STUDY THE VIBRATION IN

FAILURE ROLLING BEARING

ELEMENT

JANAT RASHAD SHABAN

HASSAN JAFAR MOHAMMED

Mechanical Engineering Department

Engineering College
University of Basrah
Iraq

2022-2023
 DECLARATION

I hereby declare that this project report is based on my original work except for
citations and quotations which have been duly acknowledged.

First student:

Signature : _________________________

Name : Janat Rashad Shaban

Date : 31/5/2023

Second student:

Signature : _________________________

Name : Hassan Jafar Mohammed

Date : 31/5/2023
 APPROVAL FOR SUBMISSION

I certify that this project report “STUDY THE VIBRATION IN FAILURE

ROLLING BEARING ELEENT” was prepared by ((JANAT RASHAD
SHABAN &HASSAN JAFAR MOHAMMED)) has met the required standard for
submission in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the award of Bachelor of
Mechanical Engineering at University of Basrah.

Approved by,

Signature : _________________________

Supervisor : Assist Prof . Dr. Abdulbaseer S. Bahedh

Date : 31/5/2023
 ‫بسم هللا الرحمن الرحيم‬

‫َّللاُ أَنههُ ال إِلَهَ إِ هال ُه َو َوا ْل َمالئِكَةُ َو أُولُو‬

‫قال تعالى ‪{ :‬ش َِه َد ه‬
‫ا ْل ِع ْل ِم قَائِما ً بِا ْل ِق ْ‬
‫س ِط }‬
‫[آل عمران ‪]18 :‬‬
‫علَى أ َ ْن تُعَ ِلِّ َم ِن ِم هما‬
‫سى َه ْل أَت ه ِبعُكَ َ‬
‫قال تعالى ‪{ :‬قَا َل لَهُ ُمو َ‬
‫شدًا} [الكهف‪]66 :‬‬ ‫ع ِلِّ ْمتَ ُر ْ‬
‫ُ‬
‫صدق هللا العلي العظيم‬
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

It is with great joy and gratitude that we dedicate our graduation project to all those

who have supported and contributed to our academic journey.

First and foremost, a special thanks goes to our wonderful supervisor

Assist Prof. Dr . Abdulbaseer S. Bahedh who have imparted knowledge and

guidance during this year of study. Thanks to your teachings, we were able to

develop our skills and expand our knowledge in our field of specialization. Your

valuable contributions have been a source of inspiration and have laid a strong

foundation for our project.

We want to express our deepest appreciation to our parents who have stood by our

side throughout our studies. Thank you for the trust you placed in us and for the

continuous support and moral boost you gave us. Without you, we would not have

been able to achieve this remarkable accomplishment.

we would also like to express my gratitude to us fellow classmates who have shared

the journey of learning with us. Our collective experiences have been enlightening,

and we have greatly benefited from our intellectual interactions and discussions.

Thank you for your cooperation and contributions to our success.

With heartfelt thanks

 CONTENTS

Chapter One
1.1Preface 1
1.2 Vibration In Rolling 2
1.3 Rolling element bearing faulty 2
1.4 Typical bearing defects and spectral identification 7
1.5 Vibration analysis 8
1.6 Methods of Vibration Analysis 10

1.7 categories of Vibration Measurement 11

1.8Vibration Analysis Measurement Parameters 12

Chapter two
2.1 Introduction 17
2.2 Fast Fourier Transform 19
2.3 signal filter types 24
2.4 Types of signal Pickup 28
2.5 Sensitivity of accelerometer 32
2.6 Bearing Theory 37
2.7 Equations of bearings 39
2.8 The set up 41
Chapter three
Models of vibration analysis 45

Chapter four

Conclusions & Recommendations 56

 CHAPTER ONE

Introduction to vibrations
1.1 Preface
Mechanical oscillations around a point of equilibrium. These oscillations
may be periodic, like the movement of a pendulum, or random, like the
vibration of tires on a bumpy road. Vibrations are sometimes "desirable". For
example, the movement of a tuning fork, a loudspeaker that multiplies the
sound vibrations and vibrations needed to correct the performance of various
instruments. Often, the vibrations are undesirable, as they can be a waste of
energy and cause noise. For example, vibrations from motors, generators, or
any mechanical device are often undesirable. Vibrations caused by
imbalances in the movement of rotating parts, even friction, during gear teeth
meshing, etc. Professional designs consider minimizing vibrations as much
as possible. It is necessary to say that there is a close connection between the
study of sound and the study of vibrations. Sound is "pressure waves" that
are generated by vibrating objects (such as the vocal cords), and these waves
can also vibrate objects such as the eardrum. Thus, the solution to noise
problems is often related to trying to reduce the vibrations that cause it.
Vibrations can be described both in intensity by amplitude and in periodicity
by frequency. the vibration time waveform captured from a moving
mechanism. The time waveform is complicated by its speed-varying
movement. The peak amplitude can be observed to be approximately 0.12 g,
which was induced when the mechanism started to move. The root-mean-
square (RMS) value, which represents the “effective” signal level, is roughly
0.007 g demonstrates the frequency spectrum of the same signal. The
dominant frequency is 30 Hz, which means the majority part of the
mechanism movement vibrated 30 times per second.

1
1.2 Vibration in rolling machine
Mechanical vibrations are oscillating motion that occurs during the
operation of rotating equipment (pumps, compressors, steam and gas turbines,
etc.) and its components (bearings, shafts, gears, etc.), bears, belts and other
elements that make up the rotating mechanical and electrical systems.
The application of vibration analysis and its impact on rotating mechanical
equipment or during its maintenance operations aims to detect and identify
faults in it so that they can be repaired before their exacerbation. If vibration
is not detected, it may cause unforeseen malfunctions with an unlimited time
period and lead to an increase in the maintenance cost or loss of the machine.
Among the most important applications and analysis of vibration of a rotating
machine is the detection of misalignment of the shaft of the machines and their
imbalance, which may cause these matters to damage or deteriorate the rotor
shaft and the axes of its bearings and then the machine itself.
Finally, it is necessary to pay attention to the topic of mechanical vibrations
due to their significant negative impact on the performance of rotating
equipment (centrifugal pumps, gas, steam, wind turbines, etc.), which lead to
shortening the expected service life of the components of rotating equipment.
But the process of regular maintenance of the equipment is considered a very
important process because it leads to the detection of faults and defects that
cause the generation of vibration and repair before it becomes a major
problem, which leads to prolonging and maintaining the operational life of the
rotating equipment and reducing the expenses of operation and maintenance.
1.3. Rolling element bearings faulty
Rolling element bearings are a common component in machinery.
Therefore, they have received great attention in the field of condition
monitoring. Rolling element bearings are manufactured by assembling

2
different components: The rolling elements, the outer ring and the inner ring,
which are in contact under heavy dynamic loads and relatively high speeds.
The Hertzian contact stresses between the rolling elements and the rings are
one of the basic mechanisms that initiates a localized defect. When a rolling
element strikes a localized defect, an impulse occurs, and this excites the
resonances of the structure. The vibration signature of a damaged bearing
consists of exponentially decaying ringing. These impulses will occur with a
period determined by the location of the defect, the geometry of the bearing
and the type of bearing load.
As a type of widely used universal component in mechanical equipment,
rolling element bearings directly affect the dynamic performance, running
accuracy, reliability, and service life of the whole equipment. Hence, it is
necessary to diagnose and detect the faults in rolling bearings, to prevent early
failure. The fault development of rolling element bearings is usually a
dynamic process, and the fault degree gradually increases from a low level.
The early damage detection is in demand not only for high precision machines
but also for general engineering equipment because minor faults often can
lead to large faults or catastrophic results. However, the rolling element
bearings should be replaced when the fault reaches a certain degree.
Therefore, the service life of mechanical equipment can be extended, and
production costs can be lowered through the quantitative diagnosis of fault
degree in rolling element bearings.
With the development and improvement of the fault diagnosis technology
for rolling element bearings, research on the fault diagnosis of rolling bearings
has attracted considerable attention, and various new methods are being
proposed [1]. Sopanen [2,3] found that the diameter clearance has a significant
effect on the level of vibration as well as on the natural frequencies using a

3
dynamic model of a deep-groove ball bearing. Sassi [4] developed a new
application called bearing toolbox to simulate the vibratory response of
bearings to the excitations produced by localized defects. Zimroz [5]
developed a technique based on adaptive schur filter for bearing local damage
detection.
The method is well-suited to analyze the nonstationary signals and it is
potentially to use in bearing and gearbox monitoring. Zimroz et al. [6] also
proposed a novel method of time–frequency map enhancement and further
processing for feature extraction in local damage detection. It can clearly
detect the local damage. But detection of cyclic impulses related to damage is
not possible for that original raw vibration signal contains strong non-
informative contribution. Tadina [7] improved a comprehensive model of a
ball bearing to obtain the vibration response due to different sizes of localized
defects. Petersen [8] developed a method for calculating and analyzing the
quasi-static load distribution and varying stiffness of a radially loaded double
row bearing with a raceway defect of varying depth, length, and surface
roughness.
Moazen [9] proposed a bearing model that takes the finite rolling element
size into consideration. While, some progress in the quantitative faults
diagnose of bearing has been achieved by the researchers in China and other
countries. Antoni et al. [10] proposed a method of modulation intensity
distribution that can help to estimate the size of bearing fault, while it requires
a relative long times in the diagnose process. Dowling [11] revealed a
phenomenon similar to double impacts in fault signals of rolling bearings
owing to phase changes. In the following year, Epps [12] discussed the
phenomenon in more detail. They noted that the double impacts occurred
when the ball rolled in and out of the fault.

4
The first impact is considered the step response of low-frequency components,
and the second one is the impact response of high-frequency components.
Sawalhi [13] used the method of minimum entropy deconvolution (MED) and
spectrum kurtosis (SK) to analyze the experimental signals of bearing faults
with considerable noise. The results showed that the double impact
phenomenon can be clearly attributed to fault signals of the outer ring of the
bearing after de noising treatment. Randall [14] used the minimum entropy
deconvolution method to separate the impulses from entry into, and exit
process from an individual fault, which give information on the fault size.
Then they find that the entry procedure of the damage zone is step signal but
the exit is impulse.
Baydar and Ball [15] examined whether acoustic signals could be used
effectively to detect the various local faults in gearboxes using the smoothed
pseudo-Wigner Ville distribution with three types of progressing local faults.
Result indicated that acoustic signals are very effective for the early detection
of faults. Recently, Jiang [16] used signal complexity and morphological
filtering method to analyze the fault signals of rolling bearing quantitatively.
Shen [17] adopted a diagnostic method based on Support Vector Regression
(SVR) to diagnose bearing faults quantitatively.
A bearing fault severity measurement method based on the Lempel–Ziv
complexity and the continuous wavelet transform was proposed by Hong. The
result indicated that the Lempel–Ziv complexity was proportional (for outer
race faults) or inversely proportional (for inner race faults) to fault size
(severity) for all rotational speeds [18]. Several time–frequency analysis
methods are compared and analyzed in the quantitative diagnosis of outer race
fault based on the Lempel–Ziv complexity [19].

5
Zhao [20] combined the approximate entropy theory with the Empirical
Mode Decomposition (EMD) algorithm. The method to distinguish between
the step components and impact components was realized through empirical
mode recombination of the components. The existence of double impact
phenomenon was further verified, and it was feasible to realize quantitative
diagnosis through separation methods. Kong [21] extracted the double
impacts from bearing faults by using Ensemble Empirical Mode
Decomposition (EEMD) and complex morlet wavelet method. Wang [22]
proposed a new adaptive dictionary based on matching pursuit algorithms to
construct the atoms with double impact components. Good results were
obtained in the fault diagnosis using experimental and engineering signals,
with research on algorithms constituting the majority of these. However,
faults in rolling bearings still need to be quantitatively analyzed from the
aspect of bearing defective mechanism. Randall et al created a dynamic model
of a gearbox that compared to lumped parameter models and reduced finite
element method. And the dynamic model was used to simulate the vibration
signals in the presence of local inner and outer race faults. While this paper
just highlights the plausibility of fault simulation in machine condition
monitoring [23]. Patil developed a mathematical model for the ball bearing
vibrations due to defect on the bearing race. With this model the effect of the
defect size and its position have been simulated and also the spectral
components have been predicted. But the prediction of the actual amplitudes
of vibration is not possible by the model [24]. Ahmadi established a double-
row spherical roller bearing model and applied it to the quantitative
performance analysis of bearings and investigated and explained the path of a
rolling element in the defect zone and the nature of the entry and exit events
of the two main features that appear in the vibration signal of a defective

6
bearing [9,25]. Singh analyzed the contact force of the rolling element entry
and exit of the defect with the explicit finite element method. The finite
element model presented in the paper can be used to investigate the vibration
characteristics of bearings with more complex defect geometries [26]. To
diagnosis the bearing fault quantitatively, not only the dynamic model should
be developed but also the experiment signal have to be analyzed.
1.4 Typical bearing defects and spectral identification:
Below are the most typical bearing defects and their identification in the
frequency spectrum:
• Outer race defects: the spectrum is characterized by the presence of
harmonic peaks of the outer race failing frequency (between 8 and 10
harmonics of the BPFO).
• Inner race defects: the spectrum shows several harmonic peaks of the inner
race failing frequency (usually between 8 and 10 BPFI harmonics) modulated
by sidebands at 1x RPM.
• Ball or roller defects: they are characterized by the presence in the spectrum
of harmonics of the rolling element deterioration frequency (BSF). In most
cases, the harmonic of greater amplitude usually indicates the number of
deteriorated balls or rollers. They are usually accompanied by defects on the
races.
• Cage defects: are characterized by the presence in the spectrum of the cage
failing frequency (FTF) and its harmonics. Generally, a defect in the cage is
accompanied by defects in the races and the FTF usually modulates one of
these race failure frequencies leading to sums and/or differences of
frequencies.

7
• Defects of multiple components: it is quite common to find bearings with
multiple deteriorated components, and in such case multiple failing
frequencies and their corresponding harmonics will appear.
• Looseness: we can distinguish the following types: o Excessive bearing
internal clearance. Usually features a spectral signature characterized by the
presence of synchronous vibration (rotating speed harmonics),
subsynchronous vibration (0.5x RPM) and non-synchronous (1.5x RPM,
2.5xRPM, 3.5x RPM, etc.). These frequencies sometimes can be modulated
by the FTF. o Looseness between bearing and shaft. Several rotation
frequency harmonics appear and normally the dominant one is the 3x RPM. o
Looseness between bearing and casing. It presents several harmonics of the
rotating frequency, being the peaks at 1x and 4x RPM the ones with higher
amplitudes.
• Bearing misalignment: as already mentioned in the chapter about
misalignment, spectral signatures are characterized by the presence of
vibration at various harmonics of the rotating frequency, with the amplitude
being the most significant at NB x RPM, where NB is the number of rolling
elements in the bearing.
• Inadequate lubrication: lubrication problems are characterized by high
frequency vibration (between 1 kHz and 20 kHz), with bands of peaks spaced
apart from each other, due to the excitation of the resonance frequencies of
the bearings in these frequency ranges.
1.5 Vibration analysis
At some point in its life cycle an electro-mechanical device, such as an electric
motor, will demonstrate vibration beyond a normal tolerance range. Vibration
causes are numerous, including electromagnetic or mechanical imbalance,
loose components, bearing issues, rubbing parts or resonance, refer to

8
Information Sheet, Electric Motor Vibration Definitions and Sources within a
Motor. Whatever the reason, it should be corrected quickly when detected and
certainly during a routine maintenance cycle. Vibration problems can be
irritating or a warning of impending failure. The strategy is to identify the
vibration issues before equipment fails.
Vibration analysis is the process of measuring the vibration levels and
frequencies of the electric motor and using the results to analyze how healthy
the motor and its connected equipment is versus normal tolerance. The
manner in which vibration is determines vibration can be complex, but it all
starts with using an accelerometer to measure vibration. All motors vibrate to
some degree, an accelerometer attached to the motor generates a voltage
signal that corresponds to the amount of vibration and the frequency of
vibration the machine is producing, usually how many times per second or
minute the vibration occurs.

Fig.1-1: vibration signals

Data collected from the accelerometer is fed into software specific to vibration
analysis. The software logs the signal is two ways:

9
• Waveform - Signal recording amplitude versus time, figure 1A
• Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) - Amplitude versus frequency. Power spectral
density (PSD) uses FFT to compare random vibration signals that have
different signal strengths, fig.1.
All this data is analyzed by computer program algorithms. Engineers
trained in vibration analyst determine the condition of the motor and highlight
potential issues such as looseness, unbalance, misalignment, lubrication, etc.
1.6 Methods of Vibration Analysis
Accelerometers are still the primary measuring tool for collecting vibration
data. However, latest technology and enhancements in sensor technology now
permit non-contact vibration detection. High speed laser sensors can detect
vibration movements accelerometers could not enable much more accurate
and localized analysis.
Vibration analysis to predict the state of a motor usually covers specific data
in four principal areas:
a) Time Domain
When a vibration signal is picked up from a transducer (device that converts
a physical quantity into an electrical signal) and displayed on the screen of an
oscilloscope, it’s called a waveform. This signal is in the time domain. The
time domain is amplitude plotted against time. While most machine vibration
issues are detected using spectrum analysis, some types are more easily seen
in the waveform.
b) Frequency Domain:
When the waveform discussed earlier is subjected to spectrum analysis, the
end result is a picture of frequency vs. amplitude, known as a spectrum. The
spectrum is in the frequency domain like the vibration is in the time domain.

10
Most in-depth analysis of machinery vibration is done in the frequency
domain or using spectrum analysis.
c) Joint Domain
As vibration signals vary with time, calculating more than one spectrum at
once can be useful. To do this, a joint time technique called Gabor-Wigner-
Wavelet can be utilized. This technique is used to calculate variations of the
fast Fourier transform, including short-time Fourier transform (STFT).
d) Modal Analysis
Modal analysis uses a computer model to input measured frequency
responses in a motor. The computer model can be displayed with animations
of all the different vibration modes. Adjustments can be made to the model by
adding or subtracting various criteria such as mass and rigidity to analyze the
effects on the motor.
1.7 Categories of vibration measurement
The overall level of vibration can be detected by laying your hand on a running
motor. The next step is Spectral Analysis using FFT, Common Applications
for spectral analysis include the rotational speed of a shaft or how often tooth
meshing occurs on a pair of gear wheels. Other measurements include:
a) Discrete Frequency Monitoring: In this process the vibration within a
distinct part of the motor is measured.
b) Shock Pulse Monitoring: This is the use of handheld monitors using a
natural frequency to detect rolling bearing vibrations.
c) Kurtosis Measurement: This measures the vibration spikes of random
signals. Kurtosis can monitor fatigue in roller bearings.
d) Signal Averaging: Signals change with time and signal averaging in
spectrum analysis demonstrates the level of signal at each frequency. Low

11
frequencies measurements require a greater average time to obtain a statically
accurate spectrum reading.
e) Cestrum Analysis: Cestrum analysis separates repeated patterns in the
spectrum analyst that can get lost in the sidebands, It is used to look at the
interactions of rotating components.
1.8Vibration Analysis Measurement Parameters
The methods used to measure and identify vibration are summarized in the
three primary parameter groups:
• Acceleration - Important data for identifying high frequency vibrations, see
figure 1C.
• Displacement - Used to measure low frequencies of rotating mechanical
components including motor rotors, see figure 1D.
• Velocity - Velocity relates to the destructive component of vibration for
both high and low frequencies
Vibration analysis is a process that monitors vibration levels and investigates
the patterns in vibration signals. It is commonly conducted both on the time
waveforms of the vibration signal directly, as well as on the frequency
spectrum, which is obtained by applying Fourier Transform on the time
waveform.
The time domain analysis, on chronologically recorded vibration waveforms,
reveals when and how severe the abnormal vibration events occur, by
extracting and studying parameters including but not limited to root-mean-
square (RMS), standard deviation, peak amplitude, kurtosis, crest factor,
skewness and many others. Time domain analysis is capable of evaluating the
overall condition of the targets being monitored.

12
In real world applications, especially in rotating machinery, it is highly
desirable to incorporate the frequency spectrum analysis in addition to time
domain analysis. A complex machine with many components will generate a
mixture of vibrations, which is a combination of vibrations from each rotating
components. Therefore, it is difficult to use only time waveforms to examine
the condition of the critical components such as gears, bearings and shafts in
a large rotating equipment. Frequency analysis decomposes time waveforms
and describes the repetitiveness of vibration patterns, so that the frequency
components corresponding to each component can be investigated.
Additionally, the well-established Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) technique
facilitates fast and efficient frequency analysis, as well as the design of various
digital noise filters.
Vibration can be measured through various types of sensors. Based on
different types of vibrations, there are sensors designed to measure
displacement, velocity and acceleration, with different measuring
technologies, such as piezoelectric (PZT) sensors, microelectromechanical
sensors (MEMS), proximity probes, laser Doppler vibrometer and many
others.
PZT sensors, the most commonly used sensor, generate voltages when
deformed. The voltage signals can be digitalised and translated to represent
the vibrations. When selecting suitable vibration sensors, the vibration
levels/dynamic range and maximum frequency range/bandwidth should be
considered, as well as the other operating environment such as temperature,
humidity and pH level.
Sensor installation is critical for ensuring that high quality data is recorded.
The recommended method for installing sensors is to stud mount the sensor
on a flat and clean surface on the machine. This ensures that a broad and

13
smooth frequency spectrum is captured. When stud mount is not applicable,
magnet holders, wax or glue can be adopted as substitutions with vibration
levels and frequencies considered.
Vibration signals are usually below 20 kHz, except for certain vibration
resonances that can reach beyond that. In practice, the sampling rate should
be carefully chosen, to make sure that the bandwidth containing frequencies
of interest are captured. Additionally, the recording length for one
measurement should be at least several periods of the lowest speed of the
machines.
Time domain vibration analysis is able to monitor vibration levels. Acceptable
operation vibration limits can be pre-defined either through long-term
operation and maintenance history or through referring to established
standards. If the limit is breached, this could be that the overall health
condition of the machine is deteriorating, and defects have developed.

Frequency domain vibration analysis excels at detecting abnormal vibrating

patterns. For instance, a crack that has developed on a roller bearing outer race
will lead to periodic collisions with bearing rollers. In time waveform, this
information is usually hidden and masked by the vibration from other sources.
By studying the frequency spectrum, the periodicity of the collisions can be
discovered and thus detect the presence of bearing faults.
Effective vibration analysis first begins with acquiring an accurate time-
varying signal from an industry standard vibration transducer, such as an
accelerometer. The raw analog signal is typically brought into a portable,
digital instrument that processes it for a variety of user functions. Depending
on user requirements for analysis and the native units of the raw signal, it can
either be processed directly or routed to mathematical integrators for

14
conversion to other units of vibration measurement. Depending on the
frequency of interest, the signal may be conditioned through a series of high-
pass and low-pass filters. Depending on the desired result, the signal may be
sampled multiple times and averaged.
If time waveform analysis is desired in the digital instrument, it is necessary
to decide the number of samples and the sample rate. The time period to be
viewed is the sample period times the number of samples. Most portable
instruments also incorporate FFT (Fast Fourier Transform) processing as the
method for taking the overall time-varying input sample and splitting it into
its individual frequency components. In older analog instruments, this
analysis function was accomplished by swept filters. There are a large number
of setup parameters to consider in defining the FFT process: [27] lines of
resolution, [28] maximum frequency, [29] averaging type, [30] number of
averages, and [31] window type. All of these interact to affect the desired
output, and there is a distinct compromise to be made between the quality of
the information and the time it takes to perform the data collection.

Fig.1-2: typical signal path

15
Chapter Two
Signal Processing

16
2.1 Introduction
Vibration analysis is one of the most effective tools used to check the health
of plant machinery and diagnose the causes. The health of machines is
checked by routine or continuous vibration monitoring with sophisticated
instruments, giving an early indication of a possible failure and offering
countermeasures to avoid a possible catastrophic event. The paper presents
some vibration analysis techniques, and different combinations of these, in
order to offer a framework for predictive maintenance of rotating machines
and represents an extended and enhanced version of [32].
Vibration monitoring problem consists of machines con-diction and the
change rate of its behavior. It can be ascertained by selecting of a suitable
parameter for deterioration measuring and recording its value for further
analysis. This activity is known as condition monitoring. The great parts of
the defects encountered in the rotating machinery give rise to a distinct
vibration pattern, or” vibration signature”. Vibration monitoring can record
and identify vibration” signatures” for monitoring rotating machinery.
Vibration analysis is applied by using transducers to measure acceleration,
velocity or displacement, depending on the frequencies making the object of
the analysis. Careful scrutiny and deep study of vibration” signature”
eliminate different fault possibilities and concludes to single fault. A logical
and systematic approach has proved successful in diagnosing the basic causes.
This applies to small, medium, large, direct cou-pled machines, motors,
pumps, generators, turbo-machinery fans and compressors.
Some machines are directly coupled to motor or some through gear boxes.
Sometimes, the vibration monitoring makes use of different change detection
(CD) techniques. From statistical point of view, these techniques identify
changes in the probability distribution of a stochastic process. The problem

17
involves both detecting whether or not a change has occurred, or whether
several changes might have occurred, and identifies the times of such changes
produced. These techniques can be classified either as time, frequency or time-
frequency domain based algorithms. They are based on distance measures,
artificial intelligence, fuzzy logic, statistical differences, etc., applied on the
original signals or on the preprocessed signals, in order to amplify the changes
in their dynamics. Presently, the CD problem represents a key point, when
preventive maintenance is replaced by predictive maintenance.
Some features, among the amplitude levels in the time do-main, are easily
extracted and classified, but they are affected by noise. Energy distribution in
the time-frequency domain [33], involving more operations, can lead to more
robust change detection in vibrating signal dynamics. Also, parametric signal
processing algorithms can be used for change detection if there is an accurate
model of the signal, in a selected representation space. However, the
approach, based on modeling techniques, has limitations as well. The time-
frequency analysis (TFA) [34], in comparison with the time-domain analysis,
usually provides a simpler interpretation and comprehension of nonstationary
signals, with large application in vibration monitoring. The idea is to analyze
the behavior of the energy distribution (ED), i.e., the distribution of energy at
certain instant or certain frequency band or more generally [33], in some
particular time and frequency region. The results can represent a starting point
in solving CD problems. So, new analysis facilities in CD problem solving,
are offered by the usage of the entropy based measures, such as Kullback-
Leibler distance, R´enyi distance, and Jensen difference, adapted to the time-
frequency plane [35]. The paper is organized as follows. Section II refers to
maintenance approach, while Section III presents the condition monitoring
problem in predictive maintenance. Section IV has as subject change detection

18
in vibration monitoring and is followed, in Section V, by a general view on
the main signal processing techniques involved in vibration monitoring, with
application in predictive maintenance of rotating machines. Section VI
discusses different approaches in change detection of vibration signals based
of signal processing techniques presented in Section V. Finally, in Section VII
are discussed two case studies having as object fault detection in rolling
element bearings (REB), and in a rotating machine, an industrial pump.
2.2 Fast fourier transform:
Any waveform is actually just the sum of a series of simple sinusoids of
different frequencies, amplitudes, and phases. A Fourier series is that series
of sine waves; and we use Fourier analysis or spectrum analysis to deconstruct
a signal into its individual sine wave components. The result is
acceleration/vibration amplitude as a function of frequency, which lets us
perform analysis in the frequency domain (or spectrum) to gain a deeper
understanding of our vibration profile. Most vibration analysis will typically
be done in the frequency domain.

Fig.2-1 the frequency domain (or spectrum) to gain a deeper understanding of our
vibration profile.
Fourier analysis works by “testing” for the presence of each frequency
component. A discrete Fourier transform (DFT) multiplies the raw waveform
by sine waves of discrete frequencies to determine if they match and what
their corresponding amplitude and phase are. A fast Fourier transform (FFT)

19
is just a DFT using a more efficient algorithm that takes advantage of the
symmetry in sine waves. The FFT requires a signal length of some power of
two for the transform and splits the process into cascading groups of 2 to
exploit these symmetries. This dramatically improves processing speed; if N
is the length of the signal, a DFT needs N2 operations while a FFT needs
N*log2(N) operation.
So for example, let’s take a signal length of 1024 (2 10); the DFT needs
1,048,576 operations compared to the much more efficient FFT and its 10,240
operations. Although the execution time of an FFT will be fastest when the
signal length is some power of 2, today's computing power and modern FFT
algorithms make this time difference insignificant.
The number of discrete frequencies that are tested as part of a Fourier
transform is directly proportional to the number of samples in the original
waveform. With N being the length of the signal, the number of frequency
lines or bins is equal to N/2. These frequency bins occur at intervals (∆f) equal
to the sample rate of the raw waveform (Fs) divided by the number of samples
(N), which is another way of saying that the frequency resolution is equal to
the inverse of the total acquisition time (T). To improve the frequency
resolution, you must extend the recording time.
The fast Fourier transform (FFT) is an efficient algorithm used to compute a
discrete Fourier transform (DFT). This Fourier transform outputs vibration
amplitude as a function of frequency so that the analyzer can understand what
is causing the vibration. The frequency resolution in an FFT is directly
proportional to the signal length and sample rate. To improve the resolution,
the time of the recording must be extended; but be careful of a changing
vibration environment.

20
Simple vibration analysis in the time Domain. When analyzing vibration data
in the time domain (acceleration/vibration amplitude plotted against time)
we’re limited to a few parameters in quantifying the strength of a vibration
profile: amplitude, peak-to-peak value, and RMS. A simple sine wave is
shown below with these parameters identified:
1. The peak or amplitude is valuable for shock events but it doesn’t take into
account the time duration and thus the energy in the event
2. The same is true for peak-to-peak with the added benefit of providing the
maximum excursion of the wave, useful when looking at displacement
information specifically clearances.
3 The RMS (root mean square) value is generally the most useful because it
is directly related to the energy content of the vibration profile and thus the
destructive capability of the vibration. RMS also takes into account the time
history of the wave form.
The waveform shown in the Figure(2-2) is known as time domain. It is a pure
sinusoidal waveform, which is generated by putting a weight on one of its
blades or mass imbalance. The chart shows the magnitude of the vibration
over time.

Fig.2-2 time domain

21
Other information can be extracted from the chart above :
Period, T:
is the number of cycles per revolution. It tells us how many cycles in one
revolution. The unit is given in second or s. In the case above, the waveform
has one cycle in one revolution, T = 1s.
Frequency F:
is the number of occurrences or revolutions in one second. It is the reverse of
period. The unit is usually given by Hertz or Hz. Other units that are
commonly used are revolutions per minute or RPM and cycles per minute or
CPM . The frequency of the vibration is, F = 1 Hz or 60 RPM.
Amplitude or peak (pk):
Amplitude or peak is the amount measured from 0 magnitude to the top peak.
In this case the magnitude is 2 m/s. Amplitude is commonly used to indicate
the severity of the vibration.
Peak-to-peak or (pk-pk) :
is the amount measured from the bottom of the trough to the top of the peak.
For pure sinusoidal waveform, the value is equal to 2 times the peak value.
Root mean squared (rms):
RMS is measured by squaring the values, then averaging, and then the square
root is obtained to arrive at the value. For pure sinusoidal waveform, the value
is 0.707 x pk.
For more on the various metrics that can be picked out in the time domain.
Vibration is an oscillating motion about an equilibrium so most vibration
analysis looks to determine the rate of that oscillation, or the frequency. The
number of times a complete motion cycle occurs during a period of one second
is the vibration’s frequency and is measured in hertz (Hz). For simple sine

22
waves the vibration frequency could be determined from looking at the
waveform in the time domain; but as we add different frequency components
and noise, we need to perform spectrum analysis to get a clearer picture of the
vibration frequency.
To illustrate how an FFT can be used, let’s build a simple waveform with and
use an FFT for vibration analysis. This constructed waveform will consist
of three different frequency components: 22 Hz, 60 Hz, and 100 Hz.

These frequencies will have an amplitude of 1g, 2g, and 1.5g

respectively. The following figure shows how this waveform looks a little
confusing in the time domain and also illustrates how the signal length affects
the frequency resolution of the FFT. The function used to generate this
waveform is available to download.

Fig.2-3: the signal length affects the frequency resolution of the FFT
If we sample this wave at a 500 Hz rate (500 samples per second) and take an
FFT of the first 50 samples we’re left with a pretty jagged FFT due to our bin
width being 10 Hz (Fs of 500 divided by N of 50). The amplitude of these

23
frequency components are also a bit low. But if the range is extended to the
first 250 samples as shown then the FFT is able to accurately calculate both
the frequency and amplitude of the individual sine wave components.
Not that the “pure” waveform didn’t look confusing enough in the time
domain; but if broadband noise is added as shown in the bottom plots then the
waveform becomes even less distinguishable. This is the power of an FFT, it
is able to clearly identify the major frequencies that exist to help the analyzer
determine the cause of any vibration signal.
2.3 signal filter types
A filter is a circuit capable of passing (or amplifying) certain frequencies
while attenuating other frequencies. Thus, a filter can extract important
frequencies from signals that also contain undesirable or irrelevant
frequencies.
In the field of signal processing, a filter is a device or process that, completely
or partially, suppresses unwanted components or features from a signal. This
usually means removing some frequencies to suppress interfering signals and
to reduce background noise.
Here is a short list of terms that will be used in this tutorial. Some terms might
not be explained here, but will have an explanation later in the text.
The four primary types of filters include the low-pass filter, the high-pass
filter, the band-pass filter, and the notch filter (or the band-reject or band-stop
filter). Take note, however, that the terms "low" and "high" do not refer to any
absolute values of frequency, but rather they are relative values with respect
to the cutoff frequency.

Filtering is a tool for resolving signals. Filtering can be performed on either

analog or digital signals. Furthermore, filtering can be used for a number of
24
purposes. For example, analog signals are typically routed through a low pass
filter prior to analog to-digital conversion. The low pass filter in this case is
designed to prevent an aliasing error. This is an error whereby high frequency
spectral components are added to lower frequencies. Another purpose of
filtering is to clarify resonant behavior by attenuating the energy at
frequencies away from the resonance. This Unit is concerned with practical
application and examples. It covers filtering in the time domain using a digital
Butterworth filter. This filter is implemented using a digital recursive equation
in the time domain.
Attenuate - to decrease the amplitude of an electronic signal, with little or no
distortion.
Low-pass filter - a filter that passes low frequencies and attenuates the high
ones. which allows the low-frequency energy to pass through . It is thus used
to remove high-frequency energy from a signal. Low-pass filters have
applications such as anti-aliasing, reconstruction, and speech processing, and
can be used in audio amplifiers, equalizers, and speakers.
Low-pass filters can also be used in conjunction with high-pass filters to form
band pass, band-stop, and notch filters. A band pass filter passes a range of
frequencies while attenuating all frequencies outside of the band. A band-stop
filter (also called a band reject filter) does the opposite, attenuating signals
within its stopband while passing all frequencies outside of it. Notch filters
are a type of band-stop filter that attenuate a very narrow set of frequencies,
which can be created from a combination of low-pass and high-pass filters
with cutoff frequencies very close to each other.

25
 Fig.2-4: Representation of frequency band that is visible after Low-pass
filtering

High-pass filter - a filter that passes high frequencies and attenuates the low
ones. r is a filter which allows the high-frequency energy to pass through. It
is thus used to remove low-frequency energy from a signal. High pass filters
allow high frequencies to pass through. High pass filters are normally used in
early bearing wear detection. A high pass filter is useful to block the high
amplitude, lower frequencies to enable to “amplify” to the low amplitude
levels of early bearing wear in the higher frequencies.

Fig2-5: Representation of frequency band that is visible after High-pass

filtering

26
 Fig.2-6 :Filters in The Field of Vibration

Fig.2-7:types of filters
2.4 Types of signal Pickup
1. Displacement probe
2. Velocity transducer
3. Accelerometer

1.Displacement probe
27
The displacement transducer, also known as the "Eddy current" probe, is
usually used for low frequency measurements (below 1,000 Hz) in
turbomachinery journal bearings. PR oximeters are used to measure the shaft
radial or axial displacement. They are installed in or on the bearing caps and
detect the displacement of the shaft in relation to its rest position. An Eddy
type proximity pickup system consists of the sensor itself and a signal
conditioner. Its frequency response is excellent. They do not have a working
frequency lower limit and are used in the measurement of shaft vibration, shaft
axial position and casing expansion.

Fig.2-8: displacement transducer

Advantages of the displacement transducer:
 It measures the relative movement between the sensor tip and the
rotating shaft.
 It is particularly useful in rigid machinery where very little vibration is
transmitted from the shaft to the machine casing. This situation occurs
if the mass of the housing is of the same order of magnitude or higher
in comparison with the mass of the shaft.
 It measures both the continuous and alternating component of a
vibration signal. The continuous voltage allows physically locating the
shaft inside the bearing housing under analysis. The alternating voltage
provides information on the waveform and the vibration spectrum,

28
 which allows the diagnosis and monitoring of the evolution of any
mechanical issues.
Disadvantages of the displacement transducer:
 These transducers must be permanently installed. This is always costly,
and even impossible in certain cases.
 The frequency range is somewhat limited to between 0 Hz to 1,000 Hz.
 A signal conditioner is required.
 The displacement transducers are affected by electrical and mechanical
reading errors know as slow roll. Even small cracks in the shaft can
make the transducer interpret them as a high vibration activity.
2.Velocity transducer
Velocity transducers are based on transforming the physical velocity
(or speed) of a rotating shaft into an electrical signal. The shaft velocity
v is however the derivative function of its angular position:
V=da/dt
It follows therefore that it is possible to measure velocity by using a
position transducer and calculating the rate of change of its output
variable. This leads to a classification of velocity transducers into two
distinct types as shown in Table 5.l. The latter category, being derived
from position transducers, is also based on the use of encoder disks to
produce either optical, capacitive or magnetic (Hall effect) incremental
transducers. The use of the potentiometer as a velocity transducer
would require interfacing to a differentiator circuit to provide the
position derivative; but these circuits are difficult to stabilize and their
use is not recommended. The angular resolution of capacitive and
magnetic encoders is poor compared with optical ones, so they do not
find wide application in the field of robotics. The optical incremental

29
 encoder and, arguably, the techno generator (The techno generator is a
direct-type velocity transducer. It is essentially the opposite of an
electric motor since its input is a rotating shaft and its output is a voltage
proportional to the input angular velocity) therefore remain the most
popular velocity transducers in the field of machine control and
robotics.

3.Acceleration pickup
In general, acceleration pickup has a main axis with which the acceleration
sensitivity becomes its maximum. It is called "Sensing Axis" and align this
axis with the desired measurement direction. Normally the sensing axis is
close to perpendicular to the mounting base surface of the pickup.
With the pickup fixed to the vibration table and if it is vibrated in the direction
of sensing axis, the pickup will provide rating output. Next, if the pickup is
mounted on the vibration table with inclination angle θ for the sensing axis
and vibrated, the output (SVθ) will be rating output multiplied by cos θ
30
,Output for the sensing axis will be SVθ*cosθ. If the θ is brought to 90
degrees, the output is supposed to become zero however, because of the
existence of the Transverse Sensitivity (i.e. Sensitivity in any given direction
perpendicular to the sensing axis), there will be some output. In the case of
pickups offered by ACO, the lateral axis sensitivity is less than 5%.
Triple axis pickup is very useful since it can measure the vibration in 3 axis
simultaneously. It is a convenient sensor to obtain composition of acceleration
in 3 axes, or to measure and evaluate human body exposure to the vibration
of machinery.
New product, 3 axis 10 mm X 10 mm, was developed in reply to the need to
use the pickup at measurement site where only small mounting space is
available. It contains preamplifier yet it is small and easy to connect.

Fig.2-9:acceleration pickup
Particle acceleration at magnetized purely perpendicular relativistic shocks in
electron–ion plasmas is studied by means of two-dimensional particle-in-cell
simulations. Magnetized shocks with the upstream bulk Lorentz factor γ1 ≫
1 are known to emit intense electromagnetic waves from the shock front,
which induce electrostatic plasma waves (wake field) and transverse
filamentary structures in the upstream region via stimulated/induced Raman
scattering and fila mentation instability, respectively. The wake field and
filaments inject a fraction of the incoming particles into a particle acceleration
process, in which particles are once decoupled from the upstream bulk flow
by the wake field and are picked up again by the flow. The picked-up particles
are accelerated by the motional electric field. The maximum attainable
Lorentz factor is estimated as for electrons and for ions, where α ∼ 10 is
determined from our simulation results. α can increase up to γ1 for a weakly
31
magnetized shock if γ1 is sufficiently large. This result indicates that highly
relativistic astrophysical shocks such as external shocks of gamma-ray bursts
can be an efficient particle accelerator.
2.5 Sensitivity of accelerometer:
The ratio of change in acceleration (input) to change in the output signal. This
defines the ideal, straight-line relationship between acceleration and output
(Figure 10, gray line). Sensitivity is specified at a particular supply voltage
and is typically expressed in units of mV/g for analog-output accelerometers,
LSB/g, or mg/LSB for digital-output accelerometers. It is usually specified in
a range (min, typ, max) or as a typical figure and % deviation. For analog-
output sensors, sensitivity is radiometric to supply voltage; doubling the
supply, for example, doubles the sensitivity.
Sensitivity change due to Temperature is generally specified as a % change
per °C. Temperature effects are caused by a combination of mechanical
stresses and circuit temperature coefficients.

Fig.2-10:Nonlinearity is a measurement of the deviation of an

accelerometer response (illustrated in black) from a perfectly linear

32
 response (in gray). This graph is for illustration purposes only and does
not show real accelerometer data.

An Accelerometer is a Sensor which has the ability to sense vibration

acceleration. The SI unit of Acceleration is m/s^2 . The Acceleration due to
gravity is denoted as ' g '. The Acceleration due to gravity i.e 1 g is 9.81
m/s^2.
This output is also called the sensitivity of the accelerometer. Since the
Voltage is typically small, it is denoted as milli Volts or mV. Thus, the
sensitivity of an accelerometer (its output) is denoted as mV/g.
Thus, when you buy a vibration sensor with a sensitivity of 100 mV/g, it
means:
1. The Voltage output will be 100 mV peak when the acceleration is 1 g
peak
2. The Voltage output will be 100 mV peak-peak when the acceleration
is 1 g peak-peak
3. The Voltage output will be 100 mV RMS when the acceleration is 1 g
RMS.
4. The Voltage output will be 200 mV peak when the acceleration is 2 g
peak
The Sensitivity of an accelerometer does not remain fixed at all frequencies
and at all temperatures. Thus, the sensitivity is reported at a nominal
frequency of 80 Hz and at a temperature of 22 Deg Celsius. Usually, the
sensitivity varies by +/- 5% over the frequency range and thus manufacturers
report sensitivity as 100 mV/g +/- 5%

33
Based on the application, accelerometers of 50 mV/g or 500 mV/g output
can also be used. However, 100 mV/g sensitivity is the most popular type of
accelerometer used in vibration instruments and analysis.

With the variety of vibration sensors available, choosing the right one for your
application can be difficult. You’ll need to determine the characteristics of the
machine and the operating environment as well as the sensor specifications.
There are several factors that need to be taken into consideration before you
proceed to checkout.
Overall vibration level
Before investing in a sensor, you should familiarize yourself with the
vibration levels of the machine. What are the typical vibration levels, and what
are the highest levels? At what frequencies do the faults you want to detect
occur? Answering these questions will help you figure out the sensitivity and
acceleration range best suited to your application.
For most rotating machinery, with overall vibration levels up to 10 g rms, a
standard 100 mV/g accelerometer will capture the data you need. For these
sensors, an 80 g range is typical and adequate for most applications. It’s
important that the highest vibration levels of the machine do not exceed the
acceleration range of the sensor, because high amplitude vibrations can
cause sensor load .This leads to signal clipping and distortion over the entire
operating frequency of the sensor.
Frequency range
If the frequency range of interest isn’t already known, you can usually
determine it by evaluating data from similar systems or applications or by
placing a test sensor at several locations on the machine. You’ll also need to
know the fault frequencies you want to be able to detect. Most industrial

34
machinery vibrations have signal components of interest at frequencies much
higher than running speed; exactly which frequencies these will be depends
on the type, number and placement of the component parts of the machine,
the specific faults you want to detect, and other factors. After determining the
frequency range of interest, make sure the sensor’s bandwidth can capture the
high frequency requirement. If the frequency is higher than what the sensor
can measure, the signal becomes corrupted and readings are
unreliable.There’s a tradeoff between sensitivity and frequency range – high
sensitivity accelerometers are better for measuring lower frequencies, and low
sensitivity accelerometers capture higher frequencies.

Fig.2-11: Sensor sensitivity vs. frequency response

Consider using high-frequency, low-sensitivity sensors for monitoring
bearings for roller element defects, measuring gear mesh fault frequencies, or
other high frequency applications. On slow-speed machinery, low-frequency
(0.1 to 10 Hz), high-sensitivity sensors are preferable for monitoring overall
machine vibration. However, 100 mV/g accelerometers are a good, cost-
effective option for most applications.
Temperature range
Standard industrial accelerometers with built-in electronics can withstand
temperatures up to 120°C (248°F). Any higher and you run the risk of

35
damaging the sensor’s electronic components, which will result in unreliable
data and shorter sensor lifespan.
If the ambient temperature exceeds 120°C, a high temperature sensor designed
to operate up to 150°C (302°F) without loss of performance should be used
instead. Determine if any thermal transients are present near the installation
point, because these can cause metal case expansion and interfere with
measurement accuracy. Above 150°C, you’ll generally need a charge mode
accelerometer without internal electronic circuitry and a charge amplifier.
Additionally, check sensor specifications for sensitivity variation with
temperature to make sure it’s acceptable for your measurement requirement.
Operating temperatures close to the upper limit of the sensor’s range may not
outright damage the electronic components but can certainly affect
measurement accuracy.
Environmental factors
There are environmental factors other than temperature to take into account.
What are the humidity levels of the area where the sensor will be installed?
Are any dusts, gases, liquids, or corrosive chemicals present that could
contaminate or damage the sensor?
The hermetic seal standard on modern accelerometers helps prevent intrusion
of contaminants or moisture. If there are flammable contaminants (dusts,
vapors or gases, fibers) present where the sensor will operate, make sure the
sensor you choose has the appropriate hazardous location certification.
Check for any nearby sources of electromagnetic or radio frequency
interference (EMI or RFI, respectively) or electrostatic discharge (ESD). The
accelerometer should be EMI/RFI shielded and built to withstand ESD up to
20 kV.

36
Mounting locations
The space available to mount the sensor must be taken into consideration. If
there’s less space around the machine, a side exit sensor can be a better choice
to allow enough room for a cable run. Dual-output or triaxle accelerometers
take multiple measurements from a single point and can be a good option
where space is limited.

2.6 Bearing Theory

In recent years, bearing theory has garnered significant attention in the field
of mechanical engineering, primarily due to its vast applications in a wide
array of industries. This theory is crucial in understanding how to minimize
friction and improve the efficiency of rotating machines, making it
indispensable in the design and optimization of equipment. A comprehensive
knowledge of bearing theory is necessary for engineers and researchers alike
to effectively address the complexities of modern machinery. Furthermore,
understanding both the practical and theoretical aspects of bearing theory,
such as choice of materials and lubrication systems, can lead to breakthroughs
in technology and overall improvements in machine performance.
Bearing theory has significantly shaped the advancements in the engineering
and manufacturing worlds. This fundamental concept provides the basis for
understanding how stationary and rotating mechanical systems interact with
precision and efficiency. By exploring the key principles and applications of
bearing theory, we can appreciate its importance and ubiquitous presence in
everyday machinery. Furthermore, this foundational knowledge aids
engineers in developing more reliable and innovative solutions for an
increasingly technological society.

37
Bearing theory is an essential concept in both mechanical and structural
engineering, as it explains the behavior of load-bearing components under the
influence of applied force. Understanding this principle allows engineers to
design and manufacture stronger, more efficient systems to support various
loads. Various factors can influence a bearing's capacity and performance,
such as material choice, geometric design and application-specific conditions.
Evaluating all of these factors is key to the successful implementation of
bearing theory in real-world situations, enabling optimized solutions that cater
to the unique challenges presented by each application.
Bearing theory is a pivotal aspect of engineering and design, playing a crucial
role in the functioning of various machines and equipment across numerous
industries. This theory encompasses the understanding, selection, and
maintenance of bearings to enhance performance and ensure durability. As
technology advances, new solutions and innovations emerge in the bearing
industry, placing even more focus on its importance. Mastering bearing
theory, therefore, is key to building and optimizing efficient systems that
operate smoothly in today's competitive landscape.
2.7 Equations of bearings
The basic purpose of a machine bearing is to provide a near frictionless
environment to support and guide a rotating shaft. Two general bearing styles
are utilized at this time: the journal bearing and the rolling element bearing.
For lower horsepower and lighter loaded machines, the rolling element
bearing is a popular choice.
Until the 1940's, journal bearing was the prevalent style used on machines. As
metallurgy and machining techniques progressed, the rolling element bearing
gained greater usage. Today many of the smaller process support machines
have rolling element bearings.

38
2.7.1 Bearing element frequency calculation
Although modern rolling element bearings are very precisely machined, they
do have micro-defects which are potential sites for future damage. Due to the
precise tolerances, improper installation practices can reduce bearing life.
Extensive information has been compiled about bearing defect frequencies.
Below lists the bearing defect frequency formulas for a defect on the balls
or rollers, outer race, inner race, and cage. The assumption for these formulas
is that the outer race is stationary while the inner race rotates.
If the bearing dimensions are known, the individual bearing defect
frequencies can be calculated precisely, or a general rule of thumb can be
applied. Using the generalized form the inner race frequencies would be N x
RPM x 60% and the outer race frequencies would be N x RPM X 40%. If the
bearing manufacturer model numbers are known several computer programs
are available to calculate the necessary frequencies.

Fig.2-12:explain the equations

Below Fig.2-13: scheme explain parts of bearing

39
Where FTF=Fc , BSF=Fb, BPFI=Fi and BPFO=Fo
component FTF BSF BPFI BPFO
½ in RB 0.378 1.992 4.95 3.048
5/8 in RB 0.378 1.992 4.95 3.048
¾ in RB 0.378 1.992 4.95 3.048
1 in RB 0.402 2.322 5.43 3.572

THE COMPONENT USING IT IS 3/4 in RB.

At 1500 RPM:
Type of Frequency Value
FTF 25 * 0.378 =9.85 Hz
BSF 25*1.992 =49.8
BPFI 25*4.95 =123.75
BPFO 25*3.048 = 76.2

40
 At 1800 RPM :
Type of Frequency Value
FTF 30 * 0.378 =11.34 Hz
BSF 30*1.992 =59.76
BPFI 30*4.95 =148.5
BPFO 30*3.048 = 91.44
2.8 Expermental set up
In this topic we will talk about our set up and the devices used as shown
below:

sensors
Mass

Motor

bearing

Data
shaft acquisition
system

Fig.2-14 experimental setup

2.8.1 Mass
The mass one of the setup, we are adding or removing as needed.
2.8.2 Shaft
In general, a rotating member used for the transmission of power.
2.8.3 Motor
The purpose of using rolling bearings in electric machines is to support and
locate the rotor, to keep the air gap small and consistent and to transfer loads
41
from the shaft to the motor frame. The bearings should enable high and low
speed operations, minimize friction, and save power. The designer has to
consider many different parameters when selecting the bearing type and
arrangement to meet the requirements of any particular motor application.
Under all circumstances, the design should be economical from both a
manufacturing and a maintenance perspective.

2.8.4 bearing
Bearings are "parts that assist objects' rotation". They support the shaft that
rotates inside the machinery. Machines that use bearings include automobiles,
airplanes, electric generators and so on. They are even used in household
appliances that we all use every day, such as refrigerators, vacuum cleaners
and air-conditioners. Bearings support the rotating shafts of the wheels, gears,
turbines, rotors, etc. in those machines, allowing them to rotate more
smoothly. In this way, all sorts of machines require a great many shafts for
rotation, which means bearings are almost always used, to the point where
they have become known as "the bread and butter of the machine industry".
At first glance, bearings may seem like simple mechanical parts, but we could
not survive without bearings.
2.8.5 Data acquisition systems
Data acquisition systems have evolved over time from electromechanical
recorders containing typically from one to four channels to all-electronic
systems capable of measuring hundreds of variables simultaneously. Early
systems used paper charts and rolls or magnetic tape to permanently record
the signals, but since the advent of computers, particularly personal
computers, the amount of data and the speed with which they could be

42
collected increased dramatically. However, many of the classical data-
collection systems still exist and are used regularly
2.8.6 Sensors
According to the research and analysis of rolling bearing faults in the past ten
years, we conclude that the installation positions of sensors for detecting
rolling bearing faults can be classified as external and internal. Sensors
installed externally for fault detection mainly include sensors for vibration
signal detection, that is, vibration sensors [42].sensors that detect temperature
signals—temperature sensors [43],sensors used to detect acoustic emission
signals—acoustic emission sensors [44]. In addition, the acquired images are
analyzed and diagnosed, including vibration images, acoustic images, spectral
images, and infrared thermal images [45]

Fig.2-15:facede of signal tool program

43
 Chapter three

Models of vibration analysis

44
3.1 Introduction
In this chapter the analysis of vibration signal gained from different cases is
to be analysis. As mentioned in chapter two, the method of analysis depends
on the FFT analysis. There are different cases taken on MFS which will be
discussed in this chapter.
The style of bearing is typically monitored using a case mounted transducer:
an accelerometer or velocity pickup. A displacement sensor observing the
shaft relative vibration would show little, if any, vibration due to the vibration
node created by the bearing.
Using signal integration techniques, found in many industrial data collectors,
specific frequency ranges relating to certain defects can be emphasized.
Acceleration signals, obtained from case mounted sensors, emphasize high
frequency sources, while displacement signals emphasize lower frequency
sources, with velocity signals falling between the extremes. Recent
innovations for determining bearing condition are Acceleration Enveloping,
Spectral Emitted Energy (SEE), and Spike Energy. These measure high
frequency resonances generated by bearing defects. As a trended variable, in
conjunction with other parameters such as displacement, velocity or
acceleration, they can give the earliest indication of bearing defects.

45
 FTF
1/2fn

Fn

BSF 4*BSF

2BSF

Fig.3-1:ball fault at 1500RPM

The fundamental frequency is 1500 r.p.m of rotating machine, the ball spin
frequency is 49.8 Hz as referred in spectrum 1 ,it double at frequency 99.6 Hz
and double it again to be 4*BSF at frequency 199.2 Hz which gives well
illustrated of ball fault, since the BSF corresponding with other its
complications appear so that mean ball fault.It has a unbalance which appear
in the spectrum analysis corresponding with fundamental frequency.

½ fn
fn BSF

2*BSF

Fig.3-2:ball fault at 1800 RPM

46
The fundamental frequency is 1800 r.p.m of rotating machine, the ball spin
frequency is 49.8 Hz as referred in spectrum 2 above at fig.2 ,it doubles at
frequency 119.52 Hz .there is a frequency outside the frequencies that
represents a nuisance due to errors get from device or the conditions of the
experiment or human errors .
½ Fn
Fn

BPFO
BPFI
2* Fn 8* Fn

4*Fn

Fig.3-3:compound fault at 1500 rpm

The fundamental frequency is 1500 r.p.m of rotating machine. there is
appear many fault types ½ fn = 12.5 Hz, 2*fn equal to 49.8Hz ,BPFO
=76.2Hz ,4*fn=100Hz ,BPFI=123.75Hz and 8*fn =200Hz.

47
 Fn
2*Fn

BPFO
BPFI

Fig.3-4:compound fault at 1800 rpm

The fundamental frequency is 1800 r.p.m of rotating machine. there is
appear two fault types then 2*fn equal to 59.76Hz ,BPFO =91.44Hz
,BPFI=148.5Hz and 8*fn =200Hz.the fig.4 appear good corresponding to the
natural spectrum .

48
 FN

½ BPFI

½ FN
BSF
BPFO 3/2 BPFI
4FN
BPFI

Fig.3-5: inner fault at 1500 RPM

1500 RPM inner fault 5HZ indicated at BPFI at 123.75HZ showed at the fig.5 and indicated
fundamental frequencies FN like that BSF, BPFO this gives good indication where it appeared
BPFI and half BPFI at 61.8 HZ and 3/2 BPFI at 185.6HZ.
The more dominant fault is inner race fault, but there are some where peak associated with
outer race fault and bas spin fault as shown in fig.5

49
 FN

3/2 FN
½ FN
½ BPFI

3/2 BPFI
BSF
BPFO BPFI

Fig.3-6:inner fault at 1800RPM

1800 RPM inner fault indicated BPFI at 148.5 HZ and half BPFI at 74.25HZ and 3/2BPFI at
222.75HZ as in fig this give good indication on fault .at 30HZ indicated FN as BSF at 59.76,
BPFI at 91.44HZ.
The more dominant fault is the inner race fault, but there are some where peak associated
with outer race fault and pas span fault as shown in fig.6

50
 FN

½ BPFO

2FN BPFO

Fig .3-7: outer fault at 1500RPM

1500 RPM outer fault indicated BPFO at 76.2 HZ and half BPFO at 38.1HZ clearly this give
good indication on fault. Fundamental frequencies indicated at 25HZ.
The more dominant fault is the outer race fault, without showing another fault as shown fig
7.

51
 1/2 BPFO
FN

5/2 FN

3/2 BPFI

½ FN
BPFO BPFI

Fig.3-8: outer fault at 1800RPM

1800 RPM outer fault indicted BPFO at 91.44HZ and half BPFO at 45.72Hz showed in fig
as indicated BPFI at 148.5HZ and 3/2BPFI at 222.75HZ. Since the BPFO indicted clearly
this give good indication on fault. As fundamental frequencies FN is indicted at 30HZ.
The more dominant fault is the outer race fault, but there are some where peak associated
with inner race fault as shown in fig.8.

52
 FN

1/2 BPFO

1/2 BPFI

BPFO
3/2 BPFI
½ FN 2FN 4FN
BPFI

Fig.3-9: normal operation condition fault at 1500RPM

1500 RPM pure fault indicted BPFO at 76.2 Hz and half BPFO at 38.1 Hz and indicted BPFI
at 123.75 Hz and half BPFI at 61.875 Hz and 3/2 BPFI at 185.625 Hz and indicted
fundamental frequencies FN at 25Hz. Tis give good indication on fault.
The more dominant fault is the outer race fault, but there are some where peak associated
with inner race fault as shown fig.9.

53
 FN

1/2 BPFO

1/2 BPFI

½ FN 3/2 BPFO

BPFO BPFI 2BPFO

Fig.3-10: normal operation condition fault at 1800 RPM

1800 RPM pure fault indicted BPFO at 91.44 Hz and half BPFO at 45.72 Hz and 3/2
BPFO at 137.16 Hz, and indicted BPFI at 148.5 Hz and half BPFI and fundamental
frequencies FN is indicted at 30 Hz this give good indication on fault.
The more dominant fault is the outer race fault, but there are some where peak
associated with inner race fault as shown fig 10.

54
 Chapter Four
Conclusions & Recommendations

VIBRATIONS

55
 4-1 Conclusions
A data acquisition system, and machine fault simulator are used to verify faults in
bearing of rotating machine by using signal processing techniques based on FFT. The
proposed methods, experimental works, and results help in drawing some
conclusions. These conclusions are as follows:
1- The faults in the bearings and their components can be easily
detected based on the FFT and all the diagrams have shown this
clearly.
2- Different rotation speeds are examined which shown also good
indications of bearing elements faults in either 1500 RPM or
1800 RPM.
3- It is possible to track the different spectrums and their multiples,
which increased the process of investigation and discovery, as
well as tracking, beyond any doubt, in detecting the type of
defect.
4-2 Recommendations
1- In addition to vibration signal to increase the availability of
detecting the fault types of rotating machine others physical
parameters like temperature, oil pressure, sound, etc. should be
analyzed.
2- Increase the number of vibration pickup in more than one direction
either in board or out board to increase the process of fault detection.

56
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