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Multiple Choice
1. If participants were asked to complete a lexical decision task, which priming word would
result in the fastest recognition of bread as a real word?
a. Baker, because of the semantic link between bread and a bakery
b. Child, because children often enjoy baked goods that come from bakers
c. Mailbox, because of the similar shape between a mailbox and a loaf of bread
d. White, because this is the typical color of bread
Answer: a
Textbook Reference: 8.1 A Connected Lexicon
Bloom’s Level: 3. Applying
3. Competition tends to
a. facilitate word recognition.
b. inhibit word recognition.
c. lead to steady improvement in word recognition over time.
d. enhance semantic priming.
Answer: b
Textbook Reference: 8.1 A Connected Lexicon
Bloom’s Level: 2. Understanding
4. Which of the following words has the highest phonetic neighborhood density?
a. Bee
5. _______ is the phenomenon in which it takes longer to recognize a word that shares sounds
with many other words than it does to recognize a word that is very phonetically distinct from
other words.
a. Semantic priming
b. Facilitation
c. Neighborhood density effect
d. Mediated semantic priming
Answer: c
Textbook Reference: 8.1 A Connected Lexicon
Bloom’s Level: 1. Remembering
6. Which word activation sequence best represents what you would expect to occur during
mediated semantic priming?
a. hemlock → key → door → window
b. spit → spin → spot → spout
c. bike → pedal → foot → sock
d. stem → flower → petal → rose
Answer: c
Textbook Reference: 8.1 A Connected Lexicon
Bloom’s Level: 3. Applying
7. Here is a lexical decision task in which a prime is presented very briefly, covered by a “mask,”
and then followed by a target word. What is the rationale for using this masked priming
methodology?
Related Prime
Prime: NURSE (50 ms)
Mask: ##### (500 ms)
Target: DOCTOR
Unrelated Prime
Prime: WRENCH (50 ms)
Mask: ###### (500 ms)
Target: DOCTOR
a. It reduces the likelihood that participants will use a task-specific strategy of trying to think of
words related to NURSE or WRENCH.
b. It increases the likelihood that participants will respond faster to DOCTOR when it is preceded
by a related word, such as NURSE, than an unrelated word, like WRENCH.
9. If you were designing a study, which of the following two words would not be fair to include
in the same condition due to differences in how they are accessed?
a. Battle and paddle because they rhyme and are a minimal pair
b. Doctor and ornithologist because they differ in frequency, length and age of acquisition
c. Teacher and teaches because they are two different parts of speech
d. Love and peace because they are too conceptually similar and conceptually abstract
Answer: b
Textbook Reference: 8.1 A Connected Lexicon
Bloom’s Level: 3. Applying
10. If participants were asked to respond by pulling a lever toward or away from them, which of
the following results might happen?
a. Pulling faster toward themselves for the target sentence She opened the drawer than for She
closed the drawer
b. Pushing faster away from themselves for the target sentence She opened the drawer than for
She closed the drawer
c. Pushing faster away from themselves for the target sentence She grabbed a cold soda from the
fridge than for She put the soda in the fridge
d. Pulling faster toward themselves for the target sentence She pushed her friend toward the door
than for She pulled her friend away from the door
Answer: a
Textbook Reference: 8.1 A Connected Lexicon
Bloom’s Level: 3. Applying
13. In Swinney’s 1979 crossmodal priming study, which condition led to decreased activation of
the test word’s meaning that was not primed?
a. Decreasing the ISI between the test word and the prime
b. Presenting the study passage at a louder volume
c. Increasing the ISI between the test word and the prime
d. Presenting the study passage text on the screen along with the auditory presentation of the
study passage
Answer: c
Textbook Reference: 8.2 Ambiguity
Bloom’s Level: 2. Understanding
14. You are running a study similar to Duffy et al.’s 1988 experiment. You will present
participants with the following sentence: The advisory _______ met once per week. The blank
will be filled with either cabinet or group. Which word will take participants longer to read, and
why?
a. Group, because it is a more commonly used word than cabinet in the English language
b. Cabinet, because it is the more often used and dominant term for a collection of people
c. Group, because it is an unambiguous word for a collection of people
d. Cabinet, because it is the less frequently used and subordinate term for a collection of people
Answer: d
Textbook Reference: 8.2 Ambiguity
Bloom’s Level: 4. Analyzing
16. You hear the sentence “Liam was out in the yard digging in the garden,” and subsequently
you recognize the word mole faster as the animal and not in the sense of being a spy. Which is
not a realistic explanation for this effect?
a. Pre-activation of semantic features based on context
b. Bottom-up recognition of multiple meanings
c. Inhibitory links between multiple meanings of polysemous words
d. Masked priming
Answer: d
Textbook Reference: 8.2 Ambiguity
Bloom’s Level: 4. Analyzing
17. As you begin to hear the word storm, other phonetically similar words such as store and
stomp may also be activated during the first few hundred milliseconds of storm. Which model or
effect best accounts for this type of spoken word activation?
a. Neighborhood density effect
b. Marslen-Wilson’s cohort model
c. McGurk effect
d. Implicit semantic priming
Answer: b
Textbook Reference: 8.3 Recognizing Spoken Words in Real Time
Bloom’s Level: 3. Applying
19. Which word pair represents the closest cohort competitors of the word sandwich?
a. sandy, sandal
b. sumo, sushi
c. satiate, satire
d. song, seal
Answer: a
Textbook Reference: 8.3 Recognizing Spoken Words in Real Time
Bloom’s Level: 4. Analyzing
21. Imagine that your child is learning a popular holiday song, and instead of singing “All of the
other reindeer,” she has learned the words as “Olive, the other reindeer.” This is an example of
a. the rhyme effect.
b. a homograph.
c. a mondegreen.
d. the Ganong effect.
Answer: c
Textbook Reference: 8.3 Recognizing Spoken Words in Real Time
Bloom’s Level: 3. Applying
You are carrying out an eye-tracking experiment using this display, similar to one used in
Allopenna et al. (1998). The longer eye fixation on the parrot compared to the nickel at the
prompt Pick up the carrot is best explained by the
a. cohort model.
23. In Spivey and Marian’s 1999 study, bilingual English–Russian speakers heard instructions
such as Can you hand me the marker? At the same time, the subjects were shown a set of objects
that included a stamp, which is pronounced /marka/ in Russian, and a marker. The results of the
study support the conclusion that
a. lexical items belonging to different languages can compete with one another.
b. the neighborhood density effect applies to each language separately.
c. the McGurk effect is found only in a person’s dominant language.
d. phoneme restoration applies to both languages, but not to the same degree.
Answer: a
Textbook Reference: 8.3 Recognizing Spoken Words in Real Time
Bloom’s Level: 4. Analyzing
24. Imagine you are learning an obscure language spoken by only a few dozen people in the
Sahara Desert. They tell you the translation for “apple” in their language is pronounced “kal-ko-
MAR-ko.” They write this word like so: ₺ ҉ ổ ҉ What type of writing system do these
Saharans use?
a. Logographic
b. Syllabic
c. Morphemic
d. Alphabetic
Answer: b
Textbook Reference: 8.4 Reading Written Words
Bloom’s Level: 3. Applying
25. The equation 4 + 3 = 7 conveys meaning using a _______ writing system, whereas the word
seven conveys meaning using a _______ writing system.
a. syllabic; logographic
b. alphabetic; syllabic
c. logographic; alphabetic
d. logographic; syllabic
Answer: c
Textbook Reference: 8.4 Reading Written Words
Bloom’s Level: 3. Applying
26. _______ is required to identify the distinct phonemes contained in the word trilobite, a
difficult task for young children and illiterate adults.
a. Masked priming
b. Incremental language processing
c. Perceptual invariance
27. Considering models of reading, the word _______ is more likely to be activated via the direct
route, whereas _______ would be activated by the assembled phonology route.
a. mint; fit
b. colonel, mint
c. mint; enough
d. enough; colonel
Answer: b
Textbook Reference: 8.4 Reading Written Words
Bloom’s Level: 3. Applying
28. At the county fair, you hear your sister yell, “Look at the be_ le.” You are surrounded by
barking dogs and thus interpret be_ le as beagle, not beetle. Proponents of _______ would argue
that your awareness of the context affected your interpretation of the ambiguous word.
a. a modular mind design
b. an integrative mind design
c. the cohort model
d. the dual route model
Answer: b
Textbook Reference: 8.4 Reading Written Words
Bloom’s Level: 3. Applying
29. Which of the following is not a reason the English language’s system of spelling is very
loosely connected to pronunciation?
a. Language pronunciation has been changing while spelling has stayed the same.
b. Scribes spelled words with an influence of French and Latin.
c. A centralized group of scribes decided spelling early on and did not update the rules.
d. Anglo-Saxons adopted an alphabet that did not perfectly correspond to individual phonemes of
the English language.
Answer: c
Textbook Reference: 8.4 Reading Written Words
Bloom’s Level: 1. Remembering
30. If you are shopping at a market in a country where you do not speak or read the language,
you are most likely to understand how much to pay for goods if their prices are presented in
a. morphemes.
b. syllabic characters.
c. logographs.
d. alphabetic characters.
Answer: c
Textbook Reference: 8.4 Reading Written Words
Bloom’s Level: 2. Understanding
1. Yee and Sedivy’s 2006 study used the eye-tracking technique to investigate auditory semantic
priming. Provide an example of the kind of visual display that was used, describe their findings,
and briefly relate these findings to investigations of the same phenomenon using a lexical
decision task.
Answer: Participants were shown a visual display and asked to click on a target picture (such as a
hammer) among other items (such as a nail, a box of tissues, and a cricket). Participants
accurately identified the object, the hammer. But the eye-tracking data revealed that upon
hearing the word hammer, participants tended to look at a semantically related object (e.g., the
nail) more often than at unrelated items. The study corroborated the results of lexical decision
experiments, which showed that if a word like nail was preceded by a related word like hammer,
it was recognized more quickly than if it was preceded by an unrelated word like cricket. The
Yee and Sedivy study showed that semantic priming can be observed with spoken language as
well as written language, and it provided more detailed information about the time course of
activating semantically related words.
Textbook Reference: 8.1 A Connected Lexicon
Bloom’s Level: 2. Understanding
2. Using the lexical decision task, design an experiment to compare the effects of form versus
semantic priming on word activation. Include the expected results in your answer.
Answer: Participants would be primed with phonetic neighbors, semantically related words, or
control primes. Primes would be presented just before the target word. The researcher would
measure how long it takes to identify a target as a word or a non-word. For example, one set of
test items could include the test word spin preceded by a semantically related word (such as
whirl or turn), a phonetic neighbor (such as span or spit), or a control word (such as boat or
tree). Researchers would present participants with whirl, span, or boat during the priming phase,
and then measure how long it takes the participants to identify spin as a word. The difference in
the time taken to identify spin across the three conditions would provide insight regarding which
type of priming affects word activation. Based on other studies, we would expect response times
to be faster when primed by semantically related words than when primed by control words, and
slower when primed by phonetic neighbors than control words.
Textbook Reference: 8.1 A Connected Lexicon
Bloom’s Level: 6. Creating
3. How does mediated semantic priming provide support for a spreading activation model of
word activation?
Answer: In a spreading activation model, words are connected to other words in the lexicon by
the strength of their semantic associations based on meaning and usage. Mediated semantic
priming occurs when a word’s activation is facilitated by an indirect relation to another word,
such as when the word news primes paper, which then primes towel. The more distant the
semantic or phonetic association, the less effective the priming. So in a lexical decision task, we
would expect faster response times to paper than towel if both are primed by the word news.
4. Describe how both excitatory and inhibitory connections can contribute to the process of
recognizing the word stove.
Answer: When the word stove is presented, individual phoneme units within the word, such as
“s”, “t” and “v,” become activated, and this activation flows along excitatory connections to
words that contain these sounds, such as stove but also phonetically similar words such as stave
and starve. This means that those other, phonetically similar words compete with the word stove.
However, there are also inhibitory connections between these competing words, so that as a word
unit becomes activated, it suppresses the activation of competing words. Because stove is the
best phonetic match for the sounds that are being heard, it is the most heavily activated among
the competing words, and will exert the strongest inhibitory pressure, resulting in activation that
is much higher than its competitors.
Textbook Reference: 8.1 A Connected Lexicon
Bloom’s Level: 4. Analyzing
5. Are words in memory isolated abstract representations of meaning, or are they linked to
perceptual memories of our experiences of the meanings of words? Support your answer with
evidence from the text.
Answer: (Answers may vary. A complete answer need refer to only one of the several studies in
the text that apply to this question.) Evidence suggests that our current physical state affects
access to words related to that physical state. Boulenger and colleagues (2008) reported
differences in participants’ speed of activation of action words depending on their ability to
control their own movements. The study was run with a group of individuals suffering from
Parkinson’s disease. Participants who were given a medication that gave them more control over
their movement retrieved action words more quickly than the participants who did not receive
the medication. Other studies have led to similar conclusions. For instance, Warrington and
Shallice (1984) found that people with damage to the vision-processing regions of their brain had
difficulty accessing words that refer to concepts that are experienced visually (like birds).
Likewise, Klatzky et al. (1989) found that participants more quickly accessed nouns such as pen
or knife if their body was poised in a position in which they would make use of the object. These
studies suggest that the mental representation of a word is not stored in isolation as an arbitrary
linguistic unit. Rather, words appear to be intimately connected with the brain regions that are
associated with their underlying meanings.
Textbook Reference: 8.1 A Connected Lexicon
Bloom’s Level: 2. Understanding
7. Consider the Berger and Fitzsimons (2008) study in which photographs of dogs were
presented to people, after which they felt more positively about products with the Puma brand
name. This is presumably because the semantic relationship between dogs and pumas made the
brand name feel more familiar, a factor that is known to promote positive attitudes. Design an
experiment involving brand names to further explore the link between familiarity and attitudes,
but focus on familiarity related to the sounds of brand names rather than their meanings. Be sure
to include examples of key stimuli and appropriate controls, and to specify which conditions you
are comparing and the results you expect.
Answer: (Answers may vary, but should include a means of inducing a sense of phonetic
familiarity. Below are two examples based on concepts in the text.)
a) The experiment would have a priming phase activating unrelated or related sounds, followed
by a test phase in which brand preference is determined. In the priming phase, participants would
make lexical decisions to a list of words. Half of the participants would be primed with words
that are phonetically similar to the target brand but unrelated to the other brand. The other half of
the participants would be primed with words that have no sound overlap at all with the target
Based on Allopenna et al.’s 1998 study, describe the time course of spoken word activation and
what would happen as subjects hear the word beaker while viewing this figure.
9. What prediction would the cohort model make about the activation of the word weaver when
subjects hear the word cleaver? What prediction would the TRACE model make in the same
scenario? Explain the mechanisms behind each model’s predictions.
Answer: The cohort model predicts that weaver will be no more activated than an unrelated word
that has no sound overlap at all with cleaver, such as tablet. This is because the cohort model
states that activation is limited to words that have the same onset as the word being spoken. For
example, upon hearing the first phoneme in cleaver, only words beginning with that phoneme
(e.g., car, kiss, clover, cleats, etc.) will become activated; upon hearing the second phoneme,
only words beginning with the same two phonemes will be activated (e.g., clover, cleats, etc.)
and so on. In contrast, the TRACE model predicts that weaver will be activated to a greater
degree than tablet upon hearing the word cleaver. This is because the TRACE model predicts
activation to increase for any word that overlaps substantially with the word being spoken,
regardless of whether this overlap occurs at the beginning, middle, or end of the word.
Textbook Reference: 8.3 Recognizing Spoken Words in Real Time
Bloom’s Level: 3. Applying
10. You want to observe and measure lexical activation and describe the incremental dynamics
of some process. What measurement tools might you use and why?
Answer: Eye-tracking, EEG, fMRI, NIRS, etc. Each of the measurements will include some
description emphasizing that there is better temporal resolution than other behavioral methods.
Textbook Reference: 8.3 Recognizing Spoken Words in Real Time
Bloom’s Level: 3. Applying
11. Consider Perfetti et al.’s 2010 analysis of which brain areas are activated during reading of
Chinese and English characters and what you know about the differences between the alphabetic
and logographic writing systems. What advice would you give an English speaker learning to
read Chinese?
Answer: Perfetti et al. found that reading Chinese, which uses a logographic writing system,
tends to produce more bilateral activity in the visual areas, whereas increased brain activity tends
to be more localized in the left hemisphere when reading English. This suggests that an English
speaker may need to be especially patient as her brain learns to recruit new networks that have
not previously been used for reading. In an alphabetic writing system, each character or phoneme
carries no intrinsic meaning. In a logographic writing system, each character already contains a
great deal of meaning. When learning Chinese, English speakers should focus on memorizing the
specific meaning of the characters and the sounds that relate to those meanings because there is
no way to sound out words in Chinese.
Textbook Reference: 8.4 Reading Written Words
Bloom’s Level: 5. Evaluating
12. Use the connectionist model of reading to explain how we learn to read both irregularly
spelled words (such as knock and enough) and phonetically regular ones (e.g., mint and stab).
Answer: The connectionist model accounts for our ability to make sense of both irregular and
regular spellings by strengthened connections between sequences of letters and the phonetic and
semantic aspects of word representations based on their usage and likelihood of occurrence.
Constant feedback between the phonetic, orthographic, and semantic characteristics of words
results in a web or connection between these aspects of written language. Irregularly spelled
words are understood because they, too, have their own set of connections between these three
aspects of written language; however, because these orthographic patterns occur less often than
regular spelling patterns, these connections may be weaker than for regularly spelled words.
Therefore, in this model, there are no “rules” for spelling; we merely get the impression that
there are rules because some patterns that are used to spell words are much more common than
others.
Textbook Reference: 8.4 Reading Written Words
Bloom’s Level: 2. Understanding
13. If you were to redesign the orthography of the English language to better correspond to
pronunciation, what aspects would you change, and what challenges to a uniform pronunciation
would you encounter?
Answer: Each phoneme would need a corresponding symbol, requiring new symbols for sounds
such as /sh/ which are one sound but two letters. All words would need to be respelled according
to this new system. Challenges include word spellings that would be resistant to change such as
people’s names, having a centralized system that would regulate spelling over time, and
differences in accent where pronunciations differ between regions.
Textbook Reference: 8.4 Reading Written Words
Bloom’s Level: 3. Applying