Raja Daniyal

0000242740

8610

Human Development &

Learning

Spring-2023

1st
Question#1: Conceptualize development. Also discuss the domains
and stages of development.
Answer: When used in relation to human development, the word "domain" refers to specific
aspects of growth and change. The major domains of development are physical, cognitive,
language, and social-emotional.

Children often experience a significant and obvious change in one domain at a time. Forexample,
if a child is focusing on learning to walk, which is in the physical domain, you may not notice as
much language development, or new words, until they have mastered walking.

It might seem like a particular domain is the only one experiencing developmental change during
different periods of a child's life, but change typically occurs in the other domains as well—just
more gradually and less prominently.

Physical Development
The physical domain covers the development of physical changes, which includes growing in size
and strength, as well as the development of both gross motor skills and fine motor skills.1 the
physical domain also includes the development of the senses and using them.

When young, children are learning how to perform different activities with their fingers in
coordination with their eyes such as grasping, releasing, reaching, pinching, and turning their wrist.
Because these small muscle movements take time to develop, they may not come easily at first.

These fine motor skills help kids perform tasks for daily living, like buttoning buttons, picking
up finger foods, using a fork, pouring milk, going to the restroom, and washing their hands.

In addition to these fine motor skills, kids also learn to use their larger muscles, like those in their
arms, legs, back, and stomach. Walking, running, throwing, lifting, pulling, pushing, and kicking
are all important skills that are related to body awareness, balance, and strength. These skills allow
your child to control and move their body in different ways.
Parents can help their child's physical development by providing opportunities for age- appropriate
activities. For instance, babies need regular tummy time to build their neck and upper body
strength, while preschoolers and school-aged children need plenty of opportunities to run around
and play. Even tweens and teens need regular opportunities for physical activity.

Meanwhile, you shouldn't overlook your child's need to develop their fine motor skills as well.
From an early age, give them opportunities to use their hands and fingers. Give your baby rattles,
plush balls, and other toys to grasp.

Later, toys that allow them to pick things up and fit them into slots are good for developing
beginning skills. As they get older, teach them how to button buttons, use scissors, hold a pencil,
and do other tasks with their fingers and hands.

Physical development also can be influenced by nutrition and illness. So, make sure your kids have
a healthy diet and regular wellness check-ups in order to promote proper childdevelopment.

Cognitive Development
The cognitive domain includes intellectual development and creativity.1 as they develop
cognitively, kids gain the ability to process thoughts, pay attention, develop memories, understand
their surroundings, express creativity, as well as to make, implement, and accomplish plans.

The child psychologist Jean Piaget outlined four stages of cognitive development:

Sensorimotor Stage (Birth to Age 2)

This stage involves learning about the environment through movements and sensations. Infants
and toddlers use basic actions like sucking, grasping, looking, and listening to learn about the
world around them.

Preoperational Stage (Ages 2 to 7)

During this stage, children learn to think symbolically as well as use words or pictures to represent
things. Kids in this stage enjoy pretend play, but still struggle with logic and understanding another
person's perspective.
Concrete Operational Stage (Ages 7 to 11)

Once they enter this stage, kids start to think more logically, but may still struggle with
hypothetical situations and abstract thinking. Because they are beginning to see things from
another person's perspective, now is a good time to start teaching empathy.

Formal Operational Stage (Age 12 and Up)

During this stage, a child develops an increase in logical thinking. They also develop an ability to
use deductive reasoning and understand abstract ideas. As they become more adept at problem-
solving, they also are able to think more scientifically about the world around them.

You can help your child develop and hone their cognitive skills by giving them opportunities to
play with blocks, puzzles, and board games. You also should create an environment where your
child feels comfortable asking questions about the world around them and has plenty of
opportunities for free play.

Develop your child's desire to learn by helping them explore topics they are passionate about.
Encourage thinking and reasoning skills by asking them open-ended questions and teaching them
to expand on their thought processes. As they get older, teach them how to be critical consumers
of media and where to find answers to things they don't know.

Why Cognitive Milestones Are Important

Social and Emotional Development

The social-emotional domain includes a child's growing understanding and control of their
emotions.1 they also begin to identify what others are feeling, develop the ability to cooperate,
show empathy, and use moral reasoning.

This domain includes developing attachments to others and learning how to interact with them.
For instance, children learn how to share, take turns, and accept differences in others. They also
develop many different types of relationships, from parents and siblings to peers, teachers,
coaches, and others in the community.
Children develop self-knowledge during the social-emotional stage. They learn how they identify
with different groups and their innate temperament will emerge in their relationships.

Tweens, especially, demonstrate significant developments in the social-emotional domain as their

peers become more central to their lives and they learn how to carry out long-term friendships.
Typically, parents will notice major increases in social skills during this time.2

To help your child develop both socially and emotionally, look for opportunities for them to
interact with kids their age and help them form relationships with both children and adults. You
can arrange playdates, explore playgroups, and look into extracurricular activities. Also encourage
them to talk to their grandparents, teachers, and coaches as well.

To encourage a sense of self, ask your child about their interests and passions and encourage them
to identify their strengths and weaknesses. Teach them about recognizing and managing feelings.
As they get older, talk to them about healthy friendships and how to handle peer pressure.

You also should not shy away from the challenging talks like those covering sex and consent. All
of these different social and emotional facets play into your child's overall development.

How to Teach Kids about Feelings

Language Development

Language development is dependent on the other developmental domains. The ability to

communicate with others grows from infancy, 3 but children develop these abilities at different
rates. Aspects of language include: 4

Phonology: Creating the sounds of speech

Pragmatics: Communicating verbally and non-verbally in social situations

Semantics: Understanding the rules of what words mean

Syntax: Using grammar and putting sentences together

One of the most important things you can do with your child throughout their early life is to read
to them—and not just at bedtime. Make reading and enjoying books a central part of your day.
Reading out loud to your kids from birth and beyond has a major impact on their emerging
language and literacy skills.

Aside from reading books, look for opportunities to read other things, too, like the directions to a
board game, letters from family members, holiday cards, online articles, and schoolnewsletters.
Hearing new vocabulary words spoken expands a child's vocabulary and helps them prepare to
identify unfamiliar words when used in context.

In addition to reading, make sure you are talking to your kids even before they can say their first
word. Tell them about the things you are doing or what you're buying in the store. Point out
different things and engage them in the world around them. Singing to your child is another
excellent way to build your child's language skills.

As they get older, try holding regular conversations, answering questions, and asking for your
child's ideas or opinions. All of these activities are an important part of their language
development.

8 Ways to Build Your Child's Vocabulary

Developmental Delays

As children grow and learn, they will pass certain developmental milestones. While every child
is different and progresses at a different rate, these milestones provide general guidelines that help
parents and caregivers gauge whether or not a child is on track.

The exact timing that a child reaches a particular milestone will vary significantly. However,
missing one or two milestones can be a cause for concern.

Talk to your child's pediatrician if you're worried that your child is not meeting milestones in a
particular area. They can evaluate your child and recommend different services if a delay is
identified.

Every state in the U.S. offers an early intervention program to support kids under the age of 3that
have developmental delays. Once they are over age 3, the community's local school district must
provide programming. So, don't delay in determining whether or not your child needs assistance.
There are resources out there to support them should they need it.
A Word from Verywell

A child's development is a multi-faceted process comprised of growth, regression, and change in

different domains. Development in certain domains may appear more prominent during specific
stages of life, yet kids virtually always experience some degree of change in all domains.

You can support your child's growth and development in each of these four areas by understanding
these domains and supporting the work your child is doing. Watch the changes taking place in your
child and supplement their learning with activities that support their efforts.
Question#2: Discuss the physical characteristics of a learner.
Answer: Successful learning may happen organically, but it does not happen accidentally.
One might be surrounded with rich educational resources, but without key capabilities, those
learning opportunities will go untapped.

Learner Characteristics

Learner characteristics are a concept that revolves around how the student learning experience
is influenced by personal, social, cognitive, and academic elements. It‟s presumed that these
aspects play a pivotal role in both how and what students learn. Through a series of studies,
educators can determine what characteristics impact students the most. The findings of this
research are passed on to instructional designers so that they can develop tailored instructions for
specific groups.

An understanding of learner characteristics enables students to be more efficient and effective

in their learning. It also encourages educators to be more precise in their teachings. Learner
characteristics are so diverse that they range from personal to academic. The former refers to traits
like gender, language, age, and cultural background. Meanwhile, academic characteristics consist
of logic, objectivity, intellect, insight, and practical applications. These combined qualities
contribute significantly to the student learning process.

Following points makes a successful learner

Successful learners…

1. …are leaders in their own learning.

2. …engage with the world around them.
3. …question everything.
4. …thinking for them.
5. …are driven by their interests.
6. …push through challenges.
7. …are determined to succeed.
8. …have inner motivation and self discipline.
9. …exercise their minds and their bodies.
10. …cultivate good habits.
11. …know how and when to ask for help.
12. …are willing to take risks, fail, and learn from their mistakes.

Learning Characteristics of student

Designing a new course can be an exciting proposition for a teacher. Perhaps you‟ve been tasked
with developing a curriculum for an area that you‟ve long had a passion to explore. Or you may
be developing materials for a core subject that needs a fresh approach. Either way, you know that
your job is to help students recognize the importance and relevance of the topic at hand.

There are so many technological tools and pedagogical approaches that can be used in the
classroom that you may have a hard time choosing which ones to use. There may be no right or
wrong answer, but it is important to think about the students who will be taking your class as you
make your choices. Here are five learning characteristics teachers need to know about their
students as they prepare to teach them.

Students have their own motivations

While you may (or may not) find the topic of your course to be a fascinating subject, students will
always have their own motivations for being there. Are they taking your course as a core
requirement of their curriculum or as a general education requirement? Does your course have a
reputation for being hard or easy, important or fluff, a weed-out or a blow-off class? These factors
will most likely be outside of your control.

What is in your control, however, is the way you set the tone when your students arrive. From
the first moment in the classroom or the first login to your online portal, you need to help them
understand why they should make an effort to engage with the class. Some student groups may
need more emphasis placed on why the topic is relevant, while others may be looking for more
collaboration with their peers.

James Middleton and his colleagues have proposed a model of intrinsic academic motivation to
help instructors understand their students. They believe that in order to be motivated, students need
to understand why a learning activity is interesting, stimulating, and affording personal control.
Understanding your students‟ motivations for enrolling in your course is the first step towards
extending that motivation towards engaging in the learning activities.

Students come in with expectations

Alongside motivations are the expectations that students will have when they come into your class.
Some of the standard expectations will be that you are communicating with them, providing them
with ready access to course materials, and giving them feedback on their work.
You‟ve likely developed strategies for how you handle this from your previous teaching
experience.

What you should also consider are the environmental expectations that your students have
developed. Are you starting to teach in a new program where the LMS structures courses in a way
that‟s different from your normal format? Are your students coming to you from a prerequisite
course with an instructor who has a completely different pedagogy?

Just because your students have certain expectations doesn‟t mean that you have to cater directly
to them. Your course may need to be different and require students to follow a path they find
uncomfortable. As with your students‟ motivations, sometimes it‟s necessary to understand where
they are coming from so that you can find the best way to guide them to your methods. You can
help them see the benefit of putting the work into your course by relating it to their own goals.

Students have a code of honor

Students are looking to you, the instructor, to set the tone for academic standards. We have an
entire industry of Academic Integrity products like those offered by Turnitin because sometimes
instructors need help with making sure that standards are being met. These tools can support the
creation of original work and with an academic integrity policy that supports these standards,
students will prioritize their code of honor within the classroom.

Donald McCabe makes the case that cheating can only be eliminated by creating an environment
where integrity and learning are seen as core values. If an environment doesn‟t treat academic
dishonesty as a serious offense, then you are in danger of making students think that perhaps
cheating is necessary to keep up with their peers. But if your culture exemplifies honestyas a core
value, students will be more likely to direct their energies to engage with your course rather than
just focusing on getting the grade they need.

Students are self-directed

You might be rolling your eyes, but lean into this: Your students are self-directed. Really, they are.
It may not seem that way when you are trying to get them interested in working on a class project
but they can be incredibly resourceful when they decide it is in their best interests.

One of the most important ways to help students focus on your class is to remove the barriers to
participation. Be sure that your technology and pedagogy are well-suited for your topic and course
structure. Many instructors have set up elaborate systems for students, only to discover that nobody
is using them. With a multitude of tools available on the Internet, students can quickly adapt to
different systems for independent work or collaboration. Part of your job will beshowing your
students why your systems (both technological and pedagogical) are valuable so they will direct
their efforts to participate in them.

Students are collaborators

Many learning theories promote collaborative activities as an important part of the learning
process. Collaboration provides an opportunity to learn from the knowledge or perspective of
another person and to clarify information through the back-and-forth of conversation. Your
students have most likely had collaborative activities incorporated into many of their previous
courses.

The key to making collaboration work for your class is to scaffold activities carefully. As we have
discussed previously, students can let their own motivations, expectations, and self- direction lead
them away from the topic you are trying to teach. Think about what will motivate them to
collaborate on the things they actually need to learn.

There are all sorts of students and situations that will make each class unique and it can be a
challenge to figure out how they will interact with your learning tools and teaching pedagogy. But
the choice of how to set up the learning environment will be up to you as the instructor. Hopefully,
considering these five learning characteristics will help you find the best way to engage your
students.
Question#3: What is intelligence? Discuss different issues associated
with intelligence in education.
Answer: The Concept of Intelligence and IQ
The concept of intelligence is defined as the ability to learn from experience, solve problems,
and use our knowledge to adapt to new situations
IQ is a measure of intelligence. An IQ test produces a score which represents a person's mental
age (MA).

When used on children the mental age score is usually divided by the individual's chronological
age (CA) because children of the same intelligence but different ages will not achieve the same
score on the test. The quotient is divided by 100 to remove any fractions. The average IQ is 100
and the scores are standardized so that about 64% of the population has a score between 85 and
115.

IQ = Mental Age / Chronological Age * 100

One of the problems with the conceptual definition of intelligence (to the left) is that it is very
difficult to measure accurately.

This has led some people to suggest that there is also an operational (practical) definition of
intelligence:

Intelligence is whatever the intelligence test measures.

This tends to be “school smarts” and it tends to be culture-specific.

Intelligence Testing and Its Issues

Standardized testing of mental faculties and potential is what we call "intelligence testing."
However, many concerns have been voiced about relying on IQ exams, and standardization and
bias are problems. Concerns have been raised, however, that these tests may have a racial or
socioeconomic bias. Another problem is that intelligence tests are often created with a single
culture in mind, so they may not truly reflect how smart people from diverse cultures are.
Foundations of Issues Regarding Intelligence Testing
Questions about the validity of intelligence tests can be traced back to scientific and
methodological reasons and broader societal and historical trends. Based on IQ test results, it is
well-documented that persons of color and those from lower socioeconomic origins have been
singled out for discrimination and subjugation. As a result, questions have been raised concerning
the reliability and validity of IQ tests and how they have been exploited to legitimize racial and
economic disparities. Because of this, some people worry that IQ tests are being overused and
relied upon too heavily. Science has yet to agree on what constitutes intelligenceor how to
quantify it.

 Intelligence tests can yield varying findings because different theories propose
different definitions and metrics. Because of this, some people are worried that IQ
tests do not cover enough ground. Methodologically, IQ tests are grounded in a
particular culture and context, which may not apply to all people. Because of this,
people are worried that IQ tests are skewed in favor of certain cultures. Concerns
about standardization and bias, cultural bias, limited scope, misuse and
overreliance, and the privacy of individual test results have their roots in historical
 and social factors as well as scientific and methodological considerations that have
led to questions about the validity of intelligence testing as a whole.
 Intelligence tests have been proven beneficial in predicting academic success in
particular. The results of intelligence tests can assist pupils in determining their
degree of ability in various mental capacities. This may aid in developing further
training and appropriate remedial programs for the pupils. Given the advantages of
IQ testing, there is also the issue of categorizing a kid depending on the exam results.
A youngster who fails an intelligence test may be described as boring or
incompetent. Such a youngster may face stigma and discrimination at school and
home. Misuse of IQ testing may end up causing more damage than benefit to the
youngster.
 The validity of IQ testing has also been called into doubt. It is stated that IQ tests
evaluate things other than intellect, such as educational quality, exposure to
stimulation, prior understanding of the exam content, and the individual's test-
taking abilities. If all of these non-intelligent elements are to blame for individual
variances in IQ scores, the accuracy of IQ testing is jeopardized. In such
circumstances, using IQ tests to diagnose intellectual impairment and learning
disability may not provide an accurate picture.
 Intelligence is more than just IQ. IQ tests only evaluate a portion of a person's
overall ability. Other factors influencing life success include creativity, social
competence, practical problem-solving talents, and so on. Furthermore, typical IQ
testing may not detect different types of bits of intelligence, such as Gardner's. Some
opponents say that most IQ tests are prejudiced against specific groups, notably
those who do not fit into mainstream Western society. The language and nature of
the test items may make evaluating the intellect of persons from non- white cultures
difficult. For example, tribal have a wealth of indigenous knowledge but may need
to improve on mainstream IQ tests. This is because the examinations must
accurately represent their background, expertise, and culture.
 The sensitivity, accuracy, and predictive utility of intelligence testing for new- born
and preschooler‟s have also been questioned.
Types of Issues Regarding Intelligence Testing
Standardized testing for intelligence, or "intelligence tests," has been a point of contention for
quite some time. Professionals and academics in IQ testing have disagreed on several points.
Examples of such problems are −

 Bias and Standardization − Standardization is a key component of intelligence

testing, ensuring that all test takers receive the same treatment and are given the
same scores. Concerns have been raised, however, that these tests may have a racial
or socioeconomic bias.
 The Scope is Narrow − the cognitive abilities normally measured by intelligence
tests are limited to verbal and nonverbal skills, memory, problem-solving, and
reasoning. However, intelligence is a multifaceted entity, and current tests may only
be able to capture some of those dimensions.

The Science of Intelligence Testing

Various perspectives have been put forth on what constitutes intelligence and how it ought to be
evaluated. As a result, there is no agreed-upon definition of intelligence, and findings from various
tests may vary.
Overreliance
It has been suggested that IQ tests be used more frequently in formal settings like schools and
workplaces. Since then, people have been unfairly judged based on their test scores.

Privacy
People worry that their test findings will be shared or used in ways they did not anticipate or
approve of. Intelligence testing is a contentious issue, and the results should be interpreted with
caution due to its inherent flaws and complexities.

Benefits
The potential drawbacks and problems of IQ tests and their advantages must be considered. The
use of IQ tests is sometimes criticized, yet there are also potential benefits to administering them.
These advantages include, but are not limited to −

 Individuals with learning or cognitive challenges like ADHD or dyslexia can be

identified through intelligence testing and provided with the support they need.
 Education and career advice can be gleaned from the results of intelligence tests
because they reveal a person's strengths and areas for improvement.
 Intelligence tests provide an objective measure of cognitive ability, which is
beneficial in situations where subjective evaluations may be skewed or incorrect.
Identifying Talented People
Gifted people can be found with the use of intelligence tests so that they can enroll in the right
classes and get the help they need to flourish. It is possible to examine cognitive talents and brain
function with the help of intelligence tests. This knowledge can be applied to developing those
abilities.

Practical Implications of issues regarding Intelligence Testing

There is apprehension that IQ tests cannot adequately capture all facets of intelligence because
they only measure a few cognitive talents. Another problem is that IQ tests may yield conflicting
answers based on competing beliefs about intelligence and how it should be measured. In practice,
there are a few different ways to deal with questions of how to measure mental capacity −
  The best way to get a full picture of a person's strengths and weaknesses is to employ
various assessment tools, including IQ tests, interviews, and observations. Doing so
can lessen the impact of intelligence tests' flaws and biases.
 Consider the test-takers cultural background when deciding how to evaluate their
intelligence. One way to do this is to use tests that consider the individual'sculture.
 Using intelligence tests that have been tested on a wide range of people and found
to be valid and reliable across a variety of groups is crucial.
 To ensure that test results truly reflect the abilities of individuals with disabilities,
it is vital to provide appropriate accommodations, such as extra time or a separate
testing venue.
 Intelligence tests should be used for their intended purposes, such as diagnosing
learning issues, directing academic and professional development, and locating
gifted individuals. Inaccurate conclusions about people can be drawn from their test
results if they are used improperly or relied on too heavily.

Children academic Performance

Children‟s academic performance is often measured with the use of standardized tests.
Achievement tests are used to measure what a child has already learned. Achievement tests
are often used as measures of teaching effectiveness within a school setting and as a method to
make schools that receive tax dollars (such as public schools, charter schools, and private schools
that receive vouchers) accountable to the government for their performance. In 2001, President
George W. Bush signed into effect the No Child Left Behind Act mandating that schools
administer achievement tests to students and publish those results so that parents have an idea of
their children‟s performance and the government has information on the gaps in educational
achievement between children from various social class, racial, and ethnic groups. Schools that
show significant gaps in these levels of performance are to work toward narrowing these gaps.
Educators have criticized the policy for focusing too much on testing asthe only indication of
performance levels.
Aptitude tests are designed to measure a student‟s ability to learn or to determine if a person has
potential in a particular program. These are often used at the beginning of a course of study or as
part of college entrance requirements. The Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT) and Preliminary
Scholastic Aptitude Test (PSAT) are perhaps the most familiar aptitude tests to students in grades
6 and above. Learning test taking skills and preparing for SATs has become part of the training
that some students in these grades receive as part of their pre-college preparation. Other aptitude
tests include the MCAT (Medical College Admission Test), the LSAT (Law School Admission
Test), and the GRE (Graduate Record Examination). Intelligence tests are also a form of aptitude
test which designed to measure a person‟s ability to learn.

Theories of Intelligence

Intelligence tests and psychological definitions of intelligence have been heavily criticized since
the 1970s for being biased in favor of Anglo-American, middle-class respondents and for being
inadequate tools for measuring non-academic types of intelligence or talent. Intelligence changes
with experience and intelligence quotients or scores do not reflect that ability to change. What is
considered smart varies culturally as well and most intelligence tests do not take this variation into
account. For example, in the west, being smart is associated with being quick. A person who
answers a question the fastest is seen as the smartest. But in some cultures, being smart is
associated with considering an idea thoroughly before giving an answer. A well-thought out,
contemplative answer is the best answer.

Multiple Intelligences

Gardner (1983, 1998, and 1999) suggests that there are not one, but nine domains of intelligence.
The first three are skills that are measured by IQ tests:

 Logical-mathematical: the ability to solve mathematical problems; problems of

logic, numerical patterns
 Linguistic: vocabulary, reading comprehension, function of language
 Spatial: visual accuracy, ability to read maps, understand space and distance
The next six represent skills that are not measured in standard IQ tests but are talents or abilities
that can also be important for success in a variety of fields: These are:

 Musical: ability to understand patterns in music, hear pitches, recognize rhythms

and melodies
 Bodily-kinesthetic: motor coordination, grace of movement, agility, strength
 Naturalistic: knowledge of plants, animals, minerals, climate, weather
 Interpersonal: understand the emotion, mood, motivation of others; able to
communicate effectively
 Intrapersonal: understanding of the self, mood, motivation, temperament, realistic
knowledge of strengths, weaknesses
 Existential: concern about and understanding of life‟s larger questions, meaning of
life, or spiritual matters

Gardner contends that these are also forms of intelligence. A high IQ does not always ensure
success in life or necessarily indicate that a person has common sense, good interpersonal skills or
other abilities important for success.

Triarchic Theory of Intelligence

Another alternative view of intelligence is presented by Sternberg (1997; 1999). Sternberg offers
three types of intelligences. Sternberg provided background information about his view of
intelligence in a conference I attended several years ago. He described his frustration as a
committee member charged with selecting graduate students for a program in psychology. He was
concerned that there was too much emphasis placed on aptitude test scores and believed that there
were other, less easily measured, qualities necessary for success in a graduate program and in the
world of work. Aptitude test scores indicate the first type of intelligence-academic.

 Academic (componential): includes the ability to solve problems of logic, verbal

comprehension, vocabulary, and spatial abilities.

Sternberg noted that students who have high academic abilities may still not have what is required
to be a successful graduate student or a competent professional. To do well as a
graduate student, he noted, the person needs to be creative. The second type of intelligence
emphasizes this quality.

 Creative (experiential): the ability to apply newly found skills to novel situations.

A potential graduate student might be strong academically and have creative ideas, but still be
lacking in the social skills required to work effectively with others or to practice good judgment
in a variety of situations. This common sense is the third type of intelligence.

 Practical (contextual): the ability to use common sense and to know what is called
for in a situation.

This type of intelligence helps a person know when problems need to be solved. Practical
intelligence can help a person know how to act and what to wear for job interviews, when to
get out of problematic relationships, how to get along with others at work, and when to make
changes to reduce stress.

Let‟s apply these theories of intelligence to the world of children. To what extent are these types
of intelligences cultivated at home and in the schools?

The World of School

Remember the ecological systems model that we explored in Lesson 2? This model helps us
understand an individual by examining the contexts in which the person lives and the direct and
indirect influences on that person‟s life. School becomes a very important component of children‟s
lives during middle childhood and one way to understand children is to look at the world of school.
We have discussed educational policies that impact the curriculum in schools above. Now let‟s
focus on the school experience from the standpoint of the student, the teacher and parent
relationship, and the cultural messages or hidden curriculum taught in school in the United States.

Parental Involvement in School: Parents vary in their level of involvement with their children‟s
schools. Teachers often complain that they have difficulty getting parents to participate in their
child‟s education and devise a variety of techniques to keep parents in touch with daily and overall
progress. For example, parents may be required to sign a behavior chart each evening to be returned
to school or may be given information about the school‟s events through websites and newsletters.
There are other factors that need to be considered when looking at parental involvement. To
explore these, first ask yourself if all parents who enter the school with concerns about their child
be received in the same way? If not, what would make a teacher or principal more likely to consider
the parent‟s concerns? What would make this less likely?

Lareau and Horvat (2004) found that teachers seek a particular type of involvement fromparticular
types of parents. While teachers thought they were open and neutral in their responses to parental
involvement, in reality teachers were most receptive to support, praise and agreement coming from
parents who were most similar in race and social class with the teachers. Parents who criticized
the school or its policies were less likely to be given voice. Parents who have higher levels of
income, occupational status, and other qualities favored in society have family capital. This is a
form of power that can be used to improve a child‟s education. Parents who do not have these
qualities may find it more difficult to be effectively involved. Lareau and Horvat (2004) offer three
cases of African-American parents who were each concerned about discrimination in the schools.
Despite evidence that such discrimination existed, their children‟s white, middle-class teachers
were reluctant to address the situation directly. Note the variation in approaches and outcomes for
these three families:

The Masons: This working class, African-American couple, a minister and a beautician, voiced
direct complaints about discrimination in the schools. Their claims were thought to undermine the
authority of the school and as a result, their daughter was kept in a lower reading class.
However, her grade was boosted to “avoid a scene” and the parents were not told of this grade
change.

The Irvings: This middle class, African-American couple was concerned that the school was
discriminating against black students. They fought against it without using direct confrontation
by staying actively involved in their daughter‟s schooling and making frequent visits to the school
so make sure that discrimination could not occur. They also talked with other African- American
teachers and parents about their concerns.
Ms. Caldron: This poor, single-parent was concerned about discrimination in the school. She was
a recovering drug addict receiving welfare. She did not discuss her concerns with other parents
because she did not know the other parents and did not monitor her child‟s progress or get involved
with the school. She felt that her concerns would not receive attention. She requested spelling
lists from the teacher on several occasions but did not receive them. The teacher
complained that Ms. Caldron did not sign forms that were sent home for her signature.

Working within the system without direct confrontation seemed to yield better results for the
Irvings, although the issue of discrimination in the school was not completely addressed. Ms.
Caldron was the least involved and felt powerless in the school setting. Her lack of family capital
and lack of knowledge and confidence keep her from addressing her concerns with the teachers.
What do you think would happen if she directly addressed the teachers and complained about
discrimination? Chances are, she would be dismissed as undermining the authority of the school,
just as the Masons, and might be thought to lack credibility because of her poverty and drug
addiction. The authors of this study suggest that teachers closely examine their biases against
parents. Schools may also need to examine their ability to dialogue with parents about school
policies in more open ways. What happens when parents have concerns over school policy or
view student problems as arising from flaws in the educational system? How areparents who
are critical of the school treated? And are their children treated fairly even when the school is being
criticized? Certainly, any efforts to improve effective parental involvement should address these
concerns.

Student Perspectives

Imagine being a 3rd-grader for one day in public school. What would the daily routine involve?
To what extent would the institution dictate the activities of the day and how much of the day
would you spend on those activities? Would always be „on task‟? What would you say if someone
asked you how your day went? Or “What happened in school today?” Chances are, you would be
more inclined to talk about whom you sat at lunch with or who brought a puppy to class than to
describe how fractions are added.
Ethnographer and Professor of Education Peter McLaren (1999) describes the student‟s typical
day as filled with constrictive and unnecessary ritual that has a damaging effect on the desire to
learn. Students move between various states as they negotiate the demands of the school system
and their own personal interests. The majority of the day (298 minutes) takes place inthe
student state. This state is one in which the student focuses on a task or tries to stay focused on a
task, is passive, compliant, and often frustrated. Long pauses before getting out the next book or
finding materials sometimes indicate that frustration. The street corner state is one in which the
child is playful, energetic, excited, and expresses personal opinions, feelings, and beliefs. About
66 minutes a day take place in this state. Children try to maximize this by going slowly to
assemblies or when getting a hall pass-always eager to say „hello‟ to a friend or to wave if one of
their classmates is in another room. This is the state in which friends talk andplay. In fact,
teachers sometimes reward students with opportunities to move freely or to talk or to be
themselves. But when students initiate the street corner state on their own, they risk losing recess
time, getting extra homework, or being ridiculed in front of their peers. The home state occurs
when parents or siblings visit the school. Children in this state may enjoy special privileges such
as going home early or being exempt from certain school rules in the mother‟s presence. Or it can
be difficult if the parent is there to discuss trouble at school with a staff member. The sanctity state
is a time in which the child is contemplative, quiet, or prayerful and is a very brief part of the day.

Since students seem to have so much enthusiasm and energy in street corner states, what would
happen if the student and street corner states could be combined? Would it be possible?
Many educators feel concern about the level of stress children experience in school. Some
stress can be attributed to problems in friendship. And some can be a result of the emphasis on
testing and grades, as reflected in a Newsweek article entitled “The New First Grade: Are Kids
Getting Pushed Too Fast Too Soon?” (Tyre, 2006). This article reports concerns of a principal who
worries that students begin to burn out as early as 3rd grade. In the book, The Homework Myth:
Why Our Kids Get Too Much of a Bad Thing, Kohn (2006) argues that neither research nor
experience support claims that homework reinforces learning and builds responsibility. Why do
schools assign homework so frequently? A look at cultural influences on education my provide
some answers.
Cultural Influences

Another way to examine the world of school is to look at the cultural values, concepts, behaviors
and roles that are part of the school experience but are not part of the formal curriculum. These are
part of the hidden curriculum but are nevertheless very powerful messages. The hidden
curriculum includes ideas of patriotism, gender roles, the ranking of occupations and classes,
competition, and other values. Teachers, counselors, and other students specify and make known
what is considered appropriate for girls and boys. The gender curriculum continues into high
school, college, and professional school. Students learn a ranking system of occupations and social
classes as well. Students in gifted programs or those moving toward college preparation classes
may be viewed as superior to those who are receiving tutoring.

Gracy (2004) suggests that cultural training occurs early. Kindergarten is an “academic boot camp”
in which students are prepared for their future student role-that of complying with anadult
imposed structure and routine designed to produce docile, obedient, children who do not question
meaningless tasks that will become so much of their future lives as students. A typical day is filled
with structure, ritual, and routine that allows for little creativity or direct, hands-on contact.
“Kindergarten, therefore, can be seen as preparing children not only for participation in the
bureaucratic organization of large modern school systems, but also for the large-scale occupational
bureaucracies of modern society.

Conclusion
Intelligence tests should be combined with other means of evaluation, such as interviews and
direct observation, to get a whole picture of a person's strengths and weaknesses. IQ tests must be
used responsibly and ethically, with a full understanding of the problems and limitations that may
arise from doing so.
Question#4: What is social development? Why is it important to
develop social skills among students?
Answer: Social development

Social development is about improving the well-being of every individual in society so they can
reach their full potential. The success of society is linked to the well-being of each and every
citizen.

Social development means investing in people. It requires the removal of barriers so that all
citizens can journey toward their dreams with confidence and dignity. It is about refusing to
accept that people who live in poverty will always be poor. It is about helping people so they can
move forward on their path to self-sufficiency.

Every New Brunswicker must have the opportunity to grow, develop their own skills and
contribute to their families and communities in a meaningful way. If they are healthy, well
educated and trained to enter the workforce and are able to make a decent wage they are better
equipped to meet their basic needs and be successful. Their families will also do well and the
whole of society will benefit.

Learning must start early in life. By investing in early learning initiatives, we can ensure a
greater degree of success amongst our citizens. Making sure that children get a good start in their
education goes a long way to increasing their success later in life.

An affordable, high quality child care system is also needed for society to succeed. When people
know that their children are being well taken care of, they can be more productive in their jobs.
When employers have good employees their business is more likely to succeed. When businesses
succeed, the economic situation of a community is improved. An investment today in good child
care programs can provide many long term economic benefits for society.

In addition, a safe affordable place to live is very important in helping people achieve self-
sufficiency. It is the focus of family life; where families can live safely, nurture their children,
build community relationships and care for aging parents. Without a decent place to live, it is
difficult to function as a productive member of society.
Other investments in people that contribute to the economic prosperity of society include youth
programs and services, post-secondary education, job creation, promotion of healthy, active
living and safe and secure communities

To reduce poverty we need to take a social development approach and invest in our people. By
investing in people we can reduce poverty. We need to go beyond looking at government to find
ways to develop our most valuable resources, our people. We need to share responsibility with
community organizations, businesses, universities and municipalities in the task of improving the
well-being of all New Brunswickers and preventing and reducing poverty.

Social Skills

Social skills or Interpersonal skills, is the ability to interact with people through effective listening
& communication. This is one of the most important skills that not only kids & children, but also
adolescents need to develop. As students serve as predictors of future success, it also becomes
necessary to develop social skills among students.

There are four types of social skills defined in a scholarly manner:

 Survival skills: Following directions, listening carefully to others.

 Problem-solving skills: Asking for help, deciding what is appropriate to do or what is

good for us or not, apologizing in front of others

 Interpersonal skills: Joining a conversation or debate, sharing your views.

Conflict resolution skills: Dealing with bullying & teasing, handling peer pressure.

From a simple hello to forgoing long-term relationships, social skills affect our everyday actions.
These are necessary for the development of children as they affect an individual‟s life.

Importance of Social Skills for Students

It is generally considered that students who have better social skills have a successful career as
well as personal life. Here in this article, we‟ll discuss what the importance of social skills for
students is & how it benefits them.

Good social skills ensure better peer relationships when children grow older. As students develop
social skills in school, hence it becomes a part of their behavior, which helps them in interaction
with people with different sectors.

Developing social skills in students prepare them for future life as it makes them prepare for a
lifetime for healthier interactions in every aspect of life.

Important Social skills for students

 Listening to others
 Making an eye-contact while talking to someone
 Using good manners
 Sharing things
 Managing Time
 Follow others‟ directions
 Co-operating & helping others
 Respect to other‟s personal space
These are some of the important social skills for students that need to be developing in them at
an early age. Good social skills play an important role in becoming a part of most of the social
groups.

Some distinct advantages of having good social skills are:

Greater efficiency

Recent studies have shown that there is a great importance of social skills in school. Effective
social skills learning in schools improve students significantly.
A good set of social skills allow children to convey their message politely. This will also decrease
the effect of stress that students might take due to the pressure of their weekly tests & quarterly
examinations.

Better Communication

Relating to different people working & studying in a group leads to more & more friendships &
with time it leads to a relationship. Having good social skills help us to face the audience when it
comes to communicating with a no. of people. This also helps students at the time of participating
in school debates or inter-house competitions.

Good Relationships

Good & healthy relationships among classmates can also help in minimizing the negative effects
of stress while boosting your self-esteem. By focusing on relationships can increase your
happiness & satisfaction while providing a better outlook on life.

These skills can take your relationship with other people to the first level of becoming friends as
these help us in building good relationships with peer groups, society, family members, & teachers.

Advanced career prospects

It is very rare that a student can remain isolated in school or classroom & still excel in studies.
Most schools look for social skills that are goal-oriented.

Happiness

Getting along & understanding others help to open many personal & career-related doors. With
these skills, social & emotional skills of students and at the same time, it reduces the levels of
emotional distress. With better social skills, an individual is considered more ethical & gets respect
in society.
So, in these ways, social skills are important to us in many definitions. These can be taught,
practiced & learned.
Question#5: Discuss the social skills of elementary level students.
Answer: Social Skill
Social skills are the ways people control their words and actions to get along better with others.

Important Social Skills for Small students And How to Teach Them
Teaching social skills for kids is one of the most complex, confusing, but rewarding aspects of
raising young children.
It‟s no secret that preschoolers and kindergarteners are naturally egocentric. Even when playing
or interacting with others, many children have difficulty sharing, empathizing, collaborating, and
cooperating.
Begin is here to help you learn eight of the most important social skills for kids, as well as how to
incorporate them into your family life.

8 Important Social Skills For students

1) Sharing
Sharing is a part of daily life. That doesn‟t mean it‟s easy!
Sharing is a difficult concept for young children to get behind. Toddlers, preschoolers, and
kindergarteners have a particularly difficult time, as they are more focused on their needs and
desires than the needs and desires of others.
This is normal. The feeling that something “belongs” to them is typically much stronger than their
desire to please others.
Even though it‟s hard to share, doing so is critical to a child‟s social skill development, as it helps
them keep and advance friendships. It‟s also a great way to bond and show appreciation.

2) Listening
Active listening is an important skill that even some adults struggle with. Properly deciphering
and absorbing information requires significant focus.
We all know this can be challenging for young kids, but active listening can strengthen their
receptive language skills (the ability to comprehend spoken language).
Receptive language skills help your child:
 Handle social interactions
 Answer questions
 Understand stories
 Comprehend what they‟re reading
 Understand gestures
While developing their social skills, your child will come to see how important it is to actively
listen when others are speaking.
Paying attention to what someone is saying and responding directly to their statements or
questions is a big part of healthy communication.

3) Following Directions
The cousin of good listening skills would be executing the instructions your child heard — a.k.a.,
following directions!
Following directions becomes particularly important once your child enters into their school years.
It‟s one thing to follow directions at home with their parents where they‟re innately comfortable;
it‟s another task entirely to follow directions from adult authority figures they may not know well.
Your child will learn how listening and following directions overlap with one another. If they listen
well, it becomes easier for them to follow directions accurately. And when they follow directions
accurately, they‟ll often be rewarded for their hard work!
Keep in mind, however, that multi-step directions are challenging for young children. To help
them develop the ability to follow directions, give them one direction at a time.

4) Collaborating and Cooperating

Similar to sharing, your child will learn how to move beyond sharing objects to sharing ideas,
stories, and work.
With good collaboration and cooperation skills, children will learn that working in a group gives
them a chance to express their ideas and listen to the ideas of others. It allows them to see that it
can be fun to work on a shared project!
This may sound simple, but for young children, cooperation can often require real effort. It will
take time for them to learn to respect others‟ opinions even when they‟re different.
By working together toward a common goal, kids can advance their sharing skills to include both
intellectual and physical (think: cleaning the dinner table with a sibling) feats.
5) Patience
How many times have you heard the cliché, “Patience is a virtue”? Well, we are here to say it one
more time!
It‟s normal for young children to be impatient. However, patience really is one of the most
rewarding social skills for kids.
Patience is critical for many things, including maintaining friendships and relationships and
achieving big goals that can only be completed over an extended period of time.
This is where the concept of delayed gratification comes into play. When you help your child
understand that good things often take time (not everything in life is microwaveable!), you nurture
them into a patient person.
Learning patience takes practice and, you guessed it, patience! Trust that it will come with time
(as everything does).

6) Empathy
When we say “empathy,” we‟re referring to the traditional definition — the ability to understand
and share the feelings of another.
Your child will learn how to appreciate the similarities and differences between their lives and
those of people they meet. They will also learn how to empathize with these people, no matter how
different they are.
For young children, this can mean small gestures.
For example, if their friend or sibling cries because your child is playing with a specific toy, your
child may pause and say, “I know you want to play, too. Don‟t be sad. We can take turns!”
But this sense of empathy will likely not appear overnight! Empathy develops over time and across
a variety of scenarios.
The easiest way to promote your child‟s development of empathy is by showing it in action. When
you extend grace to your child often, they will learn how to extend it back.

7) Respecting Boundaries
Some people require different emotional and physical boundaries than your child.
This can be a particularly difficult concept to learn, especially for very young children who receive
most of their socialization from within the household.
Likely, if your child is extroverted, they may assume everyone is OK with hugs, questions, or lots
of chit-chat. In some cases, they may be right! In others, they may accidentally cross boundaries
in their efforts to be friendly.
Teaching your child how to ask permission and identify boundaries helps them establish a sense
of respect between themselves and others. The same goes for helping them establish boundaries
for themselves.
Let your child know that it‟s OK to say no to hugs, kisses, or other displays of affection from
someone — no matter who it may be — if they feel uncomfortable. Model this idea by asking
questions yourself (“Would you like a hug?”).
When they make their boundaries clear and ask for others to do the same, it will make both parties
feel much more at-home.

8) Positivity
Working on positivity can make it exponentially easier for your child to tackle many of the other
social skills for kids we‟ve mentioned, especially patience, boundaries, listening, and sharing.
With a positive attitude, your child will find it easier to make and keep friends, succeed in school,
and achieve their goals.
The easiest way to demonstrate positivity is by modeling it. The more positive you are about your
child‟s social skill development (including their inevitable slip-ups), the more reassured and
positive they will become themselves.
 This doesn‟t mean you have to be positive all the time. In fact, a healthy amount of honest criticism
can be beneficial in helping your child learn to express their feelings.
To do this, start with your own emotions. Let them know how you‟re feeling and how you‟re
managing it in real time if you can. Kids need to know it‟s OK to be sad, angry, or mad sometimes
and how to handle it.

Social Skills for Kids Are Essential

The more your child experiences the benefits of social skills, the more intuitive these skills will
become for them. However, all children learn at different rates. With practice (and patience!), we
know they‟ll get there.
The Learn with Sesame Street app is an effective tool that helps kids learn and develop their social
and emotional skills. With the help of their Sesame Street friends, kids learn how to express their
emotions, empathize with others, and create healthy relationships.

Some examples of good social skills:

 Waiting your turn

 Asking before you take or use something that belongs to someone else
 Saying please and thank you
 Waiting in line
 Noticing how someone is feeling
 Not interrupting
 Leaving some personal space between you and someone else
 Showing kindness when someone is having a bad day
 Being excited with someone when they are having a good day
 Eating with polite manners
 Helping your friend clean up the toys you used
 Using words instead of hitting, pushing
 Telling the truth
 Respecting people‟s differences
 Considering how your actions impact other people
Examples of bad social skills:

 Someone grabs someone else's toy without asking

 Someone pushes others out of the way
 Someone interrupts others' conversations
 Someone has a tantrum when they don‟t get their way
 Someone cuts in line
 Someone speaks too loudly in places that should be quiet
 Someone leaves a mess or throws trash on the ground
 Someone takes every treat and doesn't leave any for classmates
 Someone hurts other people's feelings on purpose
 Someone lies to get what they want
 Someone excludes or teases someone because they're different
 Someone doesn‟t care how their actions impact the other people

Social skills important for kids:

Social skills are all the core skills you learn about getting along well with others. Social skills are
really important for everybody so we can treat each other with courtesy, respect, honesty, and
kindness. To understand why social skills are important for kids, think about what life would be
like without them. What if kids didn‟t wait their turn? What if people grabbed things from each
other's hands? What if people lied to get what they wanted? What if kids blurted whatever words
popped into their heads? What would happen if you couldn‟t tell if someone was happy or
angry? Without social skills, people would often be really confused or even angry. Using social
skills is how we try to live and work together with peace and kindness.

Social skills are also important for future success. Some experts argue that teaching children
good social skills is as important as teaching math and reading because the skills are such an
essential part of getting along in the world. The study of Emotional Intelligence or EQ is showing
how important social skills are for adults at work and at home. EQ helps people to cooperate and
get things done with each other and it helps people connect and have deeper relationships.
Kids learn social skills?
Social skills are important for everybody, but we learn a lot about how to use social skills as
kids. First, parents teach their children social skills about being polite, respectful, and kind through
normal life. When they wait in line, don‟t interrupt when someone is talking, smile or frown to
show their children how they are feeling, parents are demonstrating good social skills. Parents also
teach core lessons about saying please and thank you, telling the truth, using inside voices, and
many more social skills that start from early life.

When children start playing with each other, they learn social skills from other children. Social
skills around sharing, using kind words, reading how others are feeling, and taking turns are just
a few examples of how children learn social skills through play.

At school, teachers continue to teach social skills so the class can get their work done in a nice
environment. Classroom rules help children learn how to share resources, create projects together,
work out differences, etc. in ways that are kind and respectful. Teachers also teach lessons about
good traits that are important for social skills, like what are empathy, respect, and responsibility.