UNIT

02 Set Theory

Names of Sub-Units

Sets and Subsets, Set Operations, Laws of Set Theory, Counting and Venn Diagrams, A First Word on
Probability

Overview

The Unit begins by introducing concept of set theory. Also, the unit explains the various operations
and laws of set theory, Venn diagram, counting principles and probability.

Learning Objectives

In this unit, you will learn to:

 Explain the set theory
 Discuss the concept of subset
 Describe the union of sets
 Explain the intersection of sets
 Describe the difference of sets
 Discuss the complement of sets
 Describe the how to represent a set by Venn diagram
 Summarise the principle of counting
JGI JAIN
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Mathematical Foundation for Computer Application

Learning Outcomes

At the end of this unit, you would:

 Assess the set theory
 Appraise the concept of subset
 Evaluate the application of union of sets
 Analyse the intersection of sets
 Explore the complement of sets

Pre-Unit Preparatory Material

 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Set_theory
 https://ncert.nic.in/ncerts/l/kemh101.pdf

2.1 INTRODUCTION
Set theory is known as the foundational system for mathematics. It deals with properties of the well-
defined collection of distinguished objects. These objects can be numbers, functions or some non-
mathematical characters such as alphabets or things. Set theory deals with finite as well as infinite sets.
Well-defined or well-determined collection is a collection which has unique interpretation and you do
not have any uncertainty about the existence of its members. In other words, a collection is well defined
if there is no uncertainty as to whether or not an object belongs to it. For example, the collection of tall
persons is not well defined as we don’t have any defined criteria for the tallness of people.

2.2 SETS AND SUBSETS

A well-defined collection of distinguished, i.e., different objects is known as Set. The members present in
a set are called as elements of the set.
A set is denotes as S = {Elements of set}
For example, S = {1,2,3,4,……} is a set of natural numbers
P = {a, e, i, o, u} is a set of vowels.
If an element ‘a’ belongs to any set A, then a  A and if ‘a ’ does not belong to A, then a  A.
A set is mainly represented by two methods:
 List Form/ Roster Form/ Tabular Form : Writing all the elements of a set in curly brackets separated
by a comma is known as List form representation.
For example, S = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and P = {a, e, i, o, u}
 Set Builder Form: Writing a set in symbolic form followed by the defined rule is known as set builder
representation.
For Example, set of even numbers, E = { 2n : n  }
Set of natural numbers, N = {x :x N or x is a Natural number}

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Example 1: Write the following sets in roster form?

(i) A = {x: x N and 4 < x < 12}.
(ii) The set of all-natural numbers ‘x’ such that 4x + 9 < 50.
Solution:
(i) The natural numbers lying between 4 and 10 are 5, 6, 7, 8, 9.
So, A = {5, 6, 7, 8, 9,10,11}.
(ii) Let P = {x : x is a natural number, 4x + 13< 50}
Now, 4x + 13< 50
 4x < 50 – 13 = 37
 x <9.25
Since ‘x’ is a natural number less than 9.25, hence can take the values up to 9 only
P = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}.
Example 2: If A = {Ø, {Ø }, 3, {2, 7}}, which of the following are true?
(i) Ø A (ii) {Ø }  A
(iii) {Ø}A (iv) {2, 7}  A
(v) {{3, 7}}  A (vi) {3, Ø}A.
Solution:
(i) Since Ø is an element of A so (i) is true.
(ii) Ø is an element of A so,{Ø} is a subset of A, hence the statement is true.
(iii) {Ø} is an element of A so the statement is true.
(iv) False as {2, 7} is an element not a subset.
(v) True.
(vi) {3, Ø} is not an element in A so the statement is false.
Example 3: Prove or disprove: A = {x : x2 = 4, x N }, B = {–3}, then A ≠ B.
Solution: As x2 = 4
 x = ±2.
But x is a natural number so x = 2. Hence, A = {2}, Since B = {–3} so A ≠ B. The statement is true.

2.2.1 Order or Cardinality of a Set

The number of elements of a set is known as the order or cardinality of a set. The order of Set A is
denoted by O(A) or n(A) or |A|.
For Example, If a set A has ‘m’ elements, then O(A) = m.

2.2.2 Finite and Infinite Sets

If the elements of a set are countable then it is known as a Finite Set, i.e., the Order of finite set is a finite
number.

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For example, A = {x : x2 – 4=0, x N } = {2}, B = { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and C = {x : x2 – 6x + 5 = 0, x  N} = {5, 1} are finite

sets as O(A) = 1, O(B) = 5 and O(C) = 2.
If the elements of a set are uncountable, then it is known as Infinite Set, i.e., the order of infinite set is
infinity.
Some examples of infinite sets are:
N – Set of natural numbers.
Z – Set of integers
R – Set of real numbers.

2.2.3 Null or Empty Set

If a Set does not have any element, it is known as a Null or Empty Set. An empty set is denoted by  or
{ }. It is also known as void set.
Set A = { x : x is a natural number, x < 1} is an empty set.

2.2.4 Singleton Set

If a set has only one element, it is known as Singleton Set. A singleton set is denoted by { a }when a is the
only element of that set.
Set A = { x : x is a natural number, x < 2} is a singleton set.

2.2.5 Subset
If all the elements of a set A are contained in another set B, then A is the subset of B which is denoted as
A  B. In other words, A is a subset of B, then x B  x A.
If there is at least one extra element in B then A is known as Proper Subset and B is known as Superset.
For example, A = {1,2,3} is a subset of set of natural numbers, N and
B = {x : x2 – 4 = 0, x  N }={2} is a subset of A, i.e., B  A.
If a set has order ‘n’, then it has 2n subsets.

2.2.6 Equivalent Sets

If A and B have the same order, they are said to be Equivalent.
For example, Set A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and B = {a, e, i, o, u} are equivalent.

2.2.7 Equal Sets

Two sets M and N are said to be equivalent if
i. They are equivalent.
ii. They have the same elements.

For example, M = {x : x  N, x2 – 4 = 0} and N = {x : x  N , 1 < x < 3} are equal.

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2.2.8 Universal Set

The Universal Set is the largest set that contains all the elements of other sets. In other words, it is the
set with respect to which all the subsets are considered. It is denoted by U.

2.2.9 Power Set

The set of all subsets of a set A is known as the Power Set of A. It is denoted by P(A).
If the order of a set A is n, then the order of its power set is 2n.
If A = {p, q} then P(A) = {Ø, {p,q}, {p},{q}}
If A = Ø, then P(B) = {{Ø}}

2.3 SET OPERATIONS

Identical to real numbers, sets have also the same operations. The operations of sets are following:
1. Union of sets 3. Difference of sets
2. Intersection of sets 4. Complement of sets.

Let’s discuss about each in detail.

2.3.1 Union of Sets

The union of two sets A and B is defined as the collection of elements of M and N both avoiding repetition
of elements. It is denoted as M  N.
M  N = { x : x  M or x  N }
For example, M = {1, 2, 3} and N = {4, 2, 6, 7} then, M  N = {1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7 }
‘2’ being present in both the sets, will be written in M  N only a single time.

2.3.2 Intersection of Sets

The Intersection of two sets M and N is defined as the collection of only common elements of M and N.
It is denoted as M  N.
M  N = { x : x  M and x  N }
For example, M = { 1, 2, 3 } , N = { 4, 2, 6, 7 } then, M  N = {2}

2.3.3 Differences of Sets

The difference of two sets M and N is defined as M – N ={ y : y  M and y  N }
Similarly, N – M = {x : x  N and x  M}
For example, If M = { 1, 2, 3 }, N = { 4, 2, 6, 7 }, then
M –N = {1, 3} and N – M = { 4, 6, 7 }

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Clearly, M – N  N – M. Hence, difference of sets is not commutative.

 A–A=Ø
 A–Ø=A

2.3.4 Symmetric Difference

The Symmetric difference of between two sets M and N is denoted by M  N.
M  N = (M - N)  ( N – M )
For example, If M = { 1, 2, 3 }, N = { 4, 2, 6, 7 ,} then
M  N = { 1, 3 }  { 4, 6, 7 } = {1,3, 4, 6, 7}

2.3.5 Complement of a Set

The Difference of a Universal set U and any set M is known as the complement of the set M. It is denoted
as Mc or M’ = { : x  M } = U – M.
For example: U= {1, 2, 3, ............. , 10} and M = {3, 5, 7}
Mc = U – M = { 1, 2, 4, 6, 8, 9, 10 }
 () = U
 (U)’ = Ø

2.4 LAWS OF SET THEORY

For any sets M, N, and P, the following identities hold:
 Commutative Laws
 MN=NM
 MN=NM
 Associative Laws
 (M  N)  P = M  (N  P )
 (M  N )  P = M  (N  P )
 Distributive Laws
 M  (N  O ) = (M  N )  (M  O )
 M  (N  O ) = (M  N )  (M  O )
 Identity Laws
 M Ø=M
 MU=M
 Domination Laws
 MU= U
 MØ=Ø
 Complement Laws
 M  M = U

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 M  M = Ø

For any subsets M and N of a universal set U, the following identities hold:
 Idempotent Laws
 M M = M
 NN = N
 Absorption Laws
 M  (M  N ) = M
 M  (M  N ) = M
 De Morgan’s Laws
 (M  N ) = M  N
 (M  N )  = M  N
 INVOLUTION OR DOUBLE COMPLEMENT LAW
 M = M

2.5 COUNTING AND VENN DIAGRAM

The diagrammatic representation of the set is known as the Venn diagram representation. In the Venn
diagram representation, all the sets are denoted by Circle except Universal Set which is represented as
Rectangle. Some of the Venn diagram representations are shown in Figure 1:

U UA A  B= Ø

U A B U A B A’

A B A B A B

U
A B
U
A’  B
U A  B’

A B A B

A’  B A’  B’ =(A’  B)’ A’  B’ =(A  B)’

U U U

A B A B A B

Figure 1: Showing Venn Diagrams

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JGI JAIN
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Mathematical Foundation for Computer Application

Counting is the process of evaluating the number of elements of a finite set, i.e., finding the order of a
set. We use a Venn diagram to count various objects.
If n(A), n(B) and n(C) are orders of three finite sets A, B and C respectively, then
i. n(AB) = n(A) + n(B) - n(AB)
ii. n(AB) = n(A) + n(B) when A  B = Ø
iii. n(A-B) = n(A) – n(A  B)
iv. n((AB)’) = n(U) - n(AB) = n(U) + n(AB) - n(A) - n(B)
v. n(ABC)= n(A) +n(B) + n(C) - n(BC) - n (AB)- n (AC) + n(ABC)
vi. n(A- B- C) = n(A) – n(AB)- n (AC) + n(ABC)
Example: In a group, each person plays Cricket or Hockey or both. The number of people who play
cricket is 11, who play Hockey are 12 and who play both are 3. Find the people who play either cricket or
Hockey?
Solution: Let n(Cricket)= n(P) and n(Hockey) = n(Q)
Then, n(either cricket or hockey) = n(PQ) and n(Cricket and hockey) = n(PQ)
Given n(P) = 11 , n(Q) = 12 and (PQ) = 3
Applying formula for union i.e. n(PQ) = n(P) + n(Q) - n(PQ) = 11 + 12 - 3 = 20
Answer: The number of people who play Cricket or hockey = 20
Example: There are 100 students, 35 choose singing and 45 choose dancing, and 10 change both activities.
How many of the students choose either singing or dancing and neither of them?
Solution: Total number of students = 100
Number of students that choose singing, n(P) = 35
Number of students that choose dancing, n(Q) = 45
Number of students who choose both, n(PQ) = 10Q
You are required to find n(PQ)
Using sets formula, n(PQ) = n(P) + n(Q) – n(PQ)
= 45 + 35 - 10 = 70
Number of students who choose neither = Total students – n(PQ)
= 100 – 70 = 30
Answer: 70 students choose either singing or dancing and 30 students choose neither singing nor
dancing.

2.6 PROBABILITY
Probability is an important concept and can be interpreted in many ways. Probability is a measure of
the chances of occurrence of an event. Whenever you are not sure about the result of a trial we talk
about the possibility of some outcomes. This possibility is known as Probability.

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The simplest example for studying Probability is the tossing of the coin. When we toss a coin, there are
two possible outcomes Head and Tail. The chances of occurrence of Head as well as Tail are 50%.
1 1
Therefore, Probability of Head = 50% = and Probability of Tail = 50% =
2 2

As the chances of occurrence of both the Head and the Tail are equal, they have the same probability. In
mathematical terms, probability of occurrence of an event A,

Number of favorable outcomes to A

P(A) =
Number of Total Outcomes

Probability makes extensive use of operations of sets. The set of total outcomes of a trial is known as
Sample Space.
The value of probability always varies from 0 to 1 i.e. 0  P(A)  1.
Example: Find the probability of getting a number less than 4 when a dice is rolled.
Solution: Let the probability of getting a number less than 4 be P(A).
Sample space, S = {1,2,3,4,5,6} and Getting a number less than 4, A = {1,2,3}
Therefore, n(S) = 6 and n(A) = 3

Number of favorable outcomes to A

P(A) =
Number of Total Outcomes
n(A) 3 1
=  
n(s) 6 2

1
Answer: The probability of getting a number less than 4 =
2

Conclusion 2.7 CONCLUSION

 The concept of sets is used for the foundation of various topics in mathematics.
 The collection of well-defined distinguished objects is known as a set.
 Order of Power set of a set with order n is 2n.
 Venn diagrams are the important tool for sorting populations and counting objects.
 Probability makes extensive use of Set operations.

2.8 GLOSSARY

 Union of sets: The union of two sets is defined as the collection of elements of both the sets avoiding
repetition of elements.
 The intersection of sets: The Intersection of two sets is defined as the collection of only common
elements of both sets.

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 Power set: The set of all possible subsets of a set is called the power set of that set.
 Probability: Probability is a measure of the chances of occurrence of an event.

2.9 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

A. Essay Type Questions

1. In a class of 100 students numbered 1 to 100, 40 students opt for Physics, 25 opt for Chemistry, 35 opt
for Math, 10 opt for both Physics and Chemistry, 18 opt for both Chemistry and Math, 12 opt for both
Math and Physics, 12 opt for all the three. How many do not opt for any of the three subjects?
2. In a class of 40 students, 12 students enrolled in both English and Hindi. 22 enrolled for Hindi. If the
students of the class enrolled for at least one of the two subjects, then how many students enrolled
for only English and not Hindi?
3. In a survey of 1000 persons of society, it is observed that 700 people read ‘Bhaskar Times’, 320 people
read ‘Hindustan Times’ and 180 read both. find the number of persons who do not read any of the
papers?
4. For any sets M, N and O, prove the following:
i. M(NO ) = (MN)(MO)
ii. M(NO) = (MN)(MO)
iii. (MN) = MN
iv. (MN ) = MN
v. M(MN) = M

2.10 ANSWERS AND HINTS FOR SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

A. Hints for Essay Type Questions

1. Let n(Physics) = n(P), n(Chemistry) = n (C) and n(Maths) = n(M)
 Given: n(P) = 40, n(C) = 25, n(M) = 35, n(PC) = 10, n(CM) = 18, n(MP) = 12, n(PMC) = 12
Using,
n(A BC) = n(A) + n(B) + n(C) – n(BC) – n (AB) – n (AC) + n(ABC)
n(P MC) = n(P) + n(M) + n(C) – n(PC) – n (CM) – n (MP) + n(PMC)
= 40+ 25+ 35 – 10 – 18 – 12 +12
= 72
n[(P M C)’] = Total – n(P M C)
= 100 – 72
= 28
2. Let n(English) = n(E), n(Hindi) = n (H)
 Given: n(EH) = 40, n(H) = 22, n(EH)= 12
Using n(A B) = n(A) + n(B) – n (AB)
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n(EH) = n(E) + n(H) + n(C) – n (EH)

40 = n(E) + 22 – 12
n(E) = 30
Now, n(E – H) = n(E) – n (EH)
= 30 – 12
= 18
3. Let n(Bhaskar Times) = n(A), n(Hindustan Times) = n (B)
 Given: Total = 1000, n(AB) = ?, n(A) = 700, n(B) = 320 and n(AB)= 180
Using,
n(A B)= n(A) +n(B) - n (AB)
= 700 + 320 - 180
= 840
n[(A B)’] = Total  n(A B)
= 1000 – 840 = 160
4. (i) To prove the result, you shall prove that
M  (N  O )  (M  N)  (M  O) and (M  N)  (M O)  M  (N  O).
Let x M  (N  O).
 x M or x (N  O)
 x M or (x N and x O)
 (x   or x N) and (x M or x O)
 x (M  N) and x (M  O)
 x (M  N)  (M O)
 M  (N  O ) (M  N)  (M  O) ….. (1)
Conversely, suppose that, x (M N)  (M O )
 x (M  N) and x (M O )
 (x M or x N) and (x M or x O)
 (x M or x N) and (x M or x O )
 x M or (x N and x O )
x M  (N  O ).
(M  N)  (M O ) M  (N  O ) ….. (2)
From (1) and (2)
M  (N  O ) (M  N)  (M  O )
(ii) Similar to Part (i)
(iii) To prove the result, you shall prove that
(M  N) (M   N)and (M  N)  (M  N)
Let x (M  N).
Then, x  M  N

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 x M or x N
 x M or x N
 x (M  N)
 (M  N) (M  N) ….. (1)
Conversely, let x (M  N).
Then, x M or x N
 x M or x N
 x M  N
 x (M  N)
 (M  N)  (M  N) …… (2)
From (1) and (2)
(M  N)  (M  N)
(iv) Similar as Part (iii)

@ 2.11 POST-UNIT READING MATERIAL

 https://byjus.com/maths/basics-set-theory/

2.12 TOPICS FOR DISCUSSION FORUMS

 Discuss how probability can be evaluated using set operations.

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