “space thinking”). For exam-
brains of children are extraordinarily adaptable. As we get ple, if you are in school and a friend asks you the shortest
older, plasticity diminishes somewhat, but is still present. way to your home, you will probably quickly form a men-
tal map. You can see how much memory that involves
Association Areas (streets, landmarks, and so on), but the hippocampus can
As you can see in Fig. 8–8, many parts of the cerebral cor- take it a step further and make your memories three-
tex are not concerned with movement or a particular sen- dimensional and mentally visible. You can see your way
sation. These may be called association areas and perhaps home. That is spatial cognition.
are what truly make us individuals. It is probably these It is believed that most, if not all, of what we have expe-
areas that give each of us a personality, a sense of humor, rienced or learned is stored somewhere in the brain. This is
and the ability to reason and use logic. Learning and mem- long-term memory, whether conscious or subconscious, and
ory are also functions of these areas. probably involves the creation of new connections in the
Although much has been learned about the formation brain. Sometimes a trigger may bring back memories from
of memories, the processes are still incompletely under- years or even decades ago; a certain scent or a song can act
stood and mostly beyond the scope of this book. Briefly, as possible triggers. Then we find ourselves recalling some-
however, we can say that memories of things such as people thing from the past and wondering where it came from.
or books or what you did last summer involve the hip- The loss of personality due to destruction of brain neu-
pocampus (from the Greek for “seahorse,” because of its rons is perhaps most dramatically seen in Alzheimer’s
shape), part of the temporal lobe on the floor of the lateral disease (see Box 8–6: Alzheimer’s Disease).
Basal Ganglia You would feel the shape and weight of the pencil, find
The basal ganglia are paired masses of gray matter within the point and the eraser. The sensory impulses from your
the white matter of the cerebral hemispheres (see Fig. 8–6). left hand are interpreted as “pencil” by the general sensory
Their functions are certain subconscious aspects of volun- area in your right parietal lobe. Your right hemisphere
tary movement, and they work with the cerebellum. The probably cannot speak, but its thoughts can be conveyed
basal ganglia help regulate muscle tone, and they coordinate by way of the corpus callosum to the left hemisphere,
accessory movements such as swinging the arms when which does have speech areas. Your left hemisphere can
walking or gesturing while speaking. Gestures and facial ex- say that you are holding a pencil. Other aspects of the “di-
pressions can be as eloquent as words and often accompany vision of labor” of our cerebral hemispheres are beyond
and complement our conversation. The most common the scope of this book, but it is a fascinating subject that
disorder of the basal ganglia is Parkinson’s disease (see you may wish to explore further.
Box 8–7: Parkinson’s Disease).
MENINGES AND CEREBROSPINAL
Corpus Callosum FLUID
As mentioned previously, the corpus callosum is a band The connective tissue membranes that cover the brain and
of nerve fibers that connects the left and right cerebral spinal cord are called meninges; the three layers are illus-
hemispheres. This enables each hemisphere to know what trated in Fig. 8–9. The thick outermost layer, made of
the other is doing. A person with musical training has a fibrous connective tissue, is the dura mater (Latin for
thicker corpus callosum (more neurons) than someone “tough mother”), which lines the skull and vertebral canal.
without. Music apparently makes demands on the cere- The middle arachnoid membrane (arachnids are spiders)
brum that nonmusical study does not, and the cerebrum is made of web-like strands of connective tissue. The in-
responds with more neurons and synapses. For all people, nermost pia mater (Latin for “gentle mother”) is a very
even those who are not musicians, the corpus callosum is thin membrane on the surface of the spinal cord and
important because for most of us the left hemisphere con- brain. Between the arachnoid and the pia mater is the sub-
tains speech areas and the right hemisphere does not. The arachnoid space, which contains cerebrospinal fluid
corpus callosum, therefore, lets the left hemisphere know (CSF), the tissue fluid of the central nervous system.
what the right hemisphere is thinking about, and the right Recall the ventricles (cavities) of the brain: two lateral
hemisphere know what the left hemisphere is thinking and ventricles, the third ventricle, and the fourth ventricle. Each
talking about. A brief example may be helpful. If you put contains a choroid plexus, a capillary network that forms
your left hand behind your back and someone places a cerebrospinal fluid from blood plasma. This is a continu-
pencil in your hand (you are not looking at it) and asks ous process, and the cerebrospinal fluid then circulates in
you what it is, would you be able to say? Yes, you would. and around the central nervous system (Fig. 8–10).
Central canal
Gray matter
White matter
Spinal nerve
Arachnoid Subarachnoid
membrane space
Dura
mater
A
Superior sagittal sinus
Dura mater
Skull
Arachnoid villi
Skin
Cerebral cortex
Cerebrum
(white matter)
Arachnoid membrane
Subarachnoid space
Pia mater
Figure 8–9 Structure of the meninges. (A) Meninges of the spinal cord. (B) Frontal section
through the top of the skull showing the double-layered cranial dura mater and one of the
cranial venous sinuses.
QUESTION: Describe the structural difference between the spinal dura mater and the cranial dura mater.
208 The Nervous System
Dura mater
Cranial Arachnoid Cranial venous sinus
meninges Arachnoid villus
Pia mater
Cerebrum
Subarachnoid space
Corpus
callosum
Lateral
ventricle
Cerebellum
Choroid plexus of
lateral ventricle Cerebral aqueduct
Choroid plexus of Fourth ventricle
third ventricle
Choroid plexus of
fourth ventricle
Third ventricle Pons
Subarachnoid space
Medulla Central canal
Hypothalamus
Spinal cord
Pia mater
Spinal meninges Arachnoid
Dura mater
Subarachnoid space
Figure 8–10 Formation, circulation, and reabsorption of cerebrospinal fluid. See text for
description.
QUESTION: In this pathway, where is the CSF reabsorbed, and into what?
From the lateral and third ventricles, cerebrospinal and that is just what happens. From the cranial subarach-
fluid flows through the fourth ventricle, then to the cen- noid space, cerebrospinal fluid is reabsorbed through
tral canal of the spinal cord, and to the cranial and spinal arachnoid villi into the blood in cranial venous sinuses
subarachnoid spaces. As more cerebrospinal fluid is (large veins within the double-layered cranial dura
formed, you might expect that some must be reabsorbed, mater). The cerebrospinal fluid becomes blood plasma
The Nervous System 209
again, and the rate of reabsorption normally equals the do carry impulses for functions involving the head. Some,
rate of production. however, have more far-reaching destinations.
Because cerebrospinal fluid is tissue fluid, one of its The impulses for the senses of smell, taste, sight, hear-
functions is to bring nutrients to CNS neurons and to re- ing, and equilibrium are all carried by cranial nerves to
move waste products to the blood as the fluid is reabsorbed. their respective sensory areas in the brain. Some cranial
The other function of cerebrospinal fluid is to act as a cush- nerves carry motor impulses to muscles of the face and
ion for the central nervous system. The brain and spinal eyes or to the salivary glands. The vagus nerves (vagus
cord are enclosed in fluid-filled membranes that absorb means “wanderer”) branch extensively to the larynx, heart,
shock. You can, for example, shake your head vigorously stomach and intestines, and bronchial tubes.
without harming your brain. Naturally, this protection has The functions of the cranial nerves are summarized in
limits; very sharp or heavy blows to the skull will indeed Table 8–4.
cause damage to the brain.
Examination of cerebrospinal fluid may be used in THE AUTONOMIC NERVOUS
the diagnosis of certain diseases (see Box 8–8: Lumbar SYSTEM
Puncture).
The autonomic nervous system (ANS) is actually part of
the peripheral nervous system in that it consists of motor
CRANIAL NERVES portions of some cranial and spinal nerves. Because its
The 12 pairs of cranial nerves emerge from the brainstem functioning is so specialized, however, the autonomic
or other parts of the brain—they are shown in Fig. 8–11. nervous system is usually discussed as a separate entity, as
The name cranial indicates their origin, and many of them we will do here.
Figure 8–11 Cranial nerves and their distributions. The brain is shown in an inferior view. See
Table 8–4 for descriptions.
QUESTION: Which cranial nerves bring about secretion of saliva? Which nerve brings about gastric and
intestinal secretion?
The Nervous System 211
Making up the autonomic nervous system are visceral The first neuron is called the preganglionic neuron, from
motor neurons to smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, and the CNS to the ganglion. The second neuron is called the
glands. These are the visceral effectors; muscle will either postganglionic neuron, from the ganglion to the visceral
contract or relax, and glands will either increase or effector. The ganglia are actually the cell bodies of the post-
decrease their secretions. ganglionic neurons. Look at Fig. 8–12 as you read the next
The ANS has two divisions: sympathetic and parasym- sections.
pathetic. Often, they function in opposition to each other,
as you will see. The activity of both divisions is integrated SYMPATHETIC DIVISION
by the hypothalamus, which ensures that the visceral Another name for the sympathetic division is thoracolum-
effectors will respond appropriately to the situation. bar division, which tells us where the sympathetic pregan-
glionic neurons originate. Their cell bodies are in the
AUTONOMIC PATHWAYS thoracic segments and some of the lumbar segments of the
Autonomic nerve pathways going from the central nervous spinal cord. Their axons extend to the sympathetic gan-
system to visceral effectors differ anatomically from so- glia, most of which are located in two chains just outside
matic pathways that lead to skeletal muscle effectors. Turn the spinal column (see Fig. 8–12). Within the ganglia are
back to Fig. 8–3 and find the motor neuron. This is a so- the synapses between preganglionic and postganglionic
matic motor neuron; its cell body is in the spinal cord and neurons; the postganglionic axons then go to the visceral
its axon extends all the way to the skeletal muscle, where it effectors. One preganglionic neuron often synapses with
synapses with muscle cells. A somatic motor pathway, many postganglionic neurons to many effectors. This
therefore, is a one-neuron pathway. An autonomic path- anatomic arrangement has physiological importance: The
way, however, is a two-neuron pathway. It consists of two sympathetic division brings about rapid and widespread
motor neurons that synapse in a ganglion outside the CNS. responses in many organs. Aspects of the anatomy of both
212 The Nervous System
Bronchioles
5 6
7
5 8
Medulla
Interneuron
7
Thoracic 4
2 3 6 8
spinal cord
T1
1
T2 3 4
T3
Heart
Sympathetic ganglia
Figure 8–12 Neurons of the autonomic nervous system. A schematic of sympathetic (blue)
and parasympathetic (red) neurons. See text and Table 8–5 for further description.
QUESTION: The parasympathetic neuron to the heart emerges from what part of the brain? Can you name
this nerve?
ANS divisions as shown in Fig. 8–12 are summarized in Table 8–6, you will see the kinds of responses the sympa-
Table 8–5. thetic division stimulates. The heart rate increases, va-
The sympathetic division is dominant in stressful sit- sodilation in skeletal muscles supplies them with more
uations, which include anger, fear, or anxiety, as well as oxygen, the bronchioles dilate to take in more air, and the
exercise. For our prehistoric ancestors, stressful situations liver changes glycogen to glucose to supply energy. At the
often involved the need for intense physical activity—the same time, digestive secretions decrease and peristalsis
“fight-or-flight response.” Our nervous systems haven’t slows; these are not important in a stress situation. Vaso-
changed very much in 50,000 years, and if you look at constriction in the skin and viscera shunts blood to more
The Nervous System 213
vital organs such as the heart, muscles, and brain. All of increased secretions and peristalsis; defecation and uri-
these responses enabled our ancestors to stay and fight or nation may occur; and the heart will beat at a normal
to get away from potential danger. Even though we may resting rate. Other functions of this division are listed in
not always be in life-threatening situations during stress Table 8–6.
(such as figuring out our income taxes), our bodies are Notice that when an organ receives both sympathetic
prepared for just that. Figure 8–13 depicts all of the or- and parasympathetic impulses, the responses are oppo-
gans innervated by the sympathetic division; the nerve sites. Such an arrangement makes maintaining an appro-
pathways are in blue. priate level of activity quite simple, as in changing the
heart rate to meet the needs of a situation. Notice also that
PARASYMPATHETIC DIVISION some visceral effectors receive only sympathetic impulses.
The other name for the parasympathetic division is the In such cases, the opposite response is brought about by a
craniosacral division. The cell bodies of parasympathetic decrease in sympathetic impulses. Secretion by the sweat
preganglionic neurons are in the brainstem and the glands is an example.
sacral segments of the spinal cord. Their axons are in
cranial nerve pairs 3, 7, 9, and 10 (oculomotor, facial, NEUROTRANSMITTERS
glossopharyngeal, and vagus nerves) and in some sacral Recall that neurotransmitters enable nerve impulses to
nerves and extend to the parasympathetic ganglia. These cross synapses. In autonomic pathways there are two
ganglia are very close to or actually in the visceral effector synapses: one between preganglionic and postganglionic
(see Figs. 8–12 and 8–13; nerve pathways are shown in neurons (within the autonomic ganglia) and the second
red), and contain the postganglionic cell bodies, with between postganglionic neurons and the cells of the vis-
very short axons to the cells of the effector. ceral effectors.
In the parasympathetic division, one preganglionic Look again at Fig. 8–12 and find the synapses for each
neuron synapses with just a few postganglionic neurons division. Acetylcholine is the transmitter released by all
to only one effector. With this anatomic arrangement, preganglionic neurons, both sympathetic and parasym-
very localized (one organ) responses are possible. pathetic; it is inactivated by cholinesterase in postgan-
The parasympathetic division dominates in relaxed glionic neurons. Parasympathetic postganglionic neurons
(non-stress) situations to promote normal functioning all release acetylcholine at the synapses with their vis-
of several organ systems. Digestion will be efficient, with ceral effectors. Most sympathetic postganglionic neurons
214 The Nervous System
Sympathetic Parasympathetic
Eye
Ciliary ganglion
III
Midbrain
Pterygopalatine
ganglion VII
Pons
IX
Salivary Medulla
glands Otic
Tr achea Submandibular ganglion
ganglion
X
T9 Pancreas
T10 Superior
mesenteric
Small
T11 ganglion
intestine
Large
T12 intestine
L1
Colon
L2
Rectum
Chain of
sympathetic Inferior
ganglia mesenteric
ganglion
Bladder S2
S3
Reproductive S4
organs
Figure 8–13 The autonomic nervous system. The sympathetic division is shown on the left,
and the parasympathetic division is shown on the right (both divisions are bilateral).
QUESTION: Do both or just one division of the ANS supply the heart? What is the purpose of this
arrangement?
The Nervous System 215
release the transmitter norepinephrine at the synapses with we get older, but this is not the usual cause of mental im-
the effector cells. Norepinephrine is inactivated by either pairment in elderly people. (Far more common causes are
catechol-O-methyl transferase (COMT) or monoamine depression, malnutrition, hypotension, and the side effects
oxidase (MAO), or it may be removed from the synapse by of medications.) Some forgetfulness is to be expected,
reuptake. The sympathetic postganglionic neurons that however, as is a decreased ability for rapid problem solv-
release acetylcholine are the neurons to sweat glands and ing, but most memory should remain intact. Voluntary
some of those to the smooth muscle in the walls of the blood movements become slower, as do reflexes and reaction
vessels in skeletal muscle (to bring about vasodilation). time. Think of driving a car, an ability we sometimes take
for granted. For elderly people, with their slower percep-
tions and reaction times, greater consciousness of driving
AGING AND THE NERVOUS is necessary.
SYSTEM As the autonomic nervous system ages, dry eyes and
The aging brain does lose neurons, but the loss is only a constipation may become problems. Transient hypoten-
small percentage of the total neurons. The formation of sion may be the result of decreased sympathetic stimu-
synaptic connections is believed to slow considerably as lation of vasoconstriction. In most cases, however,
216 The Nervous System
elderly people who are aware of these aspects of aging carried by the nervous system are an example of the
will be able to work with their physicians or nurses to chemical level of organization of the body. These nerve
adapt to them. impulses then regulate the functioning of tissues, or-
gans, and organ systems, which permits us to perceive
and respond to the world around us and the changes
SUMMARY within us. The detection of such changes is the function
The nervous system regulates many of our simplest and of the sense organs, and they are the subject of our next
most complex activities. The impulses generated and chapter.
STUDY OUTLINE
Functions of the Nervous System 4. Oligodendrocytes in CNS form the myelin
1. Detect changes and feel sensations. sheaths; microglia phagocytize pathogens and
damaged cells; astrocytes contribute to the
2. Initiate responses to changes.
blood–brain barrier and regulate localized blood
3. Organize and store information. flow (see Table 8–1).
6. Synapse—the space between the axon of one 4. Ascending tracts carry sensory impulses to the
neuron and the dendrites or cell body of the next brain; descending tracts carry motor impulses
neuron. A neurotransmitter carries the impulse away from the brain.
across a synapse and is then destroyed by a 5. Central canal contains cerebrospinal fluid and
chemical inactivator or absorbed (reuptake). is continuous with the ventricles of the brain.
Synapses make impulse transmission one way
in the living person.
Spinal Nerves—see Table 8–3 for major periph-
eral nerves
Types of Neurons—nerve fibers
1. Eight cervical pairs to head, neck, shoulder, arm,
1. Sensory—carry impulses from receptors to the and diaphragm; 12 thoracic pairs to trunk; 5 lum-
CNS; may be somatic (from skin, skeletal mus- bar pairs and 5 sacral pairs to hip, pelvic cavity,
cles, joints) or visceral (from internal organs). and leg; 1 very small coccygeal pair.
2. Motor—carry impulses from the CNS to effec- 2. Cauda equina—the lumbar and sacral nerves
tors; may be somatic (to skeletal muscle) or that extend below the end of the spinal cord.
visceral (to smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, or
3. Each spinal nerve has two roots: dorsal or sen-
glands). Visceral motor neurons make up the
sory root; dorsal root ganglion contains cell bod-
autonomic nervous system.
ies of sensory neurons; ventral or motor root; the
3. Interneurons—entirely within the CNS. two roots unite to form a mixed spinal nerve.
Nerves and Nerve Tracts Spinal Cord Reflexes—do not depend directly
1. Sensory nerve—made only of sensory neurons. on the brain
2. Motor nerve—made only of motor neurons. 1. A reflex is an involuntary response to a stimulus.
3. Mixed nerve—made of both sensory and motor 2. Reflex arc—the pathway of nerve impulses dur-
neurons. ing a reflex: (1) receptors, (2) sensory neurons,
4. Nerve tract—a nerve within the CNS; also called (3) CNS with one or more synapses, (4) motor
white matter. neurons, (5) effector that responds.
3. Stretch reflex—a muscle that is stretched will
The Spinal Cord contract; these reflexes help keep us upright
against gravity. The patellar reflex is also used
1. Functions: transmits impulses to and from the
clinically to assess neurologic functioning, as are
brain, and integrates the spinal cord reflexes.
many other reflexes (Fig. 8–5).
2. Location: within the vertebral canal; extends
4. Flexor reflex—a painful stimulus will cause
from the foramen magnum to the disc between
withdrawal of the body part; these reflexes are
the 1st and 2nd lumbar vertebrae.
protective.
3. Cross-section: internal H-shaped gray matter
contains cell bodies of motor neurons and in-
terneurons; external white matter is the myeli-
nated axons and dendrites of interneurons.
218 The Nervous System
Meninges and Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF) The Autonomic Nervous System (ANS) (see
(see Figs. 8–9 and 8–10) Figs. 8–12 and 8–13 and Tables 8–5 and 8–6)
1. Three meningeal layers made of connective 1. Has two divisions: sympathetic and parasympa-
tissue: outer—dura mater; middle—arachnoid thetic; their functioning is integrated by the
membrane; inner—pia mater; all three enclose the hypothalamus.
brain and spinal cord. 2. Consists of motor neurons to visceral effectors:
2. Subarachnoid space contains CSF, the tissue smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, and glands.
fluid of the CNS. 3. An ANS pathway consists of two neurons that
3. CSF is formed continuously in the ventricles of the synapse in a ganglion:
brain by choroid plexuses, from blood plasma. a. Preganglionic neurons—from the CNS to the
4. CSF circulates from the ventricles to the central ganglia
canal of the spinal cord and to the cranial and b. Postganglionic neurons—from the ganglia to
spinal subarachnoid spaces. the effectors
5. CSF is reabsorbed from the cranial subarachnoid c. Most sympathetic ganglia are in two chains
space through arachnoid villi into the blood in just outside the vertebral column; parasym-
the cranial venous sinuses. The rate of reabsorp- pathetic ganglia are very near or in the vis-
tion equals the rate of production. ceral effectors.
6. As tissue fluid, CSF brings nutrients to CNS neu- 4. Neurotransmitters: acetylcholine is released by
rons and removes waste products. CSF also acts all preganglionic neurons and by parasympa-
as a shock absorber to cushion the CNS. thetic postganglionic neurons; the inactivator is
cholinesterase. Norepinephrine is released by
Cranial Nerves—12 pairs of nerves that emerge most sympathetic postganglionic neurons; the
from the brain (see Fig. 8–11) inactivator is COMT or MAO.
1. Concerned with vision, hearing and equilibrium, 5. Sympathetic division—dominates during stress
taste and smell, and many other functions within situations; responses prepare the body to meet
the head and viscera. physical demands.
2. See Table 8–4 for the functions of each pair. 6. Parasympathetic division—dominates in relaxed
situations to permit normal functioning.
220 The Nervous System
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Name the divisions of the nervous system and e. Regulates food intake
state the parts of each. (p. 186) f. Regulates coordination of voluntary movement
2. State the function of the following parts of nerve g. Regulates secretions of the anterior pituitary
tissue: (pp. 187–189) gland
a. Axon h. Regulates coughing and sneezing
b. Dendrites i. Regulates muscle tone
c. Myelin sheath j. Regulates visual and auditory reflexes
d. Neurolemma k. Regulates blood pressure
e. Microglia 10. Name the part of the cerebrum concerned with
f. Astrocytes each of the following: (pp. 203–206)
3. Explain the difference between: (pp. 192–194) a. Feels the cutaneous sensations
a. Sensory neurons and motor neurons b. Contains the auditory areas
b. Interneurons and nerve tracts c. Contains the visual areas
4. Describe an electrical nerve impulse in terms of d. Connects the cerebral hemispheres
charges on either side of the neuron membrane. e. Regulates accessory movements
Describe how a nerve impulse crosses a
f. Contains the olfactory areas
synapse. (pp. 190–191)
g. Initiates voluntary movement
5. With respect to the spinal cord: (p. 194)
h. Contains the speech areas (for most people)
a. Describe its location
11. Name the three layers of the meninges, begin-
b. State what gray matter and white matter are
ning with the outermost. (p. 206)
made of
12. State all the locations of cerebrospinal fluid.
c. State the function of the dorsal root, ventral
What is CSF made from? Into what is CSF reab-
root, and dorsal root ganglion
sorbed? State the functions of CSF. (pp. 206–209)
6. State the names and number of pairs of spinal
13. State a function of each of the following cranial
nerves. State the part of the body supplied by
nerves: (p. 211)
the phrenic nerves, radial nerves, and sciatic
nerves. (pp. 194,196) a. Glossopharyngeal
7. Define reflex, and name the five parts of a reflex b. Olfactory
arc. (pp. 194,197) c. Trigeminal
8. Define stretch reflexes, and explain their practi- d. Facial
cal importance. Define flexor reflexes, and e. Vagus (three functions)
explain their practical importance. (pp. 197–198)
14. Explain how the sympathetic division of the
9. Name the part of the brain concerned with each ANS helps the body adapt to a stress situation;
of the following: (pp. 198–202) give three specific examples. (pp. 211–213)
a. Regulates body temperature 15. Explain how the parasympathetic division of
b. Regulates heart rate the ANS promotes normal body functioning;
c. Suppresses unimportant sensations give three specific examples. (p. 213)
d. Regulates respiration (two parts)
The Nervous System 221
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