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—---- 1st Quarter ----—

Topic 1: Knowing Africa’s Local Culture Through Literature

Africa is called the Dark Continent because it was mysterious and largely
unknown. The term was first used by Henry M. Stanley.

History of Africa
1. Europeans arriving to Africa was the only part of African History known to
most people.
2. European states heralded their exploration of Africa in the 15th century.
3. The slave trade is notoriously the highlight of this encounter.
4. Before the slave trade was known, Europeans traded produced goods and
resources with Africans.
5. The Portuguese were the first to officially ship African slaves overseas around
1444.
6. The interaction of Europeans with Africa had a massive impact to the
Africans.
7. Even though Africans were took to slavery, many prestigious African families
got their children to study abroad.

African Culture/Tradition: 16 Most Interesting Traditions

1. Kidnapping your bride (Lakuta tribe, Sudan) - The groom kidnaps the bride
and asks permission from the bride’s parents. The father beats the groom to
show approval.
2. Khweta Ceremony (several tribes) - Boys of age are brought to a circumcision
lab.
3. Putting a price on the bride (Labola, South Africa)
4. Spitting your blessings (Maasai tribe, Kenya and Tasmania) - An example of
this is spitting at your babies as a blessing.
5. Bull jumping (Haner tribe, Utopia) - When a boy comes of age, they jump
from one bull to another, naked, to show their manhood.
6. The groom weirs a veil (Tuaregs, Algeria)
7. Women have their own houses (Gio tribe, Southwestern Congo) - The
children never live in their father’s house.
 8. Women can’t grieve elders (Suku tribe, Southwestern Congo) - When an elder
dies, they clean the forest but they never grieve.
9. Sons are raised by their uncles (Songo tribe, Northern Angola) - When boys
reach 5 to 6, they are sent to their mother’s side uncle.
10. Wealth is measured by cows (Pokot tribe, Kenya) - The number of women a
man can marry is determined through the number of cows.
11. Living with animals (Maasai tribe, Kenya and Tasmania)
12. Red sunblock
13. Hunter-gatherers
14. Beating the suitor
15. A through cleansing
16. Lip stretching

Topic 2: Literature
Literature
- A collection of oral and written works of a society
- Depicts the people’s beliefs, values, morals, aspirations, and life struggles
- Expresses ideas of permanent or universal interest

→ Types of Literature
a. Prose - In the form of sentences and paragraphs
b. Poetry - In the form of lines and stanzas

→ Kinds of Prose
a. Fiction - Created with the writer’s imagination
b. Non-fiction - Based on facts

→ Kinds of Fiction
1. Prose Allegory - The characters, ideas, and actions stand for something else
or a system of ideas with implied meaning (symbolic)
a. Fable - Characters are usually animals talking like human beings but
keeping their animal traits; moral is conveyed in the form of a proverb
b. Myths - Explains the origin of the world and humankind
c. Legends - A non-historical/unverified story handed by tradition from
earlier times and popularly accepted as historical
2. Prose Romance - Stories of high culture, chivalric, magical, and unrealistic
a. Fairy Takes - Commonplace expression and typical themes are those
which develop from stock characters such as a cruel king, cruel
 stepmother, naughty sister, magic, supernatural changes, and
restorations
3. Prose Narratives
a. Short Story - A brief narrative that concentrates on the situation and
involves 2 or 3 characters
b. Novel - An extended narrative that includes more characters and a
complicated plot
c. Novelette - Intermediate between a short story and a novel read in
one sitting
4. Prose Drama - Written in dialogues and intended for presentation by actors
a. Comedy - Amused by its humorous speech and ends happily
b. Tragedy - Morally significant struggle which ends disastrously

→ Kinds of Non-Fiction
1. Essays - A short piece of writing that tells a person’s thoughts or opinions
about a subject
2. Journals - A book where you write down your personal experiences and
thoughts
3. Memoirs - A written account in which someone (such as a famous performer
or politician) describes past experiences
4. Diaries - A book where you write down your personal experiences and
thoughts each day
5. Documentaries - A movie or TV program that tells the facts about actual
people and events
6. Scientific Papers - Done in an organized way that agrees to the methods and
principles of science
7. Biographies - An account of a person’s life written by someone else
8. Autobiographies - An account of a person’s life written by that person

→ Kinds of Poetry
1. Narrative Poetry - Tells a story in richly imaginative and rhythmical language
a. Epic - A long narrative poem divided into distinct parts and episodes
bound together by a common relationship to a great hero
b. Ballad - A short narrative poem intended to be sung
2. Lyric Poetry - Expresses personal thoughts and feelings
a. Ode - A poem that deals with a serious theme such as immortality
b. Elegy - A poem that can be distinguished by its subject—death
c. Song - Melodious quality required by the singing voice
d. Sonnet - A poetic form of fourteen rhymed lines producing a single
emotional effect
 3. Dramatic Poetry - Portrays life and character through action in powerful and
emotion-packed lines

Topic 3: Context Clues

Clues
- Hints
- Hidden meanings

Context Clues
- Hints found within a sentence, paragraph, or passage that a reader can use to
understand the meanings of new or unfamiliar words

→ Types of Context Clues

1. Definition/Description Clue
- New term may be formally defined or sufficient explanation may be
given within the sentence or in the following sentence
- Clues to define include “that is”, commas, dashes, and parenthesis
- Example:
His emaciation*, that is, his *skeleton-like appearance, was
frightening to see.
2. Example Clue
- An example might be found nearby of an unfamiliar word
- Words like “including”, “such as”, and “for example” point out example
clues
- Example:
Piscatorial* creatures, such as flounder, salmon, and trout, live
in the colder parts of the ocean.
↪ *Piscatorial refers to fish
3. Synonym Restatement Clue
- It repeats an idea expressed in familiar words nearby
- Example:
Flooded with spotlights—the focus of all attention—the new
Miss America began her year-long reign. She was the cynosure*
of all eyes for the rest of the evening.
↪ *Cynosure means attention of people
4. Contrast/Antonym Clue
- An opposite meaning context clue contrasts the meaning of an
unfamilar word with the meaning of a familiar term
 - Words like “although”, “however”, and “but” may signal contrast clue
- Example:
When the light brightens, the pupils of the eyes contract;
however, when it goes darker, they dilate.
5. Mood/Tone Clue
- The author sets a mood and the meaning of the unknown word must
harmonize with the mood
- Example:
The lugubrious* wails of the gypsies matched the dreary
whistling of the wind in the all-but-deserted cemetery.
↪ *Lugubrious means sorrowful
6. Experience Clue
- Sometimes a reader knows from experience how people or things act
in a given situation. This knowledge provides the clue to a word’s
meaning
- Example:
During those first bewildering weeks, the thoughts of a college
freshman drift back to high school where he was “in”, knew
everyone, and felt at home. A feeling of nostalgia* sweeps over
him.
↪ *Nostalgia means reminiscing memories from the past
7. Analysis/Structure Clue
- The parts used to construct a word can be direct clues to a meaning.
Knowledge of prefixes, roots, and suffixes can aid a reader using this
type of context clue. The power of word parts lies in the ability to
combine the roots and affixes with the context in which a word is
used to discover the author’s meaning
- Example:
The somnambulist* had to be locked in his bedroom at night
for his own safety.
↪ ”Ambular” means walk and “somn” means sleep so
*somnambulist means sleepwalker
8. Inference Clue
- Sufficient clues might be available for the careful reader to make an
educated guess at the meaning
- Example:
She told her friend, “I’m through with blind dates forever. What
a dull evening! I was bored every minute. The conversion was
absolutely vapid*.”
↪ *Vapid means uninteresting
 9. Cause and Effect Clue
- The author explains the reason for or the result of the word
- Example:
She wanted to impress all her dinner guests with the food she
served, so she carefully studied the necessary culinary* arts.
↪ *Culinary means food preparation

—---- 2nd Quarter ----—

Topic 1: Modals
Modals
- Specific types of helping verbs
- Joined with the simple form of the verb
- Gives additional information about the function of the main verb that follows
it
- Used to express functions such as:
- Ability
- Probability
- Permission
- Obligation
- Advice
- Possibility
- Prohibition
- Lack of necessity

→ Rules Applied in Modals:

1. Modals can never change their form. You can’t add -s, -ed, or -ing.
2. Modals are always followed with a bare infinitive—an infinitive without “to”.
Example: I can play piano.
3. In forming questions, you will use the inversion of the modals and subject.
Examples: Must I go to bed?
Can you play the piano?
4. By adding “not”, you form the negatives of the modals.
Examples: You must not smoke in this area.
or: You mustn’t smoke in this area.
I cannot play the piano.
or: I can’t play the piano.
 5. There are perfect forms (modal + have + past participle)
Example: Anne could have played the piano well but she didn’t
practice well.
And continuous form (modal + be + V-ing)
Example: Anne might be playing the piano as we speak.
6. You cannot use one modal after another.
Example: She must can do it.
Instead: She must do it / She can do it.

Topic 2: Modals Can and Could

➔ Can and could express ability, probability, possibility, permission, request, and
prohibition.

➔ Use can and cannot or can’t in expressing ability for both general ability (something
that once you have learned you can do any time you want, like being able to read or
swim or speak a language, for example) and specific ability (something that you can
or can’t do in one particular situation like being able to lift something heavy or find
somewhere you are looking for).

Examples: She can speak three languages.

Lily can drive a motorcycle.
He can’t drive—he’s already exhausted.

➔ Use could and could not/couldn't for general ability in the past.

Examples: Jan could speak Japanese when he lived in Japan, but he’s forgotten most
of it now.
We couldn’t get to the school on time yesterday because the train was
delayed by one hour.