Based on the nature of these eigen values and the trajectory in z1 – z2 plane, the singular points are

classified as follows.

Nodal Point:

Consider eigen values are real, distinct and negative as shown in figure (a). For this case the equation
k
of the phase trajectory follows as Z 2=CZ 1 1

Where, k1 = (λ2/λ1) ≥ 0 so that the trajectories

become a set of parabola as shown in figure(b) and
the equilibrium point is called a node. In the
original system of coordinates, these trajectories
appear to be skewed as shown in figure ( c)

If the eigen
the trajectori
trajectories d
as both z1(t)
The phase tr
shown in fig
identified as a
trajectories di
 Saddle Point:

Consider now a system with eigen values are real, distinct one positive and one negative. Here, one
of the states corresponding to the negative eigen value converges and the one corresponding to
positive eigen value diverges so that the trajectories are given by z2 = c(z1)-k1 or (z1)kz2 = c which is
an equation to a rectangular hyperbola for positive values of k. The location of the eigen values, the
phase portrait in z1 – z2 plane and in the x1 – x2 plane are as shown in figure. The equilibrium point
around which the trajectories are of this type is called a saddle point.

ate eigen values.

n can be written

of a spiral
Centre or Vortex Point:
Consider now the case of complex conjugate eigen values
with zero real parts.
1 , 2   j
dy2 y1

dy1 y2
 y1dy1  y2 dy2  0
 y12  y22  c 2  Equation of a circle

Such a singular points, around which the state trajectories

are concentric circles or ellipses, are called a centre or
vortex.
Graphical methods of drawing phase plane trajectory

Method of isocline

.
Let the state equations for a nonlinear
system be in the form
x1  f1 ( x1 , x2 )
.
x2  f 2 ( x1 , x2 )
slope of trajector y is given by
dx2 f (x , x )
 2 1 2 M
dx1 f1 ( x1 , x2 )
f 2 ( x1 , x2 )  Mf1 ( x1 , x2 )
Isoclines are lines in the phase plane correspond ing
to slope of phase portrait.
The above equation gives the equation t o the family of isoclines.
For different values of M, the slope of the trajector y,
different isoclines can be drawn in the phase plane.

• Figure shows the plot of isoclines for various values of slope.

• Assume that initial conditions are such that initial point is located at A on isocline 1.

• Phase trajectory must leave the point A with slope M1

• When the trajectory reaches isocline 2, slope changes to M2

• Two lines are drawn from A, one with slope M1 other with slope M2 intersecting isocline 2 at
a and b.

• Point B is located midway between a and b on isocline 2.

 • This process is repeated at B and so on.

• A smooth curve is drawn through the points.

Delta method
.. .
x =−f ( x , x ,t )
.. .
x +ω 2 x =−f ( x , x , t )+ω 2 x
.
.
f ( x , x , t )−ω 2 x
let δ ( x , x ,t )= 2
ω
.. .
2 2
∴ x +ω x=−ω δ (x , x , t )
for small changes value of δ is assumed to be constant at δ 1
..
∴ x +ω2 ( x+δ1 )=0
this is equation of simple harmonic motion whose trajectories
. .
x x
are circle centred at x =−δ 1 , =0 in normalized plane ( x , )
ω ω
.
x
x 1=x , x 2 =
ω P(x
1 ,x2
.
x 1=ω x 2
x
.
x 1=−ω( x 1 + δ )
)
2
dx 2 x +δ
dx 1
=− 1
x2 - x
1
• Draw a short arc segment through initial point ᵟ
with (-ᵟ,0) as centre, therby determining a new
point.

• Repeat the process for the new point and continue.