Downloadable Test Bank For Psychology Themes and Variations 9th Edition Weiten

Downloadable Test Bank for Psychology Themes And Variations 9th Edition Weiten
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And Variations 9th Edition Weiten
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Chapter 6 B--Learning
Student: ___________________________________________________________________________
1. When a response is strengthened because it is followed by the presentation of a rewarding stimulus, it is

called
A. punishment.
B. negative reinforcement.
C. positive reinforcement.
D. primary reinforcement.
2. When a response is strengthened because it is followed by the removal of an aversive stimulus it is called
A. punishment.
B. positive reinforcement.
C. negative reinforcement.
D. secondary reinforcement.
3. Pat takes a prescription medication in order to reduce pain and Kelly takes the same medication in order to
experience a "drug high." Pat's behavior is reinforced by ____ reinforcement and Kelly's behavior by ____
reinforcement.
A. negative; positive
B. positive; negative
C. positive; positive
D. negative; negative
4. Both ____ increase the probability that a response will be repeated.

A. positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement
B. positive reinforcement and punishment
C. negative reinforcement and punishment
D. reinforcement and punishment
5. Which of the following is an example of negative reinforcement?

A. grounding a teenager for missing curfew
B. making a child sit in the corner until they say "I'm sorry"
C. giving a student extra credit for class participation
D. allowing a student to take a make-up exam
6. When David's Uncle Don visits, Don always gives David an intense tickling and will only stop this
"tickle-torture" when David says "Uncle". David's response of saying "Uncle" is strengthened through
A. positive reinforcement.
C. avoidance learning.
D. punishment.
7. If you perform behavior designed to prevent an unpleasant event from happening, your behavior is classified
as
A. a primary response.
B. a classically conditioned response (CR).
C. an avoidance response.
D. an escape response.
8. Escape learning is a type of learning in which

A. an organism's responding is influenced by the observation of others' behavior.
B. an organism engages in a response that brings aversive stimulation to an end.
C. a neutral stimulus acquires the ability to elicit a response that was originally elicited by another stimulus.
D. an organism engages in a response that prevents aversive stimulation from occurring.
9. A rat is placed on one side of a two-compartment shuttle box. For each trial, a light is turned on and is
followed 10 seconds later by a painful electric shock for one minute. The rat can terminate the trial by jumping
a barrier into the other compartment. If the rat jumps during the light, it has learned to ____ the shock; if the rat
jumps during the shock, it has learned to ____ the shock.
A. escape; avoid
B. avoid; escape
C. escape; escape
D. avoid; avoid
10. Nolan has learned to drink a cup of coffee whenever he gets a tension headache because drinking coffee
makes the pain of the headache go away. This is an example of
A. avoidance learning.
B. escape learning.
D. classical conditioning.
11. Hanna finds that when her kids become too rowdy and noisy, she can successfully block out their noise if
she closes the door to her study. In this example, closing the door is an example of
A. an escape response.
B. an avoidance response.
C. an unconditioned response.
D. positive reinforcement.
12. Tammy finds writing papers to be a very aversive task. As a result she always checks out the requirements
for all her classes before she registers and never takes classes that require term papers, Tammy's behavior is an
example of
A. escape learning.
B. avoidance learning.
13. A rat learns to press a bar to turn off an electric shock. This is an example of
A. escape learning.
14. Escape conditioning is maintained by

A. modeling.
B. punishment.
15. Avoidance conditioning develops through

A. negative reinforcement.
C. punishment.
D. modeling.
16. Acquiring a behavior that prevents the occurrence of an aversive event is

A. escape learning.
C. punishment learning.
D. avoidance learning.
17. Brenda has learned to take an over-the-counter medication 30 minutes before she eats a spicy meal. When
she does this she is able to prevent the heartburn and indigestion that she would experience otherwise. This is an
example of
A. escape conditioning.
C. classical conditioning.
D. avoidance conditioning.
18. When Jackie watches slasher movies, she covers her eyes when the blood starts to splatter. When Clarice
watches slasher movies, she covers her eyes as soon as she hears ominous music start to play. Jackie's response
is consistent with ____, while Clarice's response is consistent with ____.
A. escape responding; avoidance responding
B. avoidance responding; escape responding
C. negative reinforcement; positive reinforcement
D. classical conditioning; operant conditioning
19. Which type of learning is being employed if a rat bar-presses in order to turn off an electrical shock?
A. positive reinforcement
B. punishment
C. avoidance learning
D. escape learning
20. When an organism learns a response that prevents some aversive stimulation from occurring, it is termed
A. secondary learning.
B. punishment.
C. escape learning.
21. If one rat learns to bar-press to turn off an electric shock and a second rat learns to bar-press when a warning
signal that precedes the shock is turned on, the first rat is demonstrating ____ and the second rat is
demonstrating ____.
A. avoidance learning; escape learning
B. escape learning; avoidance learning
C. punishment; escape learning
D. punishment; avoidance learning
22. Car manufacturers try to encourage drivers to buckle their seat belts through the use of reinforcement. As
you know, if you start your car without buckling-up you will hear a somewhat annoying sound. If you learn to
buckle-up after hearing the sound, you show ____. If you acquire the response of buckling-up before you turn
on the ignition, you show ____.
23. As a teenager it seemed that your mom was always nagging you to clean your room. Eventually you learned
that if you cleaned your room every Saturday morning you would not have to listen to her nagging. Your
mother was successful in getting you to clean your room through the use of ____ to establish ____.
A. negative reinforcement; avoidance learning
B. negative reinforcement; escape learning
C. punishment; avoidance learning
D. punishment; escape learning
24. Two processes involved in the acquisition of phobias and the tendency of phobias to show a high resistance
to extinction are
A. reinforcement and punishment.
B. positive and negative reinforcement.
C. classical and operant conditioning.
D. operant conditioning and observation learning.
25. Any event that follows a behavior and results in the behavior having a lower probability of happening in the
future is known as a
A. negative reinforcer.
B. positive reinforcer.
C. punisher.
D. vicarious conditioner.
26. Jane, your teenage daughter, was ridiculed at school for wearing a particular style of shirt. Now, she no
longer wears that style of shirt to school. Being ridiculed is an example of
C. punishment.
D. modeling.
27. Your spouse withdraws attention from you each time you begin criticizing her cooking. Eventually, you
stop criticizing your spouse's cooking. The withdrawal of attention can be categorized as
A. punishment.
B. observational learning.
D. modeling.
28. Miguel used to enjoy occasionally drinking a glass of red wine, but when he drank too much red wine at a
friend's party a few months ago he woke up with a terrible hangover. Since then Miguel refuses to drink any red
wine. In this case, Miguel's hangover acted as
A. negative reinforcement for drinking red wine.
B. a conditioned response to wine drinking.
C. punishment for drinking red wine.
D. a secondary reinforcer for attending parties.
29. Angela used to really enjoy diving for her school team, but at their most recent diving practice she hit her
head on the diving board during her last dive. Since then she hasn't attended any of the team practices, and she
refuses to dive. In this case, hitting her head on the board acted as
A. punishment for diving.
B. negative reinforcement for diving.
C. an unconditioned response to diving.
D. a discriminative stimulus for attending team practices.
30. Negative reinforcement ____ the rate of a response; punishment ____ the rate of a response.
A. increases; decreases
B. decreases; increases
C. increases; increases
D. decreases; decreases
31. Typically, most people would

A. enjoy being negatively reinforced or punished.
B. dislike being negatively reinforced or punished.
C. enjoy being negatively reinforced and dislike being punished.
D. enjoy being punished and dislike being negatively reinforced.
32. The difference between punishment and negative reinforcement is that
A. punishment strengthens undesirable behaviors, and negative reinforcement weakens undesirable behaviors.
B. punishment weakens undesirable behaviors, while negative reinforcement weakens desirable behaviors.
C. punishment weakens behavior, while negative reinforcement strengthens behavior.
D. there is no difference between punishment and negative reinforcement in their effects on behavior.
33. How are punishment and negative reinforcement different?

A. Punishment involves the use of a negative stimulus; negative reinforcement uses a pleasant stimulus.
B. Punishment increases the frequency of undesired behavior; negative reinforcement discourages it.
C. Punishment always involves pain while negative reinforcement involves the removal of primary reinforcers.
D. Punishment decreases the frequency of behavior while negative reinforcement increases the likelihood of
behavior.
34. When an event following a response weakens an organism's tendency to make that response, it is termed
A. punishment.
B. extinction.
35. The tendency to make a response increases following the use of ____ and the tendency to make a response
decreases following the use of ____.
A. punishment; negative reinforcement
B. negative reinforcement; punishment
C. positive reinforcement; negative reinforcement
D. negative reinforcement; positive reinforcement
36. Which of the following is NOT an example of punishment?

A. laughing at a classmate when he asks a "dumb question" in class
B. nagging a child until she pick up her toys
C. taking away a child's TV privileges for one week for a bad report card
D. making a child sit in the corner for 10 minutes for back-talk
37. Although there are many controversies surrounding punishment it is used frequently for disciplinary
purposes. Which of the following are desirable aspects surrounding the use of punishment?
A. It suggests alternative behaviors.
B. It can be modeled as a positive problem solving method.
C. It reduces the probability of undesirable behavior.
D. It will often trigger strong emotional responses.
38. Which of the following statements about punishment is LEAST accurate?
A. Punishment may take the form of removal of a rewarding stimulus.
B. Punishment occurs whenever a response terminates an aversive condition.
C. Punishment may take the form of giving aversive stimulation after a response.
D. Punishment, by definition, weakens preceding behavior.
39. Which of the following statements about punishment is FALSE?

A. Punishment may generalize to other behaviors.
B. Punishment increases the frequency of undesired behavior.
C. Punishment triggers strong emotional responses.
D. Punishment may be modeled by children as a way of solving problems.
40. Angela came home after her curfew last night; as a result, her parents have taken away her driving
privileges for 1 week. What discipline technique are Angela's parents using?
A. punishment
B. negative reinforcement
C. extinction
D. positive reinforcement
41. Why is sending a note home to a parent not the most effective method of suppressing undesirable behavior?
A. The parents frequently do not respond to notes.
B. A note is not intense enough to achieve the desired effect.
C. The association between the response and the punishment is not immediate.
D. Notes are often consistent and will explain the offense.
42. To maximize effectiveness of punishment and minimize its negative side effects, punishment should be
A. strong, delayed, and consistent.
B. consistent, swift, and explained.
C. mild, consistent, and unpredictable.
D. swift, strong, and unpredictable.
43. One reason that the criminal justice system in the United States does not do a better job deterring crime may
be because it
A. relies too much on highly aversive punishment.
B. relies too little on the use of punishment.
C. delays punishment for too long.
D. does not use reinforcing techniques.
44. Which of the following would NOT result in an increase in the effectiveness of punishment?
A. lengthening the delay between the response and the punishment
B. increasing the intensity of the punishment
C. providing the subject with an alternative response that will lead to the desired reinforcer
D. making the punishment more consistent
45. Which of the following best summarizes the beliefs of most experts regarding the use of punishment?
A. mild to moderate disciplinary spanking is detrimental for children
B. harsh, abusive punishment is detrimental for children
C. neither of the above
D. both of the above
46. Which of the following is one of the text's guidelines for making punishment more effective?
A. since it is not necessary, do not explain the punishment to the child
B. do not apply punishment swiftly, instead allow the child time to think about the coming punishment
C. make punishment consistent
D. use a severe punishment
47. Which of the following is not one of the text's guidelines for making punishment more effective?
A. explain the punishment
B. use noncorporal punishments, such as withdrawal of privileges
C. use a severe punishment
D. apply the punishment swiftly
48. The experience Seligman had with sauce béarnaise was unique in that
A. it suggested that generalization is more pervasive than originally thought.
B. a conditioned response was established even though there was a long delay between the conditioned stimulus
and the unconditioned stimulus.
C. it appears that discriminative cues can lose their predictive influence in a fairly short period of time.
D. operant conditioning dynamics take precedence over classical conditioning principles.
49. The studies of Garcia and his colleagues demonstrate that rats very easily learn to associate a taste CS with
A. a shock US.
B. a visual US.
C. an auditory US.
D. a nausea-inducing US.
50. You eat a new food and that night become ill with nausea and vomiting. Later you experience nausea
whenever you taste or smell the new food. Why did you not associate your nausea with the cues of the room,
the people present, the bathroom, and so on?
A. You were biologically predisposed to associate taste and nausea.
B. The nontaste cues were too weak.
C. The taste cues were more immediate.
D. There was less contiguity for the other cues.
51. Clara and Ashley ate dinner at a new restaurant last night. The entire restaurant was decorated in green, and
the sound of waterfalls played in the background. Both Clara and Ashley ordered "trapper casserole," which
tasted like nothing they had ever eaten before. Four hours after they had eaten they both became extremely ill
and were taken to the hospital by ambulance, with the sirens wailing. Based on research conducted by Garcia
and his colleagues, you might predict that in the future Clara and Ashley will both show conditioned responses
to
A. anything that is colored green.
B. the sound of falling water.
C. the sound of sirens.
D. foods that smell or taste like trapper casserole.
52. The evolutionary history of rats has rendered them ____ to associate a taste CS with an illness US, and ____
to associate that same CS with an electric shock US.
A. prepared; prepared
B. prepared; unprepared
C. unprepared; unprepared
D. unprepared; prepared
53. Which of the following most clearly shows that an animal's biological makeup can affect the ease of
learning an association?
A. Pavlov's dogs, bells, and salivation
B. Thorndike's cats in a puzzle box
C. Skinner's rats in an operant chamber
D. Garcia's conditioned taste aversion experiments
54. Zane has been shocked on six separate occasions while making toast. However, he doesn't seem to have
developed a phobia toward toasters. Zane's only phobia is toward spiders, because he once had a big spider fall
in his shirt when he was child. Zane's pattern of phobias illustrates the concept of
A. signal relations.
B. negative avoidance.
C. superstitious responding.
D. preparedness.
55. Species-specific predispositions to be conditioned in certain ways and not in other ways is known as
A. stimulus discrimination.
B. aversion conditioning.
C. compensatory conditioning.
D. preparedness.
56. Preparedness suggests that people would MOST easily develop phobias toward
A. knives.
B. electrical outlets.
C. snakes.
D. all three of these things.
57. Preparedness suggests that people would NOT easily develop phobias toward
A. heights.
B. hot stoves.
C. darkness.
D. any of these three things.
58. Which of the following statements is LEAST accurate concerning conditioning to stimuli that we are
biologically prepared to fear?
A. There is a lower probability of spontaneous recovery for these stimuli.
B. There is more rapid conditioning to these stimuli.
C. The fear response (CR) is stronger for these stimuli.
D. There is greater resistance to extinction for these stimuli.
59. Conditioned taste aversions represent an unusual or atypical example of

A. observational learning.
B. punishment.
C. operant conditioning.
60. A wild animal, such as a wolf, eats a new food that has a novel taste, an unusual color, and an unusual form
or shape that it finds at a place where it had never found food before. Hours after eating the food the wolf
develops nausea. In the future the wolf would be most likely to avoid foods ____ as the new food.
A. found at the same place
B. of the same color
C. of the same taste
D. of the same form or shape
61. Michael Domjan suggests that the rapid conditioning seen in conditioned taste aversions is
A. unique in that all neutral stimuli condition in the same way.
B. an example of what happens when ecologically relevant conditioned stimuli are studied.
C. an example of what happens when arbitrary, neutral conditioned stimuli are studied.
D. not all that unique and it reflects the differences between studying learning in a laboratory setting and a
natural setting.
62. Conditioned taste aversions illustrate that an organism's biological heritage may place constraints on general
learning processes. Therefore, this two phenomenon adds support to
A. the social-cognitive view of learning
B. Thorndike's law of effect
C. the evolutionary perspective on learning
D. Mowrer's two-process theory
63. The evolutionary perspective on learning suggests that

A. most species respond to classical conditioning, but only mammals show operant conditioning.
B. most species respond to operant conditioning, but only mammals show classical conditioning.
C. differences in the adaptive challenges faced by various species have led to some species-specific learning
tendencies.
D. because all species face the same adaptive challenges, species-specific learning tendencies will disappear as
a species evolves.
64. The rapid acquisition of conditioned taste aversions is consistent with Domjan's focus on
A. ecologically relevant conditioned stimuli.
B. arbitrary or neutral conditioned stimuli.
C. ecologically relevant unconditioned stimuli.
D. arbitrary or neutral unconditioned stimuli.
65. The predominant view among learning theorists today is

A. associations can be conditioned between any stimulus an organism can sense and any response the organism
can make.
B. all species are capable of learning all the same responses.
C. there is no such thing as "the" learning process.
D. the basic mechanisms of learning are similar across species.
66. Edward Tolman's research suggests that in order to learn routes through mazes rats
A. must be reinforced for reaching the end of the maze.
B. will run through the maze only when they are highly motivated.
C. need to be allowed to explore the maze first.
D. must be punished for wrong choices in the maze on the first trials.
67. Newly learned behavior that is not apparent from behavior when it first occurs is known as
A. insight learning.
B. classical conditioning.
D. latent learning.
68. You have familiarized yourself with the streets of your town with out any reinforcement; then one day you
are asked to go to the post office. You are able to do so with ease by following a route that you have never
taken. This is an example of
B. latent learning.
D. operant conditioning.
69. Learning that is not apparent from behavior when it first occurs is known as
B. latent learning.
70. Group A rats receive 30 paired buzzer-shock trials. Group B rats get the same, but also 20 more trials with
shock alone (no buzzer). You would predict that
A. Group A and B later show equal fear response to the buzzer.
B. Group B shows a stronger fear response to the buzzer.
C. Group A extinguishes fear to the buzzer more rapidly.
D. Group A shows a stronger fear response to the buzzer.
71. According to Rescorla, the single best way to ensure a strong CR is to arrange that the CS
A. remains constantly present throughout training.
B. be one that is well above the absolute threshold of the animal being trained.
C. sometimes occurs when the US is not present.
D. is the most predictive signal for the US.
72. Rafael's brother always says, "I'm going to get you" just before he hits Rafael. Alan's brother sometimes
says, "I'm going to get you" just before he hits Alan; other times he just hits Alan with no warning. Based on the
work by Rescorla you should predict that when these boys hear the words, "I'm going to get you," Rafael will
show
A. an unconditioned response, while Alan will show a conditioned response.
B. a stronger conditioned response than Alan will show.
C. a weaker conditioned response than Alan will show.
D. a conditioned response, while Alan will show an unconditioned response.
73. Studies of response-outcome relations and reinforcement have found that

A. operant behavior is automatically strengthened when it is followed by desirable consequences.
B. people actively reason out the relations between responses and the outcomes that follow.
C. there are species-specific predispositions to form certain types of associations.
D. on concurrent schedules of reinforcement, organisms emit responses that maximize the total number of
reinforcers they will receive.
74. Latent learning is a type of learning that

A. occurs without any experience.
B. occurs when an event following a response increases an organism's tendency to make that response.
C. is not apparent from the organism's behavior when the learning first occurs.
D. occurs when an organism's responding is influenced by the observation of others.
75. Tolman's research on latent learning suggests that in order to learn the routes through a maze, rats must
A. just be allowed to first explore the maze.
B. explore the maze when they are highly motivated.
C. be reinforced for reaching the end of the maze.
D. first be classically conditioned to show no fear in mazes.
76. According to the cognitive explanation of classical conditioning, a CS that is a "good" signal associated
with an US is a CS that
A. is novel or intense.
B. has been paired with the US many times.
C. accurately predicts the presentation of the US.
D. is presented immediately after the US.
77. If a baseball player who has been in a batting slump for several weeks alters his batting stance and wears a
new batting glove one day and gets three hits, the cognitive explanation of conditioning suggests that for the
next game, the baseball player will continue to
A. experiment with another batting stance and batting glove.
B. use the new batting stance.
C. use the new batting glove.
D. use both the new batting stance and new batting glove.
78. Your younger daughter watches your older daughter wash the breakfast dishes. Later, your younger
daughter attempts to wash some dishes. The older daughter has acted as
A. a noncontingent reinforcer.
B. a negative reinforcer.
C. a positive reinforcer.
D. a model.
79. Learning that occurs when an organism's responding is influenced by the observation of others known as
models is called
A. latent.
B. observational.
C. classical.
D. operant.
80. Which of the following statements is MOST accurate?

A. Observational learning is entirely separate from both classical and operant conditioning.
B. Observational learning is a form of classical conditioning.
C. Observational learning is a form of operant conditioning.
D. Both classical and operant conditioning can take place vicariously through observational learning.
81. A three-year-old boy observes his father yelling at his mother every time she says something the father
doesn't like. Based on principles of observational learning, in the future whenever the mother says something to
the boy that he does not like, the boy is MOST likely to do which of the following?
A. yell at his mother
B. yell at his sister
C. go and tell his father what the mother said
D. yell at his father
82. After watching his father wash the car, five-year-old Bob washes his bike. This is an example of
A. superstitious behavior.
C. observational learning.
83. The learning theory that is best able to explain why physical punishment tends to increase aggressive
behavior in children is
A. Skinner's theory of operant conditioning.
B. Pavlov's theory of classical conditioning.
C. Bandura's theory of observational learning.
D. Rescorla's theory of signal relations.
84. While Pavlov and Skinner viewed conditioning as a purely ____ process, today learning psychologists view
conditioning as also containing a ____ component.
A. mechanical; cognitive
B. cognitive; mechanical
C. passive; active
D. active; passive
85. The type of learning that occurs when an organism's responding is influenced by the observation of others
who are called models is
A. operant conditioning.
B. modeling.
86. Skinner believed that reinforcement was necessary for an operant behavior to be acquired. Observational
learning, however, demonstrates that a behavior can also be acquired as a result of
A. punishment.
B. observing another individual's behavior and the reinforcement of his behavior.
C. preparedness.
87. It is very likely that you learned how to turn on the TV and change channels as a young child without your
parents ever specifically teaching you to do so. (In fact, your parents were probably happier when they had
control over the TV.) In this case, your learning would, most likely, be an example of
B. modeling.
88. Imagine a husband and wife asking Bandura for advice on how they should teach their young child to say
"please" and "thank you". Which of the following would Bandura be MOST likely to suggest?
A. punish the child when she fails to say "please" and "thank you"
B. give the child positive reinforcement for saying "please" and "thank you"
C. use negative reinforcement and withhold the requested item until the child says "please"
D. consistently say "please" and "thank you" in your interactions with others
89. According to Bandura, your motivation to perform an observed response depends on

A. the amount of attention you paid to the model's behavior originally.
B. your expectation of being reinforced for the response.
C. the degree to which you can remember the model's behavior.
D. your ability to perform the observed response.
90. Which of the following focuses on or highlights the importance of cognitions in observational learning?
A. reproduction of behavior
B. motivation to perform the behavior
C. retention of information
D. ability to execute the behavior effectively
91. According to Albert Bandura, expectations concerning reinforcement primarily influence the probability of
an individual
A. initially acquiring or learning a new behavior.
B. actually performing a behavior that has been learned.
C. initially attending to the behavior of another person.
D. accurately retaining information about a behavior.
92. Cognitive processes are involved in which of the following key processes associated with observational
learning?
A. motivation and reproduction
B. motivation and retention
C. attention and retention
D. attention and reproduction
93. In the Featured Study on modeling and behavior by Bandura, Ross and Ross the results suggest that
A. observers are likely to imitate another's behavior if that behavior leads to positive consequences.
B. observers are likely to imitate another's behavior if that behavior leads to negative consequences.
C. observers are likely to imitate another's behavior if that behavior is preceded by positive consequences.
D. observers are likely to imitate another's behavior if that behavior is completed in front of the child live; not
on tv.
94. The research of both Tolman and Bandura distinguishes between

A. positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement.
B. the acquisition of a learned response and the performance of the response.
C. reinforcement of a response and punishment of a response.
D. classical conditioning and operant conditioning.
95. Research into the debate on the role of media violence on children suggests that
A. media violence contributes to increased aggression among children but not adults.
B. media violence contributes to increased aggression among adults but not children.
C. media violence contributes to increased aggression among children and adults.
D. no conclusion as to the cause and effect relationship between media violence and aggression because the
majority of the studies have been correlational.
96. In the Featured Study by Bandura on the power of modeling, the children who were most likely to play
aggressively with the Bobo doll were the children who saw a film of "Rocky" behaving
A. in a nonaggressive manner and receiving positive consequences.
B. in a nonaggressive manner and receiving negative consequences.
C. in an aggressive manner and receiving positive consequences.
D. in an aggressive manner and receiving negative consequences.
97. Research examining the long-term effects of media violence has demonstrated that
A. the more violence children watch on TV the more aggressive they tend to be at home and school.
B. the more violence children watch on TV the less aggressive they tend to act at home and school.
C. no consistent relationship exists between how much violence children watch on TV and aggressive behavior.
D. watching violence on TV causes relatively nonaggressive children to become more aggressive but does not
increase the level of aggression of relatively aggressive children.
98. Research on conditioning generally has demonstrated the importance of ____, but findings regarding the
biological constraints on conditioning have shown that ____ is also very important.
A. nature; nurture
B. nurture; nature
C. heredity; biology
D. instincts; training
99. The principles of learning and conditioning have

A. turned out to have little relevance to real-world concerns.
B. been widely applied in education, business, and industry.
C. attracted little interest outside of psychology.
D. proven worthless when applied to humans as opposed to animals.
100. In today's business world, management often emphasizes positive reinforcement more than in the past.
This illustrates which of your text's unifying themes?
A. Our experience of the world is highly subjective.
B. Psychology evolves in a sociohistorical context.
C. Behavior is determined by multiple causes.
D. Psychology is empirical.
101. The existence of biological constraints on learning such as preparedness and conditioned taste aversions
reflects the unifying theme in psychology that
A. psychology is theoretically diverse.
B. our behavior is shaped by our cultural heritage.
C. heredity and environment jointly influence behavior.
D. psychology is empirical.
102. Many parenting books, dog training manuals, and business management approaches all advocate the use of
operant conditioning techniques to encourage desirable behavior in children, pets, and employees. The
widespread knowledge of, and application of conditioning techniques, reflects the unifying theme in psychology
that
A. behavior is determined by multiple causes.
B. psychology evolves in a sociohistorical context.
D. our behavior is shaped by our cultural heritage.
103. A systematic approach to changing behavior through the application of the principles of conditioning is
known as
A. behavior modification.
B. cognitive engineering.
C. modeling.
D. insight training.
104. Application of conditioning principles to solve behavior problems is generally known as

C. modeling.
105. Which of the following goals is specified in an appropriate format for designing a self-modification
program?
A. increasing your motivation
B. decreasing your irritability
C. increasing your happiness
D. decreasing the amount of time spent watching television
106. The first step in a behavior modification program is to

A. gather baseline data.
B. specify the antecedents.
C. specify the target behavior.
D. design a program.
107. An antecedent in a behavior modification program is
A. a source of a reinforcement.
B. an event that precedes a behavior.
C. a consequence of performing a behavior.
D. an emotional component associated with the receipt of reinforcement or punishment.
108. Harold begins to chew his fingernails every time his teacher enters the classroom. In this case, the
antecedent is
A. the teacher entering the classroom.
B. the fear associated with the teacher.
C. anticipated punishment.
D. chewing the fingernails.
109. Behavior modification works best when used to modify

A. a broadly defined behavior, for example, "I will be friendlier."
B. a personality trait, for example, "I will stop being irritable."
C. or attain a specific goal, for example, "I will get a 4.00 GPA this semester."
D. a specific overt behavior, for example, "I will stop smoking."

A. pick an appropriate reinforcement.
B. specify a target behavior.
C. design the program.
D. gather baseline data.
111. When gathering baseline data for a behavior modification program, it is necessary to record all of the
following EXCEPT
A. monitor the antecedents of the target behavior.
B. monitor the consequences of the target behavior.
C. determine the initial frequency of the target behavior.
D. determine how you can reduce the frequency of the target behavior.
112. In setting up reinforcement contingencies in a self-modification program, you should

A. choose a reinforcer that is readily available and relatively potent.
B. use delayed reinforcement.
C. arrange to reinforce yourself only after there has been a drastic change in the frequency of the target
response.
D. use continuous rather than intermittent reinforcement.
113. A system for administering symbolic reinforcers that can later be exchanged for "genuine" reinforcers is
referred to as
A. vicarious conditioning.
B. a token economy.
C. a behavioral contract.
D. antecedent control.
114. Theorists are concerned that video game violence may have more detrimental effects than violence in other
media. The reasons they provide include all of the following EXCEPT
A. Video games require an increased level of attention and more active involvement.
B. Players clearly identify with the characters they control in the games.
C. Players are routinely reinforced within the game sequence for their violent actions.
D. The graphical depictions are not realistic, which serves to detach the player from his or her actions.
115. Which of the following is NOT a strategy for decreasing the frequency of an undesirable behavior?
A. positive reinforcement for withholding the response
B. punishment for making the response
C. increasing exposure to antecedents of the response
D. decreasing exposure to antecedents of the response
116. When using punishment in a self-modification program, you should

A. make the punishment fairly severe.
B. increase the intensity of the punishment over time.
C. get a friend or family member to administer the punishment.
D. make sure you have the opportunity to earn some reinforcers, too.
117. With most behavior modification programs, once a terminal goal has been reached, it is a good idea to
A. stop the program abruptly.
B. phase the program out gradually by reducing the frequency or potency of the reinforcers.
C. switch from positive to negative reinforcement.
D. switch from a ratio to an interval schedule of reinforcement.
118. A successful self-modification program may end spontaneously when

A. the new, improved patterns of behavior become self-reinforcing.
B. a new behavior problem suddenly takes the place of the old one.
C. the reinforcer loses its effectiveness.
D. the frequency of the target behavior drops to zero.
119. Behavior modification programs may be designed to
A. increase response strength.
B. reduce response strength.
C. either increase or decrease response strength.
D. neither increase nor decrease response strength.
120. The behavior modification strategy of controlling or decreasing your exposure to antecedents of your target
behavior is especially useful if you are trying to ____ the frequency of a response such as ____.
A. decrease; arguing
B. decrease; smoking
C. increase; studying
D. increase; exercising
121. It often helps an individual comply with a behavior modification program if he signs a written agreement
outlining a promise to adhere to the contingencies of a behavior modification program. This type of agreement
is referred to as a(n)
A. behavioral contract.
B. reinforcement contract.
C. operant agreement.
D. behavior modification agreement.
122. Tia wants to be the governor for her state. In all her television ads she plays patriotic music and has the
American flag displayed in the background. If voters develop positive feelings toward Tia as a result of these
ads, those positive feelings would represent
A. an unconditioned response.
B. a conditioned response.
D. negative reinforcement.
123. Bette creates a television ad that alternates between images of garbage dumps and people drinking in a bar.
She is hoping that people who watch the ad will develop negative feelings toward drinking. Bette is relying on
124. Marvin creates a television ad that alternates between images of garbage dumps and people drinking in a
bar. He is hoping that people who watch the ad will develop negative feelings toward drinking after seeing these
ads. In Marvin's ad the conditioned stimulus would be
A. the images of garbage dumps.
B. people's feelings of disgust when viewing garbage.
C. the images of people drinking in a bar.
D. the feelings people have toward drinking before they see the ad.
125. Alan creates a television ad that alternates between images of garbage dumps and people drinking in a bar.
If people develop negative feelings about drinking as a result of watching Alan's ad, those negative feelings
would represent
D. a conditioned response.
126. Businesses often provide good meals and pleasant surroundings when initially meeting with new clients. In
these situations, clients may develop positive feelings toward their business host and the company he or she
represents. If this occurs, then the pleasant surroundings have functioned as
A. a conditioned stimulus.
B. a discriminative stimulus.
C. secondary reinforcers.
D. an unconditioned stimulus.
127. The advertising industry often attempts to manipulate consumers so that they will have positive
associations with their company's product by applying the principles of
B. operant conditioning.
D. observational learning.
128. A political candidate uses a negative campaign commercial in which the candidate's opponent is shown
alongside a negative image of an angry mob. The intent of the commercial is to cause voters to
A. have an accurate contrast between the candidate and the opponent.
B. realize the opponent was the individual who angered the mob in the first place.
C. associate the opponent with a negative emotional response.
D. associate positive emotional responses with the candidate who sponsored the commercial.
129. Stimulus discrimination is to stimulus generalization as reinforcement is to
A. acquisition.
B. shaping.
C. punishment.
D. resistance.
130. ____ is to operant conditioning as ____ is to classical conditioning.

A. Skinner; Pavlov
B. Bandura; Pavlov
C. Rescorla; Skinner
D. Pavlov; Thorndike
131. If you devise a self-modification program in which you systematically reward yourself for studying, you
are applying the principles of
A. classical conditioning.
D. Pavlovian conditioning.
132. Classical conditioning is to the autonomic nervous system as ____ is to the somatic nervous system.
A. operant conditioning
B. observational learning
C. negative reinforcement
D. partial reinforcement
133. Research into signal relations, response-outcome relations, and observational learning all emphasize
A. the importance of evolutionary adaptations in learning.
B. the limitations of using basic conditioning procedures in everyday situations.
C. the distinction between acquisition of behavior and the performance of behavior.
D. the role of cognitive processes in learning.
134. An animal will give a conditioned response to a stimulus that has never been associated with the
presentation of the original US in both
A. stimulus generalization and higher-order conditioning.
B. stimulus generalization and stimulus discrimination.
C. stimulus discrimination and higher-order conditioning.
D. higher-order conditioning and spontaneous recovery.
135. In classical conditioning the response is ____, while in operant conditioning the response is ____.
A. learned; innate
B. innate; learned
C. elicited; emitted
D. emitted; elicited
136. Sally developed a fear of balconies after almost falling from a balcony on a couple of occasions. What was
the conditioned response?
A. the balcony
B. fear of the balcony
C. almost falling
D. fear resulting from almost falling
137. In Pavlov's original demonstration of classical conditioning, salivation to the bell was the:
A. conditioned stimulus
B. conditioned response
C. unconditioned stimulus
D. unconditioned response
138. When the US is removed and the CS is presented alone for a period of time, what will occur?
A. classical conditioning
B. generalization
C. acquisition
D. extinction
139. Sally developed a fear of balconies from almost falling. Although she has had no dangerous experiences on
bridges, cliffs, and the view from tall buildings, she now fears these stimuli as well. Which of the following is
likely to have produced a fear of these other stimuli?
A. preparedness
B. spontaneous recovery
C. generalization
D. discrimination
140. A researcher reinforces closer and closer approximations to a target behavior. What is the name of the
procedure she is using?
A. shaping
B. classical conditioning
C. discrimination training
D. extinction
141. John says, "Please pass the salt." Ralph passes the salt. "Thank you," says John. John's request precedes a
behavior (salt passing) that is reinforced ("Thank you"). Thus, the request "Please pass the salt" is a ____ for
passing the salt.
A. discriminative stimulus
B. response
C. positive reinforcer
D. conditioned stimulus (CS)
142. In a signal relations study, CS-US trials are alternated with presentation of the US alone. What will occur?
A. stronger conditioning than would have occurred without the US alone trials
B. weaker conditioning than would have occurred without the US alone trials
C. latent learning
D. extinction
143. A rat is reinforced for the first lever-pressing response that occurs, on the average, after 60 seconds. Which
schedule is the rat on?
A. fixed-ratio (FR)
B. variable-ratio (VR)
C. fixed-interval (FI)
D. variable-interval (VI)
144. Which of the following produces strong resistance to extinction?

A. a continuous reinforcement schedule
B. an intermittent reinforcement schedule
C. optimal foraging behavior
D. discrimination and differentiation
145. A cue light comes on in the dog's shuttle box. It jumps the hurdle to the other side. What procedure is
being used?
A. punishment
B. escape
D. avoidance
146. When the rat presses a lever, the mild electric shock on the cage floor is turned off. What procedure is
being used?
A. punishment
B. escape
D. avoidance
147. The contingencies are as follows: if the response occurs, a stimulus is presented; if the response does not
occur, the stimulus is not presented. Under this procedure the strength of the response decreases. What
procedure is being used?
C. punishment
D. avoidance training
148. In terms of the traditional view of conditioning, research on conditioned taste aversion was surprising
because
A. there was a long delay between CS and US.
B. the dislike of a particular taste was operantly conditioned.
C. conditioning occurred to all stimuli present when the food was consumed.
D. the sense of taste seems to be relatively weak.
149. Earlier learning viewpoints considered classical and operant conditioning to be automatic processes
involving only environmental events that did not depend at all on biological or cognitive factors. Research on
which of the following concepts cast doubt on this point of view?
A. latent learning, signal relations, and preparedness
B. extinction, discrimination, and generalization
C. CRF, ratio, and interval schedules
D. escape, avoidance, and spontaneous recovery
150. For the first 10 trials rats simply explore a maze, with no reward. For the next ten trials they receive a food
reward for going to the goal box. Learning appears to occur as fast for this group as for a group that received 20
consecutive reinforced trials. What was the explanation?
A. Tolman's latent learning
B. Pavlov's classical conditioning
C. Skinner's intermittent reinforcement
D. Thorndike's stamping in
151. ____________________ refers to a relatively durable change in behavior or knowledge due to experience.
________________________________________
152. In classical conditioning the neutral stimulus becomes the ____________________ stimulus because of its
association with the ____________________ stimulus.
________________________________________
153. Recent research has shown that classical conditioning procedures can lead to ____________________, or a
decrease in the production of antibodies.
________________________________________
154. ____________________ refers to the initial stage of learning something.

________________________________________
155. In higher-order conditioning, a conditioned stimulus functions as if it were a(n) ____________________

stimulus.
________________________________________
156. ____________________ conditioning is a form of learning in which responses come to be controlled by

their consequences.
________________________________________
157. According to Thorndike's ____________________, if a response, in the presence of a stimulus, leads to a

satisfying effect the association between the stimulus and the response is strengthened.
________________________________________
158. On a cumulative recorder, a rapid response rate produces a(n) ____________________ slope.
________________________________________
159. Food would be considered a(n) ____________________ reinforcer, while money would be considered a(n)
____________________ reinforcer.
________________________________________
160. ____________________ reinforcers include things such as food, water, warmth, and sex, which are
inherently reinforcing because they satisfy biological needs.
________________________________________
161. ____________________ stimuli are cues that influence operant behavior by indicating the probable
consequences (reinforcement or nonreinforcement) of a response.
________________________________________
162. ____________________ reinforcement occurs when every instance of a designated response is reinforced;
____________________ reinforcement, occurs when a designated response is reinforced only some of the
time.
________________________________________
163. ____________________ reinforcement occurs when a response is strengthened because it is followed by

the presentation of a desirable stimulus; while ____________________ reinforcement occurs when a response
is strengthened as the result of the removal of an unpleasant stimulus.
________________________________________
164. People often incorrectly confuse punishment with ____________________.

________________________________________
165. Problems associate with the application of physical punishment as a disciplinary procedure include
____________________ side effects, increased ____________________ behavior, and behavioral problems.
________________________________________
166. Sally developed a nasty stomach flu a few hours after she ate sushi for the first time; now every time Sally
sees sushi she feels sick to her stomach. Sally is demonstrating a(n) ____________________.
________________________________________
167. Observational learning occurs when an organism's responding is influenced by the observation of others,
who are called ____________________.
________________________________________
168. When a behavior is strengthened indirectly, through vicarious conditioning, the process at work is
____________________ learning.
________________________________________
169. Social critics have expressed concern about the amount of violence on television since TV became popular
and the majority of research into the impact of media violence on behavior has focused on the role of
____________________ learning.
________________________________________
170. In operant conditioning, ____________________ are events that typically precede the target response.
________________________________________
171. In classical conditioning a conditioned association is formed between a previously neutral, conditioned
stimulus and the unconditioned stimulus.
True False
172. Some studies have suggested that operant conditioning can elicit allergic reactions and may contribute to
the growth of drug tolerances.
True False
173. If the conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented alone, spontaneous recovery occurs.
True False
174. Stimulus discrimination occurs when an organism has learned a response to a specific stimulus and does
NOT respond in the same way to new stimuli that are similar to the original stimulus.
True False
175. A toddler has an established conditioned fear of snow, over the past few weeks every time he sees Santa
Claus, snow is always present. This example is an illustration of higher-order conditioning.
True False
176. According to the law of effect, if a response in the presence of a stimulus leads to satisfying effects, the
association between the stimulus and the response is strengthened.
True False
177. According to the Skinner, if an event following a response leads to a decrease in an organism's tendency to
make that response, reinforcement has occurred.
True False
178. Resistance to extinction occurs when a previously extinguished response reappears after a period of
nonexposure to the conditioned stimulus.
True False
179. Traffic lights serve as discriminative stimuli for the operant behavior of driving.
True False
180. In general, interval schedules of reinforcement tend to produce more rapid responding than ratio
schedules.
True False
181. In positive reinforcement the response is strengthened as a result of the presentation of an unpleasant
stimulus; in negative reinforcement a response is strengthened as a result of the removal of a desirable
stimulus.
True False
182. In escape learning a response is acquired because it decreases an aversive stimulus; in avoidance learning
the organism learns the response because it prevents an aversive stimulus from occurring.
True False
183. Escape and avoidance responses are both initially acquired through negative reinforcement.
True False
184. Negative reinforcement and punishment are similar in that they both weaken the tendency of the organism
to make a response.
True False
185. Concerns about the use of punishment as a disciplinary measure include concerns about side effects
including anxiety, anger and resentment.
True False
186. According to Martin Seligman, preparedness involves a species-specific predisposition to be conditioned

in certain ways and not others.
True False
187. Various studies of response-outcome relations and reinforcement have shown that reinforcement is
automatic when favorable consequences follow operant responses.
True False
188. Albert Bandura, like Edward Tolman, suggests that organisms store cognitive representations of learned
responses that they may or may not perform depending on the reinforcement possibilities.
True False
189. The fact that the principles of conditioning are routinely applied in homes, businesses, schools, and
factories show that the causes of behavior are multifactorial.
True False
190. A token economy is a system for doling out symbolic reinforcers that are later exchanged for a variety of
genuine reinforcers.
True False
191. How do psychologists define learning?
192. Learning theorists argue that learning takes place through conditioning. Describe the two types of
conditioning discussed in your text.
193. Kelly's parents always leave her with the same baby-sitter when they go out. Within minutes of the sitter's
arrival her parent are gone. Kelly's baby-sitter arrives at her birthday party; as soon as Kelly sees her she begins
to cry. Using the principles of classical conditioning, explain why Kelly cried when she saw the baby-sitter.
194. What is extinction? How does it differ from forgetting?

195. What are stimulus generalization and stimulus discrimination? Why are they important?
196. Clearly differentiate between reinforcement and punishment.
197. Describe how negative reinforcement differs from punishment.
198. You want to teach your dog to fetch the remote control for your TV. Why should you first use continuous
reinforcement and then switch to partial reinforcement?
199. Briefly describe what happens in each of the following schedules of reinforcement:
a. continuous
b. intermittent or partial schedules
c. ratio schedules (fixed vs. variable)
d. interval schedules (fixed vs. variable)
200. Discuss the nature and importance of observational learning and discuss Bandura's view on whether
reinforcement affects learning or performance.
201. Explain how a specific phobia could be acquired through classical conditioning, being sure to identify the
unconditioned stimulus, unconditioned response, conditioned stimulus, and conditioned response in your
example. Also, using classical conditioning, indicate how the phobia could be eliminated.
202. Compare the acquisition procedures in classical and operant conditioning. What is the essential difference
between the two types of conditioning?
203. Imagine that you have a roommate who is a slob and you would like to change this behavior. From your
knowledge of conditioning principles how would you encourage and reinforce their behavior?
204. Given the research findings in this chapter, explain how you would respond to your own children when
they did things you did that you did not want them to do. When would you use positive reinforcement? When
would you use punishment to teach them things? When would you use negative reinforcement? What kinds of
reinforcement schedules would you use? (Be sure that you clearly differentiate between reinforcement and
punishment, negative and positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement and punishment)
205. Briefly describe observational learning, and explain how it relates to classical and operant conditioning.
206. Design a self-modification program to improve your study habits.
207. Imagine that you are an advertising executive and that your sales have been dropping for a particular brand
of washing detergent. You want to design a set of advertisements that makes people feel good when they see
your detergent and then you want to reinforce people for buying your product. How would you design
advertisements that would condition people to feel good when they see your product and how would you
reinforce people for buying your detergent?
Chapter 6 B--Learning Key
1. When a response is strengthened because it is followed by the presentation of a rewarding stimulus, it is

called
A. punishment.
D. primary reinforcement.
2. When a response is strengthened because it is followed by the removal of an aversive stimulus it is called
A. punishment.
D. secondary reinforcement.
3. Pat takes a prescription medication in order to reduce pain and Kelly takes the same medication in order to
experience a "drug high." Pat's behavior is reinforced by ____ reinforcement and Kelly's behavior by ____
reinforcement.
A. negative; positive
B. positive; negative
C. positive; positive
D. negative; negative
4. Both ____ increase the probability that a response will be repeated.

A. positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement
B. positive reinforcement and punishment
C. negative reinforcement and punishment
D. reinforcement and punishment
5. Which of the following is an example of negative reinforcement?

A. grounding a teenager for missing curfew
B. making a child sit in the corner until they say "I'm sorry"
C. giving a student extra credit for class participation
D. allowing a student to take a make-up exam
6. When David's Uncle Don visits, Don always gives David an intense tickling and will only stop this
"tickle-torture" when David says "Uncle". David's response of saying "Uncle" is strengthened through
A. positive reinforcement.
C. avoidance learning.
D. punishment.
7. If you perform behavior designed to prevent an unpleasant event from happening, your behavior is classified
as
A. a primary response.
B. a classically conditioned response (CR).
C. an avoidance response.
D. an escape response.
8. Escape learning is a type of learning in which

A. an organism's responding is influenced by the observation of others' behavior.
B. an organism engages in a response that brings aversive stimulation to an end.
C. a neutral stimulus acquires the ability to elicit a response that was originally elicited by another stimulus.
D. an organism engages in a response that prevents aversive stimulation from occurring.
9. A rat is placed on one side of a two-compartment shuttle box. For each trial, a light is turned on and is
followed 10 seconds later by a painful electric shock for one minute. The rat can terminate the trial by jumping
a barrier into the other compartment. If the rat jumps during the light, it has learned to ____ the shock; if the rat
jumps during the shock, it has learned to ____ the shock.
A. escape; avoid
B. avoid; escape
C. escape; escape
D. avoid; avoid
10. Nolan has learned to drink a cup of coffee whenever he gets a tension headache because drinking coffee
makes the pain of the headache go away. This is an example of
A. avoidance learning.
B. escape learning.
11. Hanna finds that when her kids become too rowdy and noisy, she can successfully block out their noise if
she closes the door to her study. In this example, closing the door is an example of
A. an escape response.
B. an avoidance response.
12. Tammy finds writing papers to be a very aversive task. As a result she always checks out the requirements
for all her classes before she registers and never takes classes that require term papers, Tammy's behavior is an
example of
A. escape learning.
13. A rat learns to press a bar to turn off an electric shock. This is an example of
A. escape learning.
14. Escape conditioning is maintained by

A. modeling.
B. punishment.
15. Avoidance conditioning develops through

C. punishment.
D. modeling.
16. Acquiring a behavior that prevents the occurrence of an aversive event is

A. escape learning.
C. punishment learning.
17. Brenda has learned to take an over-the-counter medication 30 minutes before she eats a spicy meal. When
she does this she is able to prevent the heartburn and indigestion that she would experience otherwise. This is an
example of
A. escape conditioning.
D. avoidance conditioning.
18. When Jackie watches slasher movies, she covers her eyes when the blood starts to splatter. When Clarice
watches slasher movies, she covers her eyes as soon as she hears ominous music start to play. Jackie's response
is consistent with ____, while Clarice's response is consistent with ____.
A. escape responding; avoidance responding
B. avoidance responding; escape responding
C. negative reinforcement; positive reinforcement
D. classical conditioning; operant conditioning
19. Which type of learning is being employed if a rat bar-presses in order to turn off an electrical shock?
B. punishment
C. avoidance learning
D. escape learning
20. When an organism learns a response that prevents some aversive stimulation from occurring, it is termed
A. secondary learning.
B. punishment.
C. escape learning.
21. If one rat learns to bar-press to turn off an electric shock and a second rat learns to bar-press when a warning
signal that precedes the shock is turned on, the first rat is demonstrating ____ and the second rat is
demonstrating ____.
22. Car manufacturers try to encourage drivers to buckle their seat belts through the use of reinforcement. As
you know, if you start your car without buckling-up you will hear a somewhat annoying sound. If you learn to
buckle-up after hearing the sound, you show ____. If you acquire the response of buckling-up before you turn
on the ignition, you show ____.
23. As a teenager it seemed that your mom was always nagging you to clean your room. Eventually you learned
that if you cleaned your room every Saturday morning you would not have to listen to her nagging. Your
mother was successful in getting you to clean your room through the use of ____ to establish ____.
A. negative reinforcement; avoidance learning
B. negative reinforcement; escape learning
C. punishment; avoidance learning
D. punishment; escape learning
24. Two processes involved in the acquisition of phobias and the tendency of phobias to show a high resistance
to extinction are
A. reinforcement and punishment.
B. positive and negative reinforcement.
C. classical and operant conditioning.
D. operant conditioning and observation learning.
25. Any event that follows a behavior and results in the behavior having a lower probability of happening in the
future is known as a
A. negative reinforcer.
B. positive reinforcer.
C. punisher.
D. vicarious conditioner.
26. Jane, your teenage daughter, was ridiculed at school for wearing a particular style of shirt. Now, she no
longer wears that style of shirt to school. Being ridiculed is an example of
C. punishment.
D. modeling.
27. Your spouse withdraws attention from you each time you begin criticizing her cooking. Eventually, you
stop criticizing your spouse's cooking. The withdrawal of attention can be categorized as
A. punishment.
B. observational learning.
D. modeling.
28. Miguel used to enjoy occasionally drinking a glass of red wine, but when he drank too much red wine at a
friend's party a few months ago he woke up with a terrible hangover. Since then Miguel refuses to drink any red
wine. In this case, Miguel's hangover acted as
A. negative reinforcement for drinking red wine.
B. a conditioned response to wine drinking.
C. punishment for drinking red wine.
D. a secondary reinforcer for attending parties.
29. Angela used to really enjoy diving for her school team, but at their most recent diving practice she hit her
head on the diving board during her last dive. Since then she hasn't attended any of the team practices, and she
refuses to dive. In this case, hitting her head on the board acted as
A. punishment for diving.
B. negative reinforcement for diving.
C. an unconditioned response to diving.
D. a discriminative stimulus for attending team practices.
30. Negative reinforcement ____ the rate of a response; punishment ____ the rate of a response.
A. increases; decreases
B. decreases; increases
C. increases; increases
D. decreases; decreases
31. Typically, most people would

A. enjoy being negatively reinforced or punished.
B. dislike being negatively reinforced or punished.
C. enjoy being negatively reinforced and dislike being punished.
D. enjoy being punished and dislike being negatively reinforced.
32. The difference between punishment and negative reinforcement is that
A. punishment strengthens undesirable behaviors, and negative reinforcement weakens undesirable behaviors.
B. punishment weakens undesirable behaviors, while negative reinforcement weakens desirable behaviors.
C. punishment weakens behavior, while negative reinforcement strengthens behavior.
D. there is no difference between punishment and negative reinforcement in their effects on behavior.
33. How are punishment and negative reinforcement different?

A. Punishment involves the use of a negative stimulus; negative reinforcement uses a pleasant stimulus.
B. Punishment increases the frequency of undesired behavior; negative reinforcement discourages it.
C. Punishment always involves pain while negative reinforcement involves the removal of primary reinforcers.
D. Punishment decreases the frequency of behavior while negative reinforcement increases the likelihood of
behavior.
34. When an event following a response weakens an organism's tendency to make that response, it is termed
A. punishment.
B. extinction.
35. The tendency to make a response increases following the use of ____ and the tendency to make a response
decreases following the use of ____.
A. punishment; negative reinforcement
B. negative reinforcement; punishment
C. positive reinforcement; negative reinforcement
D. negative reinforcement; positive reinforcement
36. Which of the following is NOT an example of punishment?

A. laughing at a classmate when he asks a "dumb question" in class
B. nagging a child until she pick up her toys
C. taking away a child's TV privileges for one week for a bad report card
D. making a child sit in the corner for 10 minutes for back-talk
37. Although there are many controversies surrounding punishment it is used frequently for disciplinary
purposes. Which of the following are desirable aspects surrounding the use of punishment?
A. It suggests alternative behaviors.
B. It can be modeled as a positive problem solving method.
C. It reduces the probability of undesirable behavior.
D. It will often trigger strong emotional responses.
38. Which of the following statements about punishment is LEAST accurate?
A. Punishment may take the form of removal of a rewarding stimulus.
B. Punishment occurs whenever a response terminates an aversive condition.
C. Punishment may take the form of giving aversive stimulation after a response.
D. Punishment, by definition, weakens preceding behavior.
39. Which of the following statements about punishment is FALSE?

A. Punishment may generalize to other behaviors.
B. Punishment increases the frequency of undesired behavior.
C. Punishment triggers strong emotional responses.
D. Punishment may be modeled by children as a way of solving problems.
40. Angela came home after her curfew last night; as a result, her parents have taken away her driving
privileges for 1 week. What discipline technique are Angela's parents using?
A. punishment
C. extinction
D. positive reinforcement
41. Why is sending a note home to a parent not the most effective method of suppressing undesirable behavior?
A. The parents frequently do not respond to notes.
B. A note is not intense enough to achieve the desired effect.
C. The association between the response and the punishment is not immediate.
D. Notes are often consistent and will explain the offense.
42. To maximize effectiveness of punishment and minimize its negative side effects, punishment should be
A. strong, delayed, and consistent.
B. consistent, swift, and explained.
C. mild, consistent, and unpredictable.
D. swift, strong, and unpredictable.
43. One reason that the criminal justice system in the United States does not do a better job deterring crime may
be because it
A. relies too much on highly aversive punishment.
B. relies too little on the use of punishment.
C. delays punishment for too long.
D. does not use reinforcing techniques.
44. Which of the following would NOT result in an increase in the effectiveness of punishment?
A. lengthening the delay between the response and the punishment
B. increasing the intensity of the punishment
C. providing the subject with an alternative response that will lead to the desired reinforcer
D. making the punishment more consistent
45. Which of the following best summarizes the beliefs of most experts regarding the use of punishment?
A. mild to moderate disciplinary spanking is detrimental for children
B. harsh, abusive punishment is detrimental for children
C. neither of the above
D. both of the above
46. Which of the following is one of the text's guidelines for making punishment more effective?
A. since it is not necessary, do not explain the punishment to the child
B. do not apply punishment swiftly, instead allow the child time to think about the coming punishment
C. make punishment consistent
D. use a severe punishment
47. Which of the following is not one of the text's guidelines for making punishment more effective?
A. explain the punishment
B. use noncorporal punishments, such as withdrawal of privileges
C. use a severe punishment
D. apply the punishment swiftly
48. The experience Seligman had with sauce béarnaise was unique in that
A. it suggested that generalization is more pervasive than originally thought.
B. a conditioned response was established even though there was a long delay between the conditioned stimulus
and the unconditioned stimulus.
C. it appears that discriminative cues can lose their predictive influence in a fairly short period of time.
D. operant conditioning dynamics take precedence over classical conditioning principles.
49. The studies of Garcia and his colleagues demonstrate that rats very easily learn to associate a taste CS with
A. a shock US.
B. a visual US.
C. an auditory US.
D. a nausea-inducing US.
50. You eat a new food and that night become ill with nausea and vomiting. Later you experience nausea
whenever you taste or smell the new food. Why did you not associate your nausea with the cues of the room,
the people present, the bathroom, and so on?
A. You were biologically predisposed to associate taste and nausea.
B. The nontaste cues were too weak.
C. The taste cues were more immediate.
D. There was less contiguity for the other cues.
51. Clara and Ashley ate dinner at a new restaurant last night. The entire restaurant was decorated in green, and
the sound of waterfalls played in the background. Both Clara and Ashley ordered "trapper casserole," which
tasted like nothing they had ever eaten before. Four hours after they had eaten they both became extremely ill
and were taken to the hospital by ambulance, with the sirens wailing. Based on research conducted by Garcia
and his colleagues, you might predict that in the future Clara and Ashley will both show conditioned responses
to
A. anything that is colored green.
B. the sound of falling water.
C. the sound of sirens.
D. foods that smell or taste like trapper casserole.
52. The evolutionary history of rats has rendered them ____ to associate a taste CS with an illness US, and ____
to associate that same CS with an electric shock US.
A. prepared; prepared
B. prepared; unprepared
C. unprepared; unprepared
D. unprepared; prepared
53. Which of the following most clearly shows that an animal's biological makeup can affect the ease of
learning an association?
A. Pavlov's dogs, bells, and salivation
B. Thorndike's cats in a puzzle box
C. Skinner's rats in an operant chamber
D. Garcia's conditioned taste aversion experiments
54. Zane has been shocked on six separate occasions while making toast. However, he doesn't seem to have
developed a phobia toward toasters. Zane's only phobia is toward spiders, because he once had a big spider fall
in his shirt when he was child. Zane's pattern of phobias illustrates the concept of
A. signal relations.
B. negative avoidance.
C. superstitious responding.
D. preparedness.
55. Species-specific predispositions to be conditioned in certain ways and not in other ways is known as
A. stimulus discrimination.
B. aversion conditioning.
C. compensatory conditioning.
D. preparedness.
56. Preparedness suggests that people would MOST easily develop phobias toward
A. knives.
B. electrical outlets.
C. snakes.
D. all three of these things.
57. Preparedness suggests that people would NOT easily develop phobias toward
A. heights.
B. hot stoves.
C. darkness.
D. any of these three things.
58. Which of the following statements is LEAST accurate concerning conditioning to stimuli that we are
biologically prepared to fear?
A. There is a lower probability of spontaneous recovery for these stimuli.
B. There is more rapid conditioning to these stimuli.
C. The fear response (CR) is stronger for these stimuli.
D. There is greater resistance to extinction for these stimuli.
59. Conditioned taste aversions represent an unusual or atypical example of

B. punishment.
60. A wild animal, such as a wolf, eats a new food that has a novel taste, an unusual color, and an unusual form
or shape that it finds at a place where it had never found food before. Hours after eating the food the wolf
develops nausea. In the future the wolf would be most likely to avoid foods ____ as the new food.
A. found at the same place
B. of the same color
C. of the same taste
D. of the same form or shape
61. Michael Domjan suggests that the rapid conditioning seen in conditioned taste aversions is
A. unique in that all neutral stimuli condition in the same way.
B. an example of what happens when ecologically relevant conditioned stimuli are studied.
C. an example of what happens when arbitrary, neutral conditioned stimuli are studied.
D. not all that unique and it reflects the differences between studying learning in a laboratory setting and a
natural setting.
62. Conditioned taste aversions illustrate that an organism's biological heritage may place constraints on general
learning processes. Therefore, this two phenomenon adds support to
A. the social-cognitive view of learning
B. Thorndike's law of effect
C. the evolutionary perspective on learning
D. Mowrer's two-process theory
63. The evolutionary perspective on learning suggests that

A. most species respond to classical conditioning, but only mammals show operant conditioning.
B. most species respond to operant conditioning, but only mammals show classical conditioning.
C. differences in the adaptive challenges faced by various species have led to some species-specific learning
tendencies.
D. because all species face the same adaptive challenges, species-specific learning tendencies will disappear as
a species evolves.
64. The rapid acquisition of conditioned taste aversions is consistent with Domjan's focus on
A. ecologically relevant conditioned stimuli.
B. arbitrary or neutral conditioned stimuli.
C. ecologically relevant unconditioned stimuli.
D. arbitrary or neutral unconditioned stimuli.
65. The predominant view among learning theorists today is

A. associations can be conditioned between any stimulus an organism can sense and any response the organism
can make.
B. all species are capable of learning all the same responses.
C. there is no such thing as "the" learning process.
D. the basic mechanisms of learning are similar across species.
66. Edward Tolman's research suggests that in order to learn routes through mazes rats
A. must be reinforced for reaching the end of the maze.
B. will run through the maze only when they are highly motivated.
C. need to be allowed to explore the maze first.
D. must be punished for wrong choices in the maze on the first trials.
67. Newly learned behavior that is not apparent from behavior when it first occurs is known as
D. latent learning.
68. You have familiarized yourself with the streets of your town with out any reinforcement; then one day you
are asked to go to the post office. You are able to do so with ease by following a route that you have never
taken. This is an example of
B. latent learning.
69. Learning that is not apparent from behavior when it first occurs is known as
B. latent learning.
70. Group A rats receive 30 paired buzzer-shock trials. Group B rats get the same, but also 20 more trials with
shock alone (no buzzer). You would predict that
A. Group A and B later show equal fear response to the buzzer.
B. Group B shows a stronger fear response to the buzzer.
C. Group A extinguishes fear to the buzzer more rapidly.
D. Group A shows a stronger fear response to the buzzer.
71. According to Rescorla, the single best way to ensure a strong CR is to arrange that the CS
A. remains constantly present throughout training.
B. be one that is well above the absolute threshold of the animal being trained.
C. sometimes occurs when the US is not present.
D. is the most predictive signal for the US.
72. Rafael's brother always says, "I'm going to get you" just before he hits Rafael. Alan's brother sometimes
says, "I'm going to get you" just before he hits Alan; other times he just hits Alan with no warning. Based on the
work by Rescorla you should predict that when these boys hear the words, "I'm going to get you," Rafael will
show
A. an unconditioned response, while Alan will show a conditioned response.
B. a stronger conditioned response than Alan will show.
C. a weaker conditioned response than Alan will show.
D. a conditioned response, while Alan will show an unconditioned response.
73. Studies of response-outcome relations and reinforcement have found that

A. operant behavior is automatically strengthened when it is followed by desirable consequences.
B. people actively reason out the relations between responses and the outcomes that follow.
C. there are species-specific predispositions to form certain types of associations.
D. on concurrent schedules of reinforcement, organisms emit responses that maximize the total number of
reinforcers they will receive.
74. Latent learning is a type of learning that

A. occurs without any experience.
B. occurs when an event following a response increases an organism's tendency to make that response.
C. is not apparent from the organism's behavior when the learning first occurs.
D. occurs when an organism's responding is influenced by the observation of others.
75. Tolman's research on latent learning suggests that in order to learn the routes through a maze, rats must
A. just be allowed to first explore the maze.
B. explore the maze when they are highly motivated.
C. be reinforced for reaching the end of the maze.
D. first be classically conditioned to show no fear in mazes.
76. According to the cognitive explanation of classical conditioning, a CS that is a "good" signal associated
with an US is a CS that
A. is novel or intense.
B. has been paired with the US many times.
C. accurately predicts the presentation of the US.
D. is presented immediately after the US.
77. If a baseball player who has been in a batting slump for several weeks alters his batting stance and wears a
new batting glove one day and gets three hits, the cognitive explanation of conditioning suggests that for the
next game, the baseball player will continue to
A. experiment with another batting stance and batting glove.
B. use the new batting stance.
C. use the new batting glove.
D. use both the new batting stance and new batting glove.
78. Your younger daughter watches your older daughter wash the breakfast dishes. Later, your younger
daughter attempts to wash some dishes. The older daughter has acted as
A. a noncontingent reinforcer.
B. a negative reinforcer.
C. a positive reinforcer.
D. a model.
79. Learning that occurs when an organism's responding is influenced by the observation of others known as
models is called
A. latent.
B. observational.
C. classical.
D. operant.
80. Which of the following statements is MOST accurate?

A. Observational learning is entirely separate from both classical and operant conditioning.
B. Observational learning is a form of classical conditioning.
C. Observational learning is a form of operant conditioning.
D. Both classical and operant conditioning can take place vicariously through observational learning.
81. A three-year-old boy observes his father yelling at his mother every time she says something the father
doesn't like. Based on principles of observational learning, in the future whenever the mother says something to
the boy that he does not like, the boy is MOST likely to do which of the following?
A. yell at his mother
B. yell at his sister
C. go and tell his father what the mother said
D. yell at his father
82. After watching his father wash the car, five-year-old Bob washes his bike. This is an example of
A. superstitious behavior.
83. The learning theory that is best able to explain why physical punishment tends to increase aggressive
behavior in children is
A. Skinner's theory of operant conditioning.
B. Pavlov's theory of classical conditioning.
C. Bandura's theory of observational learning.
D. Rescorla's theory of signal relations.
84. While Pavlov and Skinner viewed conditioning as a purely ____ process, today learning psychologists view
conditioning as also containing a ____ component.
A. mechanical; cognitive
B. cognitive; mechanical
C. passive; active
D. active; passive
85. The type of learning that occurs when an organism's responding is influenced by the observation of others
who are called models is
A. operant conditioning.
B. modeling.
86. Skinner believed that reinforcement was necessary for an operant behavior to be acquired. Observational
learning, however, demonstrates that a behavior can also be acquired as a result of
A. punishment.
B. observing another individual's behavior and the reinforcement of his behavior.
C. preparedness.
87. It is very likely that you learned how to turn on the TV and change channels as a young child without your
parents ever specifically teaching you to do so. (In fact, your parents were probably happier when they had
control over the TV.) In this case, your learning would, most likely, be an example of
B. modeling.
88. Imagine a husband and wife asking Bandura for advice on how they should teach their young child to say
"please" and "thank you". Which of the following would Bandura be MOST likely to suggest?
A. punish the child when she fails to say "please" and "thank you"
B. give the child positive reinforcement for saying "please" and "thank you"
C. use negative reinforcement and withhold the requested item until the child says "please"
D. consistently say "please" and "thank you" in your interactions with others
89. According to Bandura, your motivation to perform an observed response depends on

A. the amount of attention you paid to the model's behavior originally.
B. your expectation of being reinforced for the response.
C. the degree to which you can remember the model's behavior.
D. your ability to perform the observed response.
90. Which of the following focuses on or highlights the importance of cognitions in observational learning?
A. reproduction of behavior
B. motivation to perform the behavior
C. retention of information
D. ability to execute the behavior effectively
91. According to Albert Bandura, expectations concerning reinforcement primarily influence the probability of
an individual
A. initially acquiring or learning a new behavior.
B. actually performing a behavior that has been learned.
C. initially attending to the behavior of another person.
D. accurately retaining information about a behavior.
92. Cognitive processes are involved in which of the following key processes associated with observational
learning?
A. motivation and reproduction
B. motivation and retention
C. attention and retention
D. attention and reproduction
93. In the Featured Study on modeling and behavior by Bandura, Ross and Ross the results suggest that
A. observers are likely to imitate another's behavior if that behavior leads to positive consequences.
B. observers are likely to imitate another's behavior if that behavior leads to negative consequences.
C. observers are likely to imitate another's behavior if that behavior is preceded by positive consequences.
D. observers are likely to imitate another's behavior if that behavior is completed in front of the child live; not
on tv.
94. The research of both Tolman and Bandura distinguishes between

A. positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement.
B. the acquisition of a learned response and the performance of the response.
C. reinforcement of a response and punishment of a response.
D. classical conditioning and operant conditioning.
95. Research into the debate on the role of media violence on children suggests that
A. media violence contributes to increased aggression among children but not adults.
B. media violence contributes to increased aggression among adults but not children.
C. media violence contributes to increased aggression among children and adults.
D. no conclusion as to the cause and effect relationship between media violence and aggression because the
majority of the studies have been correlational.
96. In the Featured Study by Bandura on the power of modeling, the children who were most likely to play
aggressively with the Bobo doll were the children who saw a film of "Rocky" behaving
A. in a nonaggressive manner and receiving positive consequences.
B. in a nonaggressive manner and receiving negative consequences.
C. in an aggressive manner and receiving positive consequences.
D. in an aggressive manner and receiving negative consequences.
97. Research examining the long-term effects of media violence has demonstrated that
A. the more violence children watch on TV the more aggressive they tend to be at home and school.
B. the more violence children watch on TV the less aggressive they tend to act at home and school.
C. no consistent relationship exists between how much violence children watch on TV and aggressive behavior.
D. watching violence on TV causes relatively nonaggressive children to become more aggressive but does not
increase the level of aggression of relatively aggressive children.
98. Research on conditioning generally has demonstrated the importance of ____, but findings regarding the
biological constraints on conditioning have shown that ____ is also very important.
A. nature; nurture
B. nurture; nature
C. heredity; biology
D. instincts; training
99. The principles of learning and conditioning have

A. turned out to have little relevance to real-world concerns.
B. been widely applied in education, business, and industry.
C. attracted little interest outside of psychology.
D. proven worthless when applied to humans as opposed to animals.
100. In today's business world, management often emphasizes positive reinforcement more than in the past.
This illustrates which of your text's unifying themes?
A. Our experience of the world is highly subjective.
B. Psychology evolves in a sociohistorical context.
C. Behavior is determined by multiple causes.
D. Psychology is empirical.
101. The existence of biological constraints on learning such as preparedness and conditioned taste aversions
reflects the unifying theme in psychology that
A. psychology is theoretically diverse.
B. our behavior is shaped by our cultural heritage.
D. psychology is empirical.
102. Many parenting books, dog training manuals, and business management approaches all advocate the use of
operant conditioning techniques to encourage desirable behavior in children, pets, and employees. The
widespread knowledge of, and application of conditioning techniques, reflects the unifying theme in psychology
that
A. behavior is determined by multiple causes.
B. psychology evolves in a sociohistorical context.
D. our behavior is shaped by our cultural heritage.
103. A systematic approach to changing behavior through the application of the principles of conditioning is
known as
C. modeling.
104. Application of conditioning principles to solve behavior problems is generally known as

C. modeling.
105. Which of the following goals is specified in an appropriate format for designing a self-modification
program?
A. increasing your motivation
B. decreasing your irritability
C. increasing your happiness
D. decreasing the amount of time spent watching television

A. gather baseline data.
B. specify the antecedents.
C. specify the target behavior.
D. design a program.
107. An antecedent in a behavior modification program is
A. a source of a reinforcement.
B. an event that precedes a behavior.
C. a consequence of performing a behavior.
D. an emotional component associated with the receipt of reinforcement or punishment.
108. Harold begins to chew his fingernails every time his teacher enters the classroom. In this case, the
antecedent is
A. the teacher entering the classroom.
B. the fear associated with the teacher.
C. anticipated punishment.
D. chewing the fingernails.
109. Behavior modification works best when used to modify

A. a broadly defined behavior, for example, "I will be friendlier."
B. a personality trait, for example, "I will stop being irritable."
C. or attain a specific goal, for example, "I will get a 4.00 GPA this semester."
D. a specific overt behavior, for example, "I will stop smoking."

A. pick an appropriate reinforcement.
B. specify a target behavior.
C. design the program.
D. gather baseline data.
111. When gathering baseline data for a behavior modification program, it is necessary to record all of the
following EXCEPT
A. monitor the antecedents of the target behavior.
B. monitor the consequences of the target behavior.
C. determine the initial frequency of the target behavior.
D. determine how you can reduce the frequency of the target behavior.
112. In setting up reinforcement contingencies in a self-modification program, you should

A. choose a reinforcer that is readily available and relatively potent.
B. use delayed reinforcement.
C. arrange to reinforce yourself only after there has been a drastic change in the frequency of the target
response.
D. use continuous rather than intermittent reinforcement.
113. A system for administering symbolic reinforcers that can later be exchanged for "genuine" reinforcers is
referred to as
A. vicarious conditioning.
B. a token economy.
C. a behavioral contract.
D. antecedent control.
114. Theorists are concerned that video game violence may have more detrimental effects than violence in other
media. The reasons they provide include all of the following EXCEPT
A. Video games require an increased level of attention and more active involvement.
B. Players clearly identify with the characters they control in the games.
C. Players are routinely reinforced within the game sequence for their violent actions.
D. The graphical depictions are not realistic, which serves to detach the player from his or her actions.
115. Which of the following is NOT a strategy for decreasing the frequency of an undesirable behavior?
A. positive reinforcement for withholding the response
B. punishment for making the response
C. increasing exposure to antecedents of the response
D. decreasing exposure to antecedents of the response
116. When using punishment in a self-modification program, you should

A. make the punishment fairly severe.
B. increase the intensity of the punishment over time.
C. get a friend or family member to administer the punishment.
D. make sure you have the opportunity to earn some reinforcers, too.
117. With most behavior modification programs, once a terminal goal has been reached, it is a good idea to
A. stop the program abruptly.
B. phase the program out gradually by reducing the frequency or potency of the reinforcers.
C. switch from positive to negative reinforcement.
D. switch from a ratio to an interval schedule of reinforcement.
118. A successful self-modification program may end spontaneously when

A. the new, improved patterns of behavior become self-reinforcing.
B. a new behavior problem suddenly takes the place of the old one.
C. the reinforcer loses its effectiveness.
D. the frequency of the target behavior drops to zero.
119. Behavior modification programs may be designed to
A. increase response strength.
B. reduce response strength.
C. either increase or decrease response strength.
D. neither increase nor decrease response strength.
120. The behavior modification strategy of controlling or decreasing your exposure to antecedents of your target
behavior is especially useful if you are trying to ____ the frequency of a response such as ____.
A. decrease; arguing
B. decrease; smoking
C. increase; studying
D. increase; exercising
121. It often helps an individual comply with a behavior modification program if he signs a written agreement
outlining a promise to adhere to the contingencies of a behavior modification program. This type of agreement
is referred to as a(n)
A. behavioral contract.
B. reinforcement contract.
C. operant agreement.
D. behavior modification agreement.
122. Tia wants to be the governor for her state. In all her television ads she plays patriotic music and has the
American flag displayed in the background. If voters develop positive feelings toward Tia as a result of these
ads, those positive feelings would represent
B. a conditioned response.
123. Bette creates a television ad that alternates between images of garbage dumps and people drinking in a bar.
She is hoping that people who watch the ad will develop negative feelings toward drinking. Bette is relying on
124. Marvin creates a television ad that alternates between images of garbage dumps and people drinking in a
bar. He is hoping that people who watch the ad will develop negative feelings toward drinking after seeing these
ads. In Marvin's ad the conditioned stimulus would be
A. the images of garbage dumps.
B. people's feelings of disgust when viewing garbage.
C. the images of people drinking in a bar.
D. the feelings people have toward drinking before they see the ad.
125. Alan creates a television ad that alternates between images of garbage dumps and people drinking in a bar.
If people develop negative feelings about drinking as a result of watching Alan's ad, those negative feelings
would represent
D. a conditioned response.
126. Businesses often provide good meals and pleasant surroundings when initially meeting with new clients. In
these situations, clients may develop positive feelings toward their business host and the company he or she
represents. If this occurs, then the pleasant surroundings have functioned as
A. a conditioned stimulus.
B. a discriminative stimulus.
C. secondary reinforcers.
D. an unconditioned stimulus.
127. The advertising industry often attempts to manipulate consumers so that they will have positive
associations with their company's product by applying the principles of
D. observational learning.
128. A political candidate uses a negative campaign commercial in which the candidate's opponent is shown
alongside a negative image of an angry mob. The intent of the commercial is to cause voters to
A. have an accurate contrast between the candidate and the opponent.
B. realize the opponent was the individual who angered the mob in the first place.
C. associate the opponent with a negative emotional response.
D. associate positive emotional responses with the candidate who sponsored the commercial.
129. Stimulus discrimination is to stimulus generalization as reinforcement is to
A. acquisition.
B. shaping.
C. punishment.
D. resistance.
130. ____ is to operant conditioning as ____ is to classical conditioning.

A. Skinner; Pavlov
B. Bandura; Pavlov
C. Rescorla; Skinner
D. Pavlov; Thorndike
131. If you devise a self-modification program in which you systematically reward yourself for studying, you
are applying the principles of
A. classical conditioning.
D. Pavlovian conditioning.
132. Classical conditioning is to the autonomic nervous system as ____ is to the somatic nervous system.
A. operant conditioning
B. observational learning
C. negative reinforcement
D. partial reinforcement
133. Research into signal relations, response-outcome relations, and observational learning all emphasize
A. the importance of evolutionary adaptations in learning.
B. the limitations of using basic conditioning procedures in everyday situations.
C. the distinction between acquisition of behavior and the performance of behavior.
D. the role of cognitive processes in learning.
134. An animal will give a conditioned response to a stimulus that has never been associated with the
presentation of the original US in both
A. stimulus generalization and higher-order conditioning.
B. stimulus generalization and stimulus discrimination.
C. stimulus discrimination and higher-order conditioning.
D. higher-order conditioning and spontaneous recovery.
135. In classical conditioning the response is ____, while in operant conditioning the response is ____.
A. learned; innate
B. innate; learned
C. elicited; emitted
D. emitted; elicited
136. Sally developed a fear of balconies after almost falling from a balcony on a couple of occasions. What was
the conditioned response?
A. the balcony
B. fear of the balcony
C. almost falling
D. fear resulting from almost falling
137. In Pavlov's original demonstration of classical conditioning, salivation to the bell was the:
A. conditioned stimulus
B. conditioned response
C. unconditioned stimulus
D. unconditioned response
138. When the US is removed and the CS is presented alone for a period of time, what will occur?
A. classical conditioning
B. generalization
C. acquisition
D. extinction
139. Sally developed a fear of balconies from almost falling. Although she has had no dangerous experiences on
bridges, cliffs, and the view from tall buildings, she now fears these stimuli as well. Which of the following is
likely to have produced a fear of these other stimuli?
A. preparedness
B. spontaneous recovery
C. generalization
D. discrimination
140. A researcher reinforces closer and closer approximations to a target behavior. What is the name of the
procedure she is using?
A. shaping
B. classical conditioning
D. extinction
141. John says, "Please pass the salt." Ralph passes the salt. "Thank you," says John. John's request precedes a
behavior (salt passing) that is reinforced ("Thank you"). Thus, the request "Please pass the salt" is a ____ for
passing the salt.
A. discriminative stimulus
B. response
C. positive reinforcer
D. conditioned stimulus (CS)
142. In a signal relations study, CS-US trials are alternated with presentation of the US alone. What will occur?
A. stronger conditioning than would have occurred without the US alone trials
B. weaker conditioning than would have occurred without the US alone trials
C. latent learning
D. extinction
143. A rat is reinforced for the first lever-pressing response that occurs, on the average, after 60 seconds. Which
schedule is the rat on?
A. fixed-ratio (FR)
B. variable-ratio (VR)
C. fixed-interval (FI)
D. variable-interval (VI)
144. Which of the following produces strong resistance to extinction?

A. a continuous reinforcement schedule
B. an intermittent reinforcement schedule
C. optimal foraging behavior
D. discrimination and differentiation
145. A cue light comes on in the dog's shuttle box. It jumps the hurdle to the other side. What procedure is
being used?
A. punishment
B. escape
D. avoidance
146. When the rat presses a lever, the mild electric shock on the cage floor is turned off. What procedure is
being used?
A. punishment
B. escape
D. avoidance
147. The contingencies are as follows: if the response occurs, a stimulus is presented; if the response does not
occur, the stimulus is not presented. Under this procedure the strength of the response decreases. What
procedure is being used?
C. punishment
D. avoidance training
148. In terms of the traditional view of conditioning, research on conditioned taste aversion was surprising
because
A. there was a long delay between CS and US.
B. the dislike of a particular taste was operantly conditioned.
C. conditioning occurred to all stimuli present when the food was consumed.
D. the sense of taste seems to be relatively weak.
149. Earlier learning viewpoints considered classical and operant conditioning to be automatic processes
involving only environmental events that did not depend at all on biological or cognitive factors. Research on
which of the following concepts cast doubt on this point of view?
A. latent learning, signal relations, and preparedness
B. extinction, discrimination, and generalization
C. CRF, ratio, and interval schedules
D. escape, avoidance, and spontaneous recovery
150. For the first 10 trials rats simply explore a maze, with no reward. For the next ten trials they receive a food
reward for going to the goal box. Learning appears to occur as fast for this group as for a group that received 20
consecutive reinforced trials. What was the explanation?
A. Tolman's latent learning
B. Pavlov's classical conditioning
C. Skinner's intermittent reinforcement
D. Thorndike's stamping in
151. ____________________ refers to a relatively durable change in behavior or knowledge due to experience.
Learning
152. In classical conditioning the neutral stimulus becomes the ____________________ stimulus because of its
association with the ____________________ stimulus.
conditioned; unconditioned
153. Recent research has shown that classical conditioning procedures can lead to ____________________, or a
decrease in the production of antibodies.
immuno-suppression
154. ____________________ refers to the initial stage of learning something.

Acquisition
155. In higher-order conditioning, a conditioned stimulus functions as if it were a(n) ____________________

stimulus.
unconditioned
156. ____________________ conditioning is a form of learning in which responses come to be controlled by

their consequences.
Operant
157. According to Thorndike's ____________________, if a response, in the presence of a stimulus, leads to a

satisfying effect the association between the stimulus and the response is strengthened.
law of effect
158. On a cumulative recorder, a rapid response rate produces a(n) ____________________ slope.
steep
159. Food would be considered a(n) ____________________ reinforcer, while money would be considered a(n)
____________________ reinforcer.
primary; secondary
160. ____________________ reinforcers include things such as food, water, warmth, and sex, which are
inherently reinforcing because they satisfy biological needs.
Primary
161. ____________________ stimuli are cues that influence operant behavior by indicating the probable
consequences (reinforcement or nonreinforcement) of a response.
Discriminative
162. ____________________ reinforcement occurs when every instance of a designated response is reinforced;
____________________ reinforcement, occurs when a designated response is reinforced only some of the
time.
Continuous; intermittent, or partial
163. ____________________ reinforcement occurs when a response is strengthened because it is followed by

the presentation of a desirable stimulus; while ____________________ reinforcement occurs when a response
is strengthened as the result of the removal of an unpleasant stimulus.
Positive; negative
164. People often incorrectly confuse punishment with ____________________.

negative reinforcement
165. Problems associate with the application of physical punishment as a disciplinary procedure include
____________________ side effects, increased ____________________ behavior, and behavioral problems.
emotional; aggressive
166. Sally developed a nasty stomach flu a few hours after she ate sushi for the first time; now every time Sally
sees sushi she feels sick to her stomach. Sally is demonstrating a(n) ____________________.
conditioned taste aversion
167. Observational learning occurs when an organism's responding is influenced by the observation of others,
who are called ____________________.
models
168. When a behavior is strengthened indirectly, through vicarious conditioning, the process at work is
____________________ learning.
observational
169. Social critics have expressed concern about the amount of violence on television since TV became popular
and the majority of research into the impact of media violence on behavior has focused on the role of
____________________ learning.
observational
170. In operant conditioning, ____________________ are events that typically precede the target response.
antecedents
171. In classical conditioning a conditioned association is formed between a previously neutral, conditioned
stimulus and the unconditioned stimulus.
TRUE
172. Some studies have suggested that operant conditioning can elicit allergic reactions and may contribute to
the growth of drug tolerances.
FALSE
173. If the conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented alone, spontaneous recovery occurs.
FALSE
174. Stimulus discrimination occurs when an organism has learned a response to a specific stimulus and does
NOT respond in the same way to new stimuli that are similar to the original stimulus.
TRUE
175. A toddler has an established conditioned fear of snow, over the past few weeks every time he sees Santa
Claus, snow is always present. This example is an illustration of higher-order conditioning.
TRUE
176. According to the law of effect, if a response in the presence of a stimulus leads to satisfying effects, the
association between the stimulus and the response is strengthened.
TRUE
177. According to the Skinner, if an event following a response leads to a decrease in an organism's tendency to
make that response, reinforcement has occurred.
FALSE
178. Resistance to extinction occurs when a previously extinguished response reappears after a period of
nonexposure to the conditioned stimulus.
FALSE
179. Traffic lights serve as discriminative stimuli for the operant behavior of driving.
TRUE
180. In general, interval schedules of reinforcement tend to produce more rapid responding than ratio
schedules.
FALSE
181. In positive reinforcement the response is strengthened as a result of the presentation of an unpleasant
stimulus; in negative reinforcement a response is strengthened as a result of the removal of a desirable
stimulus.
FALSE
182. In escape learning a response is acquired because it decreases an aversive stimulus; in avoidance learning
the organism learns the response because it prevents an aversive stimulus from occurring.
TRUE
183. Escape and avoidance responses are both initially acquired through negative reinforcement.
TRUE
184. Negative reinforcement and punishment are similar in that they both weaken the tendency of the organism
to make a response.
FALSE
185. Concerns about the use of punishment as a disciplinary measure include concerns about side effects
including anxiety, anger and resentment.
TRUE
186. According to Martin Seligman, preparedness involves a species-specific predisposition to be conditioned

in certain ways and not others.
TRUE
187. Various studies of response-outcome relations and reinforcement have shown that reinforcement is
automatic when favorable consequences follow operant responses.
FALSE
188. Albert Bandura, like Edward Tolman, suggests that organisms store cognitive representations of learned
responses that they may or may not perform depending on the reinforcement possibilities.
TRUE
189. The fact that the principles of conditioning are routinely applied in homes, businesses, schools, and
factories show that the causes of behavior are multifactorial.
FALSE
190. A token economy is a system for doling out symbolic reinforcers that are later exchanged for a variety of
genuine reinforcers.
TRUE
191. How do psychologists define learning?
Learning is defined as a relatively durable change in behavior or knowledge that is due to experience.
192. Learning theorists argue that learning takes place through conditioning. Describe the two types of
conditioning discussed in your text.
Classical conditioning involves largely involuntary responses and is largely controlled by stimuli that precede
responses. Classical conditioning explains how a neutral stimulus can acquire the capacity to elicit (or draw
forth) a response originally elicited by another stimulus. In classical conditioning, the US is a stimulus that
elicits an unconditioned response without previous conditioning. Whereas, operant conditioning involves
voluntary responses that are governed by their consequences.
193. Kelly's parents always leave her with the same baby-sitter when they go out. Within minutes of the sitter's
arrival her parent are gone. Kelly's baby-sitter arrives at her birthday party; as soon as Kelly sees her she begins
to cry. Using the principles of classical conditioning, explain why Kelly cried when she saw the baby-sitter.
This is an example of classical conditioning¾the US (Kelly's parents leaving) is a stimulus that elicits an
unconditioned response (crying) without previous conditioning. The conditioned stimulus or CS (the babysitter)
is a previously neutral stimulus that has acquired the capacity to elicit a conditioned response through
association with the US (parents leaving). The conditioned response or CR (crying to the babysitter) is a learned
reaction to a conditioned stimulus. Through repeated pairing of the parents leaving (US) and the babysitter
arriving (CS) Kelly has learned that the arrival of her babysitter means her parents are leaving, thus she cries.
194. What is extinction? How does it differ from forgetting?
In classical conditioning extinction occurs when the CS and US are no longer paired and the response to the CS
is weakened. Extinction in operant conditioning refers to the gradual weakening and disappearance of a
response tendency, because the response is no longer followed by a reinforcer.
The occurrence of spontaneous recovery, when an extinguished response reappears after a period of
non-pairing, suggests that the response is still there, just not active.
195. What are stimulus generalization and stimulus discrimination? Why are they important?
In both classical and operant conditioning generalization occurs when subjects respond similarly to stimuli that
are similar to the CS. For example, in Watson and Rayner's study with Little Albert, Albert was conditioned to
fear a white rat but later came to be afraid of many white, furry objects.
Discrimination is the opposite of generalization; that is, the subject will respond to a specific stimulus and not to
another stimulus¾similar stimuli don't elicit the same response. For example, you stop at a red traffic light, but
go at a green one.
196. Clearly differentiate between reinforcement and punishment.
Skinner's principle of reinforcement holds that organisms tend to repeat those responses that are followed by
favorable consequences, or reinforcement. Skinner defined reinforcement as when an event following a
response increases an organism's tendency to make that response. Punishment, on the other hand, occurs when
an event following a response weakens the tendency to make that response.
197. Describe how negative reinforcement differs from punishment.
In general, reinforcement causes response likelihoods to increase. Responses can be strengthened (reinforced)
either by presenting positive reinforcers or by removing negative reinforcers. Negative reinforcement increases
the likelihood of behavior by allowing the organism to escape or avoid aversive stimuli. In escape learning, an
organism learns to perform a behavior that decreases or ends aversive stimulation (turning on the air
conditioner). In avoidance learning, an organism learns to prevent or avoid some aversive stimulation (turn on
the a/c before it gets too hot).
In general, punishment causes response likelihoods to decrease. Punishment occurs when an event following a
response weakens the tendency to make that response. Punishment is much more than disciplinary procedure;
punishment may involve presentation of an aversive stimulus (spanking) or removal of a rewarding stimulus
(taking away TV).
198. You want to teach your dog to fetch the remote control for your TV. Why should you first use continuous
reinforcement and then switch to partial reinforcement?
You should first use continuous reinforcement since the reinforcement will occur when every instance of a
designated response is reinforced. This will lead to faster acquisition of the remote control fetching behavior.
However, continuously reinforced behaviors are subject to faster extinction when you stop giving the
reinforcement. So in order to give the behavior greater resistance to extinction you should gradually switch to
intermittent, or partial, reinforcement (reinforcements only occur some of the time now) once the behavior is
firmly established.
199. Briefly describe what happens in each of the following schedules of reinforcement:
a. continuous
b. intermittent or partial schedules
c. ratio schedules (fixed vs. variable)
d. interval schedules (fixed vs. variable)
A schedule of reinforcement determines which occurrences of a specific response result in the presentation of a
reinforcer.
a. Continuo
us
reinforce
ment
occurs
when
every
instance
of a
designat
ed
response
is
reinforce
d (faster
acquisiti
on, faster
extinctio
n).
b. Intermitt
ent
reinforce
ment
occurs
when a
designat
ed
response
is
reinforce
d only
some of
the time
(greater
resistanc
e to
extinctio
n).
c. Ratio
schedule
s require
the
organism
to make
the
designat
ed
response
a certain
number
of times
to gain
each
reinforce
r.
i) A fixed-ratio schedule entails giving a reinforcer after a fixed number of non-reinforced responses.
ii) A variable ratio schedule entails giving a reinforcer after a variable number of non-reinforced responses.
d. Interval
schedule
s require
a time
period to
pass
between
the
presentat
ion of
reinforce
rs.
i) A fixed-interval schedule entails reinforcing the first response that occurs after a fixed time interval has elapsed.
ii) A variable-interval schedule entails giving the reinforcer for the first response after a variable time interval has elapsed.
200. Discuss the nature and importance of observational learning and discuss Bandura's view on whether
reinforcement affects learning or performance.
Albert Bandura outlined the theory of observational learning. In observational learning, vicarious conditioning
occurs by an organism watching another organism (a model) be conditioned. Observational learning can occur
for both classical and operant conditioning.
In order for observational learning to take place, 4 key processes are at work. First the organism must pay
attention to the model, retain the information observed, and be able to reproduce the behavior. Finally, an
observed response is unlikely to be reproduced unless the organism is motivated to do so, i.e., they believe there
will be a pay off. According to Bandura, reinforcement influences which responses one will perform more then
it influences the acquisition of new responses.
201. Explain how a specific phobia could be acquired through classical conditioning, being sure to identify the
unconditioned stimulus, unconditioned response, conditioned stimulus, and conditioned response in your
example. Also, using classical conditioning, indicate how the phobia could be eliminated.
Good responses to this question should clearly identify a stimulus that is neutral and which occurs before a
significant biological event that produces strong fear. The response should also indicate that the stimulus
becomes conditioned, and there is now a conditioned response (a phobia) to the event that was originally
neutral. Very good responses might indicate that the fear would generalize to other stimuli that share similar
characteristics with the original stimulus; and that the fear response may be maintained by negative
reinforcement (avoidance or escape). All responses should also indicate that the phobia may be eliminated
through extinction (exposure to the CS without the expected US).
202. Compare the acquisition procedures in classical and operant conditioning. What is the essential difference
between the two types of conditioning?
In classical conditioning, a neutral stimulus is repeatedly paired with an unconditioned stimulus. Eventually, a
new response emerges and occurs each time the conditioned stimulus appears. The target behavior occurs
AFTER the stimulus has occurred. The procedure sets up a contingency between two stimuli, and is most
effective when one stimulus serves as a reliable signal that the second stimulus will occur. In operant
conditioning, a specific response produces a consequence (a reinforcer or a punisher). In positive reinforcement,
for example, the subject must make the target response before the reinforcer will be present. Similarly, in
punishment, an aversive stimulus is contingent on performance of a specific response. Thus, in operant
conditioning, the target behavior occurs BEFORE the consequence (the reinforcer or punisher) and CAUSES
the reinforcer or punisher to occur. In classical conditioning, the behavior of the person or the animal in no way
affects the presentation of the stimuli; in this case, the behavior is a response to the stimuli that are already
present.
203. Imagine that you have a roommate who is a slob and you would like to change this behavior. From your
knowledge of conditioning principles how would you encourage and reinforce their behavior?
The behavior of keeping a clean room is an operant that will need to be shaped. Since the roommate is not
emitting the desired response on their own you would need to treat them much in the same way as Skinner did
his rats and pigeons and shape them. This would involve a process in which closer and closer approximations of
the desired response would be reinforced until the desired response is accomplished. Cleaning behavior could
be reinforced through a variety of ways including both primary (food & drink) and secondary (praise, money)
reinforcers.
204. Given the research findings in this chapter, explain how you would respond to your own children when
they did things you did that you did not want them to do. When would you use positive reinforcement? When
would you use punishment to teach them things? When would you use negative reinforcement? What kinds of
reinforcement schedules would you use? (Be sure that you clearly differentiate between reinforcement and
punishment, negative and positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement and punishment)
In evaluating students' examples, make certain they know the difference between negative reinforcement
(removal of an aversive stimulus that is contingent on a desired response being made) and punishment
(presentation of an aversive stimulus or removal of a pleasant stimulus that is contingent on an undesired
response being made). Also ensure that the answers clearly indicate that BOTH positive and negative
reinforcement would produce an increase in the target behavior, and that only punishment would produce a
decrease in the target behavior.
Downloadable Test Bank for Psychology Themes And Variations 9th Edition Weiten
205. Briefly describe observational learning, and explain how it relates to classical and operant conditioning.
Observational learning occurs when an organism's behavior is influenced by having watched the behavior of
another organism (a "model"). In order for observational learning to take place, the organism must: (1) pay
attention to the behavior of the model, (2) remember the behavior of the model, (3) be capable of imitating the
model's behavior, and (4) be motivated to imitate the model's behavior.
Both classical and operant conditioning can occur vicariously, through observational learning (watching another
organism be conditioned). For example, a person may acquire a phobia by observing someone else's classically
conditioned fear response; or a person may acquire a new behavioral response after observing someone else
who is rewarded for making that response.
206. Design a self-modification program to improve your study habits.
Good responses will: (1) specify observable target responses (for example, study at least two hours each night),
as opposed to personality traits; (2) ensure that time is set aside to monitor baseline frequencies of these
responses; (3) use realistic, obtainable reinforcers (or punishers) that are related appropriately to the target
responses; and (4) indicate the conditions under which the program can be terminated (for example, studying
has become self-sustaining due to improved grades).
207. Imagine that you are an advertising executive and that your sales have been dropping for a particular brand
of washing detergent. You want to design a set of advertisements that makes people feel good when they see
your detergent and then you want to reinforce people for buying your product. How would you design
advertisements that would condition people to feel good when they see your product and how would you
reinforce people for buying your detergent?
The answers to this question will vary. In evaluating students' examples, make certain they know the difference
between conditioned stimuli, and unconditioned stimuli. Also ensure that the answers clearly indicate that the
conditioned stimulus is the product or product logo. Good answers will also discuss the importance of stimulus
contingency. For the reinforcement, make sure that the reinforcement chosen is contingent on purchase of the
product and that the student clearly understands the concept of reinforcement.
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1. When a response is strengthened because it is followed by the presentation of a rewarding stimulus, it is

4. Both ____ increase the probability that a response will be repeated.

5. Which of the following is an example of negative reinforcement?

8. Escape learning is a type of learning in which

14. Escape conditioning is maintained by

15. Avoidance conditioning develops through

16. Acquiring a behavior that prevents the occurrence of an aversive event is

31. Typically, most people would

33. How are punishment and negative reinforcement different?

36. Which of the following is NOT an example of punishment?

39. Which of the following statements about punishment is FALSE?

59. Conditioned taste aversions represent an unusual or atypical example of

63. The evolutionary perspective on learning suggests that

65. The predominant view among learning theorists today is

73. Studies of response-outcome relations and reinforcement have found that

74. Latent learning is a type of learning that

80. Which of the following statements is MOST accurate?

89. According to Bandura, your motivation to perform an observed response depends on

94. The research of both Tolman and Bandura distinguishes between

99. The principles of learning and conditioning have

104. Application of conditioning principles to solve behavior problems is generally known as

106. The first step in a behavior modification program is to

109. Behavior modification works best when used to modify

110. The first step in a behavior modification program is to

112. In setting up reinforcement contingencies in a self-modification program, you should

116. When using punishment in a self-modification program, you should

118. A successful self-modification program may end spontaneously when

130. ____ is to operant conditioning as ____ is to classical conditioning.

144. Which of the following produces strong resistance to extinction?

154. ____________________ refers to the initial stage of learning something.

155. In higher-order conditioning, a conditioned stimulus functions as if it were a(n) ____________________

156. ____________________ conditioning is a form of learning in which responses come to be controlled by

157. According to Thorndike's ____________________, if a response, in the presence of a stimulus, leads to a

163. ____________________ reinforcement occurs when a response is strengthened because it is followed by

164. People often incorrectly confuse punishment with ____________________.

186. According to Martin Seligman, preparedness involves a species-specific predisposition to be conditioned

194. What is extinction? How does it differ from forgetting?

196. Clearly differentiate between reinforcement and punishment.

197. Describe how negative reinforcement differs from punishment.

1. When a response is strengthened because it is followed by the presentation of a rewarding stimulus, it is

4. Both ____ increase the probability that a response will be repeated.

5. Which of the following is an example of negative reinforcement?

8. Escape learning is a type of learning in which

14. Escape conditioning is maintained by

15. Avoidance conditioning develops through

16. Acquiring a behavior that prevents the occurrence of an aversive event is

31. Typically, most people would

33. How are punishment and negative reinforcement different?

36. Which of the following is NOT an example of punishment?

39. Which of the following statements about punishment is FALSE?

59. Conditioned taste aversions represent an unusual or atypical example of

63. The evolutionary perspective on learning suggests that

65. The predominant view among learning theorists today is

73. Studies of response-outcome relations and reinforcement have found that

74. Latent learning is a type of learning that

80. Which of the following statements is MOST accurate?

89. According to Bandura, your motivation to perform an observed response depends on

94. The research of both Tolman and Bandura distinguishes between

99. The principles of learning and conditioning have

130. is to operant conditioning as is to classical conditioning.

130. is to operant conditioning as is to classical conditioning.