Technical Paper

New casting process - the EPGS Process: the

science and technology of castings production
Rafael Cuesta & Jorge Martín of Fundacion CIDAUT, Summaries of presentations
Spain & José Antonio Maroto of Fundacion CIDAUT & ‘Non conventional view of aluminium casting’,
by Jordi Tartera, Polytechnic University of
Aleaciones Ligeras Aplicadas, Spain. Catalonia
Jordi Tartera has a long history of work in casting
This paper summarises the contents of the High Quality Castings research and industry. During his presentation
Seminar celebrated in CIDAUT, Spain in March 2007. he made a detailed analysis of the state-of-the-
art production of high performance aluminium
castings. The presentation reviewed the pros and
Introduction
cons of the most novel processes, such as those
The Seminar, which was held at CIDAUT’s headquarters in
based in counter-gravity filling versus the more
Boecillo gathered professionals from the casting industry,
traditional techniques such as high pressure
foundrymen and suppliers alike. Both scientific and
die casting or gravity casting. The speaker
engineering aspects of casting processes were covered
emphasised the need to avoid the entrainment
and the efficient use and integration of advanced product
of oxides into the bulk liquid in order to ensure
performance and process simulation tools was shown as one
maximum casting quality.
of the keys to drive scientific and technical knowledge into
success. Tartera focussed particularly on semisolid
processes, presenting, for instance, the
Four presentations were given on updated techniques
thixomoulding route (fig. 1a), and other
and concepts to enhance the added value of cast products.
processes such as the New Rheocasting
The presentations were by Prof John Campbell and Dr John
or the Sub Liquidus Casting (fig. 1b), both
entrainment of oxides, particularly in those alloys prone to form a solid oxide skin, such as
T Berry and featured the leading Spanish casting researcher,
having in common the injection of a semisolid
Jordi Tartera as well as Rafael Cuesta, this last, representing
aluminium alloys.
CIDAUT.
slurry previously cooled from liquid state. As
was commented, one key point in semisolid
CIDAUT, the Foundation for the Research and Development
processes is to achieve a slurry with globular
in Transport and Energy, is a multidisciplinary Research
microstructure prior to injection. This structure is
In particular a new casting process, developed by CIDAUT, the EPGS process, which features an
and Development Centre working in a broad spectrum of
retained in the final casting (fig.1c).
technical fields, with a special focus in the industrial sectors
electromagnetic pump linked up to a DISAMATIC sand moulding machine, was presented.
of transport and energy and it employs more than 300
The speaker also underlined the need for
accurate modelling packages as a fundamental
people. In 1998, the Foundation set up a working group for
aid for the foundry engineer in all aspects of
the optimisation and development of casting processes.
The advantages of the integrated product-process development were presented with two real
The R&D activities achieved the group’s first big milestone
casting, but in particular for filling, due to the
importance of this for casting quality. (1,2)
with the launching of an aluminium foundry, Aleaciones
case studies, namely a grey iron disc and an aluminium differential case produced using the
Ligeras Aplicadas, ALA, (Applied Light Alloys), which
‘Liquid metal
EPGS process. In both cases a new part was successfully produced
collaborated in the organisation of the seminar and one of damageabefore
achieving weightandreduction
after
pouring – some recent observations’, Dr John
the presentations was about a new aluminium process which
compared with the original component. This reduction wasBerry
is now being employed in this foundry.
particularly
Mississippilarge
State in the differential
University (USA)
case, which was actually more than 50% lighter in the newDraluminium
Some real case studies of cast components that have been design
Berry presented thanon the
concepts original
the link between
developed were presented, making use of the concepts and
molten metal handling operations, the evolution
version in cast iron.
tools previously explained. This paper summarises the most
of solidification and the properties of final
relevant technical contents of the seminar and in particular castings. He made an invaluable analysis of
focuses on the development of a grey iron ventilated brake experimental results of porosity in aluminium
disc and a high quality aluminium differential case produced alloys gathered in research work over 15 years.
using a multidisciplinary approach for the optimisation of the His colleagues Sergio Felicelli and Rogelio Luck
For more information about CIDAUT and its activities please visit: www.cidaut.es
process. were co-authors of the work.

(a) a) (b) b) (c)c)

Fig. 1 Two of the semisolid processes explained by J Tartera: (a) thixocasting and (b) the more recent Sub Liquidus Casting; (c) microstructure of
Figure 1 TwoCasting
a Sub Liquidus of thepart.
semisolid processes
(Taken from ) (2) explained by J. Tartera: (a) thixocasting and (b) the more recent Sub
Liquidus Casting; (c) microstructure of a Sub Liquidus Casting part. (Taken from [2]).
66 FTJ March 2008
 Technical Paper
John started his presentation introducing the
criteria functions, which are a combination of
certain thermal variables of the solidification,
such as the gradient, the cooling rate or the
solidification time. One of the most used criteria
functions is the number of Niyama, defined as:

G
NUMS =
R Qw (1)

where G is the thermal gradient and R is the a) b)

cooling rate.
Generally speaking, the higher the number Fig. 2 (a) Upper bounds for porosity – Niyama, for a variety of aluminum cast
of Niyama, the lower the percentage of porosity alloy heats (Taken from (3)), and (b) schematic representation of the melting and
that can be expected. However, John underlined handling operations for the two different types of heats of the A356 alloy (Taken
from (4))
some of the draw backs of the Niyama number
and indeed all the criteria functions when used
for porosity predictions. He explained that these GAS
GAS
OXIDE
numbers don’t take into account the hydrogen OXIDE

content of the melt; beside this, they seem to

be applicable only to certain geometries and METAL
METAL
finally they don’t include the effect of turbulent
entrainment of oxides during the liquid metal (a) (b) (c)
handling operations. (a) (b) (c)
Fig. 2a represents the relationship between the Fig.
Figure3 3Representation
Figure
Representation of the
3 Representation
of entrainment
the entrainment
of the entrainment
of oxides
of oxides and and
gas in the bulkgas inasthe
metal bulk metalof as
a consequence a
surface
turbulence.
consequence (Figure 3asurface
reproduced from [5]) of (Fig.
oxides and gas in the bulk metal(5)as a consequence of surface
porosity percentage and the Niyama number for turbulence. (Figureof3a reproducedturbulence.
from [5]) 3a reproduced from )
several aluminium alloys, melted and handled
following different procedures. The figure shows
the relative uncertainty at the time of using the
Niyama number for porosity prediction. It is
worth noting the difference in porosity for the
heats of the A356 alloy melted in an induction
furnace and transferred to a pouring ladle, and
(a) (b) (c)
the heats of the same alloy melted and poured (a) (b) (c)
directly in the mould from a resistance-heated
ladle (fig. 2b). As fig. 2a shows, the porosity
values for these last heats are significantly lower
than the porosity values for the heats melted by
induction. In order to explain this finding, Dr
Berry pointed to the higher possibility of oxide (d) (e)
entrainment during the operations of induction (d) (e)
Figure 4 Some effects of entrainment phenomena in castings: (a) microporosity created by partially opened bifilms in
melting and transfer into the ladle. These oxides, a super duplex stainless steel (photo courtesy of John Campbell); (b) straightening of bifilms due to the precipitation
Fig. 44 Some
Figure Some effectseffects of entrainment
of entrainment phenomena phenomena
in castings: (a)in castings:created
microporosity (a) microporosity
by partially opened bifilms in
in the shape of double layer oxide film or bifilms, and
acreated
supergrowth
duplex
by
on stainless
their wetted
partially steelsides
opened
of silicon
(photo andof!-Fe
courtesy
bifilms John
in a
particles
Campbell);
super
in an(b)Al-Si
duplex
alloy, [6]; (c)
straightening
stainless
and (d):due
of bifilms
steel
toptopoured
(photo
oil pan,
the courtesy
precipitation
as defined by Prof Campbell(5), would act as and growth on their wetted sides of silicon and !-Fe particles in an Al-Si alloy, [6]; (c) and (d): top poured Zn-Al
showing
of John
light traces
Campbell);
of oxides. Peening
(b)opening
marks
straightening
arrowed
of
in (d), (taken from [7]); (e) a bubble and its trail in a oil pan,
alloy (both
lightre-inflated
traces ofafter the Peeningofmarks
the mould), [8].bifilms due to the precipitation and growth
favourable nuclei for porosity formation during showing oxides. arrowed in (d), (taken from [7]); (e) a bubble and its trail in a Zn-Al
on their wetted sides of silicon and b-Fe particles in an Al-Si alloy(6); (c) and (d):
alloy (both re-inflated after the opening of the mould), [8].
solidification. As it is known, the electromagnetic top poured oil pan, showing light traces of oxides. Peening marks arrowed in (d),
forces present in melting induction furnaces (taken from (7)); (e) a bubble and its trail in a Zn-Al alloy (both re-inflated after the
usually produce swirl-like flows in the metal opening of the mould)(8)
bath, which can actually aid oxide entrainment
into the bulk liquid. The transfer between the important defects in castings, those concerning the entrainment of
furnace and the pouring ladle could possibly oxides and gas bubbles into the bulk liquid metal. The entrainment
have a similar effect in entraining oxides. In is usually characterised by a flow that is out of control, and implies
contrast, the considerably smaller disturbance the folding of the free surface of the metal over itself. A schematic,
of the free surface of the aluminium melted and generic description
Figure 5 Running ofbythis
system explained John kind
Campbellof flow,
(taken commonly referred to as
from [10]).
poured from the resistance-heated ladle would surface
Figure turbulence,
5 Running is byrepresented
system explained in fig.
John Campbell (taken 3.
from [10]).
give fewer oxides entrained and therefore less Most of the cast alloys used in industry form a solid oxide film in
porosity. Afterwards, Dr Berry explained how the its contact with local atmosphere. In these alloys, the fold over of the
application of pressure during solidification can free surface will cause a double layer oxide film (or bifilm) to become
suppress or attenuate the mechanism of pore entrained in the liquid. The lack of bonding between the two opposite
growth, therefore compensating to a certain layers of oxide can have serious effects on the structure and therefore
extent the negative effect of the presence of on the performance of the cast part. Professor Campbell explained
bifilms. how the bifilms can be opened during solidification because of
precipitation of gas in solution and/or reduction in pressure because
‘The ten rules: theory and practice’ by Prof of shrinkage. The creation of microporosity in this way in a stainless
John Campbell steel is shown in fig. 4a. Other deleterious effects of bifilms on
During his presentation, which was divided casting quality are the generation 06-09-07,of hot
page tears under uniaxial (linear)
7/10
into two parts, Prof. Campbell made a detailed strain, or several kinds of cracks, such as those caused by the
explanation of his ten casting rules. The first part straightening of bifilms due06-09-07, to the precipitation
page 7/10 of second phases on
was devoted to the scientific background and the their metal – oxide interface, (fig. 4b). As explained, the unsuspected
second one contained practical recommendations presence of the bi-films can explain the problems of low reliability
for process improvement. of cast alloys, such as the poor ductility and low fatigue properties
commonly found in aluminium alloys and the formation of brittle
John started by introducing the so-called most
fractures in steel castings. Likewise, leak tightness is another property

FTJ March 2008 67

 showing light traces of oxides. Peening marks arrowed in (d), (taken from
alloy (both re-inflated after the opening of the mould), [8].
Technical Paper
in an early stage of the development of the
Cosworth process. Molten metal convection was
identified as the cause of the problem, which
was finally solved by rotating the mould 180º
before solidification. At the end of Campbell’s
presentation, there was a busy question time, in
which the audience questioned the Professor on
different materials and processes.

‘Multidisciplinary approach for the

optimisation and development of casting
processes’ by Rafael Cuesta, CIDAUT
Rafael Cuesta showed the methodologies that
have been developed by CIDAUT, and their
application, to achieve cast parts with a higher
added value. Cuesta explained the works carried
out by CIDAUT in different fields of casting
production, such as gravity iron casting, high
pressure die casting and aluminium sand casting.
Cuesta explained the history of the
development of a new aluminium casting
process, mentioned before, for the production
of high performance parts, namely the EPGS
process, which features an electromagnetic pump
Fig. 5 Running system explained by John Campbell (taken from (10))
Figure 5 Running system explained by John Campbell (taken from [10]). linked up with a DISAMATIC greensand moulding
machine. EPGS stands for ‘Electromagnetic Pump
Green Sand’. The pump doses the melt into
that can be seriously impaired by bifilms, as these defects can act as
the sand mould in a controlled, countergravity
an efficient leak path across the wall of the casting. To explain this
manner, keeping the velocity below the critical
defect, Campbell showed a top poured oil pan, filled under surface
values. A set of sensors measure the molten
turbulence conditions. In those areas most affected by turbulence,
metal level during the filling generating a signal
the light traces of oxide films were clearly visible in both sides of the
which is retrofitted into the system for closed
casting (figs. 4c and 4d). This almost certainly caused a leak defect in
loop control. The EPGS process has been entirely
inspection, which was finally repaired by peening (marks arrowed in
developed in CIDAUT in close collaboration with
fig. 4d).
an industrial partner, and now it is running in a
The entrained bubbles behave somewhat differently from bifilms.
commercial foundry, ALA.
Due to their higher buoyancy, the bubbles will float rapidly to the
A significant part of the Cuesta’s presentation
surface; however, in solid film forming alloys, they are likely to
was devoted to the integrated development
create a trail along its rise, leaving a long bifilm in the liquid, which
of cast parts and the inherent competitive
can actually go from the point where the bubble was first entrained
advantages. The start point of this development
to the top of the casting. Campbell presented fig. 4e, showing the
is not a plot drawing specified by the customer,
formation of a bubble trail in a zinc alloy in high pressure die casting.
as is usual, but rather is a set requirements,
As explained, the bubble trails are common in aluminium alloys too.
which can be geometrical, kinematic, dynamic,
In order to avoid the entrainment phenomena, the speaker made a
etc. The goal is, of course, to provide a part
special focus on the need to keep the melt velocity below a critical
fulfilling those requirements. Therefore,
value close to 0.5 m/s. In the case of aluminium alloys, gate velocities
the founder has to select the most suitable
higher than the critical value produce essentially weak castings(9).
material, generate the geometrical design and
Prof Campbell carried on with a detailed analysis of different
finally manufacture the part. As the speaker
casting processes, based mainly on their ability to achieve molten
explained, the integrated design can be taken
metal operations which are surface turbulence - free. The first in the
as an opportunity, since it gives more room to
ranking were the counter-gravity processes, such as the Cosworth
the provider to enhance the added value of the
process, which features an electromagnetic pump for controlled,
component, by reducing weight, for instance.
counter-gravity filling of sand moulds. Among gravity pouring
Moreover, the design of the component can
processes the tilt pouring was highlighted as the one with the biggest
be done in order to minimise or eliminate the
potential. In regard to the gravity filling systems, Campbell underlined
casting defects. In order to show the benefits
the problems associated to the widespread use of oversized down-
of the integrated product-process design,
sprues and runners, which take too long to fill, allowing the turbulent
Cuesta presented two real case studies of full
mix of molten metal and air. To avoid this, he proposed a running
components developed by CIDAUT in cooperation
system with extremely thin channels that not only saves money by
with foundries, namely a ventilated grey iron disc
increasing yield, but also gives higher quality castings because the
and a high quality aluminium differential case. In
filling channels run full, excluding air. The system is represented
in fig. 5. In addition to geometrical design recommendations, John
explained the benefit of the use of a stopper in the junction between
06-09-07, page 7/10
both cases, the objective was to produce a new
part lighter than the original version. The design,
simulation and testing work was carried out in
the cup and the down-sprue, as it is shown in fig. 5, which provides
CIDAUT and the manufacturing was made in the
a pre-priming of the system allowing a smooth, even filling of the
iron and aluminium foundries, respectively.
down-sprue.
When a car brakes, a set of physical
The last part of Prof Campbell’s speech was devoted to the rest
phenomena takes place in and around the brake
of his ten rules for castings. Among them, he emphasised the need
disc, including relatively complex processes
for having a good quality melt; he also made a recommendation to
of heat generation and transfer (generation on
use air, instead of water, to quench components as part of the heat
friction, conduction and dissipation, mainly
treatment, in order to avoid the generation of residual stresses which
by convection), beside creation of stress and
would weaken the part. Regarding convection during solidification
production of noise and vibrations. When using
and its effects, Campbell explained the porosity problems found

68 FTJ March 2008

 Technical Paper
simulation tools for design, it’s necessary
to model accurately not only those physical
phenomena alone, but also their interactions,
as those phenomena are strongly coupled.
Indeed, the stresses induced in the disc can
be substantially affected by thermal field;
moreover the material strength is lowered by (a) (b) (c) (d) (e)
the high temperatures experienced in service.
But also several comfort requirements impose
the necessity to keep noise and vibrations under
control, and, of course, the casting process
must ensure a good microstructure, particularly
in those areas of the disc with the highest
requirements. (f) (g) (h) Temperatura Teórica (i)
Temperatura medida

Cuesta presented CIDAUT’s methodology 1000

sim.
for the development of iron discs, tackling

Temperature (º C)
800
600
the aspects mentioned before, by the efficient 400 exp
.
integration of several computer simulation tools 200
0
and testing equipment. The methodology was 0 100 200
Time (s)
300 400

successfully applied for the production of a new (j) (k) (l)

disc, which featured a weight reduction of 7%
Fig.Figure
6 Development
6 Development of of aaventilated
ventilated grey
grey iron disciron
[11]: disc : (a) one of the generated
(11) of the generated CAD models (section); (b)
(a) one
compared with the original version. Fig. 6 shows materials characterisation; (c) fluid – dynamics simulation for heat convection calculation (detail of velocity field
CAD models (section); (b) materials characterisation; (c) fluid – dynamics
the most relevant stages of this development. through the disc’s blades); (d) thermomechanical simulation (temperatures); (e) thermomechanical simulation
simulation for heat convection
(stresses, detail); (f) vibratory simulation; calculation
(g) casting process (detail of velocity
simulation; (h) casting; field through
(i) prototype (section); (j) brake
Before design, the most suitable material was the disc
disc’s blades);
bench; (d) thermomechanical
(k) temperature measurement by means simulationof thermography; (temperatures);
(k) comparison between(e) modelled and
selected; after design and casting (greensand thermomechanical simulation (stresses, detail); (f) vibratory simulation; (g)
measured temperatures for a variable speed trial. (The end of the trial is arrowed).
moulding with resin bonded sand core), the casting process simulation; (h) casting; (i) prototype (section); (j) brake disc bench;
part was finally validated in a brake disc test (k) temperature measurement by means of thermography; (l) comparison between
bench. Here, several patterns of load–speed were modelled and measured temperatures for a variable speed trial. (The end of the
applied. A thermographic camera was used to trial is arrowed)
measure the temperature distribution along the
surface wall of the disc. In all cases the measured
temperature showed a very good correlation
with the one calculated by simulation, fig. 6l,
revealing the accuracy of the simulation tools
used and ensuring the full validity of the newly
developed disc.
Fig. 7 shows the development of the (a) (b) (c)
aluminium differential case, produced by the
EPGS process. The weight saving was sought
compared with an original part made in cast iron.
Besides some geometrical constraints, several
specifications had to be taken into account,
such as porosity requirements (in order to
ensure leak–tightness), mechanical strength and
vibration behaviour. The design was generated (d) (e) (f) 200 µ
following an iterative scheme considering the
specific features of aluminium, both in regard 2500
Frequency (Hz)

06-09-07, page
2000 8/10
to product and process. For each interaction, 1500 Simulation
the casting process was optimised in order to 1000 Experimental
ensure the optimum microstructure. Here, the 500
design of the part had to be modified in some 0

of the iterations in order to diminish the risk of f1 f2 f3

defects. The final design featured a more than (g) (h)

50% weight reduction over the original iron
part, (14.2 kg in iron vs. 5.9 kg in aluminium). Fig.
Figure7 Development
7 Development of aa differential
differential
casecase in aluminium
in aluminium [11]: (a)(11): (a) mechanical
mechanical simulation (displacements shown in
Once the requirements were fulfilled at a virtual, simulation
colour code and (displacements
part distorted shown in colour
accordingly); codeanalysis;
(b) modal and part (c) distorted accordingly);
process simulation (temperatures, blue the
simulation scale, the component was produced in (b) modal
coldest); (d) analysis;
casting; (e) (c) processcheck;
dimensional simulation (temperatures,
(f) microestructural analysis;blue(g) the coldest);
detail (d)with an accelerometer
of the case
ALA and successfully validated in CIDAUT. One of casting; (e)wall;
fitted to the dimensional
(h) comparisoncheck; (f) microestructural
between analysis;
the calculated and measured first(g) detail
three Eigenof the case
frequencies.
with an accelerometer fitted to the wall; (h) comparison between the calculated
the validation tests consisted in the measurement
and measured first three Eigen frequencies
of the Eigen frequencies of the part. This was
made by special arrangement where some
accelerometers measured the response of the for the Research and Development in Transport and Energy, CIDAUT,
part after a hammer-like impact (fig. 7g). Fig. 7h in cooperation with the aluminium foundry ALA, and some of the
shows a very good match between the simulated leading figures in casting research and industry.
and measured frequencies. Cuesta was able to Throughout the seminar, concepts were presented on the science
signal again the predictability of the simulation and engineering of foundry practice in order to enhance the added
tools as an essential point in the whole process value of cast products. All the speakers (fig. 8) underlined that, in the
of the component development. search of high quality cast parts, it’s essential to carefully design the
molten metal operations (handling and filling) in order to avoid the
Summary turbulent entrainment of oxides, particularly in those alloys prone to
This necessarily brief review has presented some form a solid oxide skin, such as aluminium alloys.
highlights and key points from the High Quality In particular a new casting process, developed by CIDAUT, the
Castings Seminar organised by the Foundation EPGS
Figure process, which of
8 The four speakers features an From
the Seminar. electromagnetic
left to right: Jordi pump linked
Tartera, John up toJohn
Campbell, a T. Berry and
Rafael Cuesta.

FTJ March 2008 For more information 69

Rafael Cuesta, CIDAUT

Metal Prices
Ferro-alloy and other Ferro Manganese
Technical Paper
DISAMATIC sand moulding machine, was considered.
metals Briquettes The advantages of the integrated product-process
Ferro Silicon Gross 1.80kg containing development were presented with two real case studies,
(per 1,000kilos) 75% loose 1kg available Mn, 54p per namely a grey iron disc and an aluminium differential case
in bulk (Mt) £900.00; 75% briquette (960 briquettes produced using the EPGS process. In both cases a new part
drums on pallets (Mt) per pallet). was successfully produced achieving a weight reduction
A&S compared with the original component. This reduction was
£925.00; 75% bulk bags on
particularly large in the differential case, which was actually
pallets (Mt) £915.00. more than 50% lighter in the new aluminium design than
Tennant Metallurgical Pig Iron the original version in cast iron.
Group Ltd Basic, £275.00 to £300.00. For more information about CIDAUT and its activities
Hermatite, £320.00 to please visit: www.cidaut.es
Ferro Silicon Briquettes £340.00. Nodular, £320.00 (a)
Rafael Cuesta, CIDAUT. Tel: 34 983 548035. (b)
Gross 1.2kg, containing to £340.00 email: rafcue@cidaut.es
1kg available Si, 56p per Hempel Metals
briquette (462 briquettes References
per pallet). Non-ferrous metals 1. Tartera J. ‘Non conventional view of the casting of
A&S Aluminium Alloys aluminium alloys (part I)’. Fundidores, 2007, no. 143,
LM2 £1,420.00; LM4 pp. 34-39. (In Spanish)
2. Tartera J. ‘Non conventional view of the casting of
Ferro Molybdenum £1,485.00; LM6 £1,607.50;
aluminium alloys (part II). Fundidores, 2007, no 144,
Carbon free £42.00 LM24 £1,405.00 LM25 pp. 44-47. (In Spanish)
to £44.00 per kg Mo £1,605.00; LM27 3. Berry J T, Luck R and Taylor R P. ‘Connection
contained. £1,445.00 between filling, feeding and applied pressure in cast
William Rowland aluminium alloys’. International Journal of Cast Metals
Copper Research 2006, vol. 19, no. 1, pp. 26- 31.
Ferro Vanadium Cash, Grade A, 4. Berry J T, Felicelli S and Luck R. ‘Liquid metal damage
50/80% or 70/80%, £54.00 US$7,820.00 to (d)
before and after pouring – some recent observations’, (e)
to £56.00 per kgV. US$7,820.50 presented at the High Quality Castings Seminar,
Calders Limited Boecillo, Spain, 27th March, 2007. 2500
William Rowland

Frequency (Hz)
5. Campbell J, Castings 2nd Edition, Butterworth
Heinemann, 2003. 2000
Ferro Titanium Lead Refined Pig 6. Campbell J. ‘Entrainment defects’. Materials Science
Cash: US$3,011.00 to 1500and
67/72% content, £5.75 to Technology 2006, Vol. 22, no. 2, pp. 127-145.
£7.00 per kgTi. US$3,012.00 Three 1000
7. Campbell J. Castings 2nd Edition, p 297, Butterworth
William Rowland Months: US$3,000.00 to Heinemann, 2003. © Elsevier. 500
US$3,005.00 Settlement: 8. Divandari M and Campbell J. ‘Mechanisms of bubble trail
Ferro Niobium US$3,012.00 formation in castings’. Trans. AFS 2001, Vol. 109, pp.0
70%, £45.00 to £50.00 per Calders Limited 433-442, pub 2001. © AFS 2001.
f1 f2
kg Nb contained. 9. Runyoro J, Boutorabi S M A and Campbell J. ‘Critical
Zinc gate velocities in film-forming alloys: a basis for process
William Rowland
Cash: US$2,428.00 to
(g)
specification’. Trans. AFS 1992, Vol. 100, pp. 225-234. (h)
10. Campbell J, Castings Practice: the Ten Rules of
Ferro Tungsten US$2,429.00 Three Castings, page 18, pub Elsevier, 2004.
£19.00 to £21.00 per kgW. Months: US$2,444.00 to 11. Cuesta R, Maroto A and Vazquez V. ‘CIDAUT’s high
William Rowland US$2,445.00 Settlement:
Figure 7 Development of a differential case in aluminiu
quality castings seminar’, Fundidores 2007, no.142, pp.
US$2,429.00 colour code and part distorted accordingly); (b) moda
44 - 50. (In Spanish)
Ferro Phosphorus Calders Limited
coldest); (d) casting; (e) dimensional check; (f) microestru
Acknowledgements
£425.00 to £500.00 per
tonne Tin fitted to thewant
The authors wall; (h) comparison
to thank between
Omar del Amo the calculated a
and Manuel
William Rowland Cash: US$16,900.00 to Gonzalez, from the Active Safety area of CIDAUT, for their
US$16,950.00 Three useful technical discussions on the design and validation
Months: US$16,900.00 to of components. Special thanks to John Campbell for his
Electrolytic Manganese
US$16,925.00 Settlement: invaluable comments on entrainment defects.
99.9% minimum, £3,300.00
to £3,600.00 per tonne. US$16,950.00
99.7% minimum, £3,100.00 Calders Limited
to £3,300.00 per tonne.
William Rowland Other metals
Magnesium Ingots
Metallic Chromium (10 tonne lots delivered)
99% minimum Cr, £2,600.00 to £2,900.00
£5,050.00 to £5,400.00 per tonne
per tonne. 99.5% minimum William Rowland
Cr, £5,500.00 to £6,000.00 Antimony
per tonne, 99.65% min £3,350.00 per
William Rowland tonne
AMC
Ferro Manganese
(standard) 78%, £1200.00 Nickel
Fig. 8 The four speakers of the seminar. From left to right: Jordi
to £1400.00 per tonne US$28,000.00 Tartera, John Campbell, John T Berry and Rafael Cuesta
William Rowland Calders Limited

70 FTJ March 2008