Circuit Diagram for Zero Crossing Detector :

+Vcc

-Vcc
 EXPERIMENT NO:06
ZERO CROSSING DETECTOR USING OP-AMP

Aim: To design and verify the operation of peak detector using Op-Amps
Apparatus:
SNO NAME OF COMPONENTS RATING QUANTITY
01 Op-Amp UATUI 1
02 Function Generator 3mhz 1
03 Stepdown T/F 230V/6v-12V 1
04 Diode IN 4148
05 CRO 30 MHz 1
Multi-meter [Dc voltmeter] Dual Channel
06 (200KC) 2
07 Resistors
Connecting Wires Single Lead As Required

Theory:
The zero-crossing detector circuit is an important application of the op-amp
comparator circuit. It can also be called as the sine to square wave converter.
Anyone of the inverting or non-inverting comparators can be used as a zero-
crossing detector. The only change to be brought in is the reference voltage with
which the input voltage is to be compared, must be made zero (Vref= OV). An
input sine wave is given as Vin. These are shown in the circuit diagram and
input and output waveforms of an inverting comparator with a OV reference
voltage.
For a reference voltage OV, when the input sine wave passes through zero and
goes in positive direction, the output voltage Vout is driven into negative
saturation. Similarly, when the input voltage passes through zero and goes in the
negative direction, the output voltage is driven to positive saturation. The diodes
DI and D2 are also called clamp diodes. They are used to protect the op-amp
from damage due to increase in input voltage. They clamp the differential input
voltages to either +0.7V or -0.7V.
In certain applications, the input voltage a low frequency waveform. This
means that the waveform only changes slowly. This causes a delay in time for
the input voltage to cross the zero-level. This causes further delay for the output
voltage to switch between the upper and lower saturation levels. At the same
time, the input noises in the op-amp may cause the output voltage to switch
between the saturation levels. Thus, zero crossing are detected for noise
voltages in addition to the input voltage. These difficulties can be removed by
using a regenerative feedback circuit with positive feedback that causes the
output voltage to change faster thereby eliminating the possibility of any false
zero crossing due to noise voltages at the op-amp input

Model Graph:

Output Graph:
Procedure:
1. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram.
2. Switch on the power supply.
3. Give suitable input voltage from function generator to circuit.
4. The first section of negative inputs operates as loop inverters and second
section is just a buffer for positive output. When input signal is positive
then output of first op-amp remains saturated near gnd and diode, turn
into high impedance, letting the signal to flow straight to buffer stage
non-inverted the complex result is a full wave rectified waveform of
output of buffer.

Precautions:
l. Avoid loose connections.
2. Take readings without any parallax error.
3. Don't touch the circuit with wet hands.

Result:
Hence, we verified operation of peak-detector (zero crossing detector) using
Op-Amp.
Circuit Diagram:
Low pass filter

High pass filter

 EXPERIMENT NO:07
DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT OF FIRST AND
SECOND ORDER HIGH PASS AND LOW PASS
FILTERS WITH APPLICATIONS

Aim: To design and develop first and second order high pass and low pass filters with
an application.

Apparatus:
S.NO. NAME OF COMPONENTS RATING QUANTITY
01 LM 1078 micro power dual op-amp 8 20V/5mA 1
pin type
02 Function generator 3MHZ 1
03 Step down transformer 230V/6V-12V 1
04 Diode IN4148 1
05 Resistors 200 KΩ 2
06 30MHZ dual channel 1
Cathode ray oscilloscope
07 Single lead As required
Connecting wires

Theory:
Electronic filters are circuits which perform signal processing functions, specifically
to remove unwanted frequency components from the signal, to enhance wanted ones,
or both. Electronic filters are high pass, low pass, band pass, band stop or all pass.

Active low pass filter:

The most common and easily understood active filter is Active low pass filter. Its
principle of operation and frequency response is exactly the same as those for the
previously seen passive filter, the only difference this time is that it uses an op-amp
for amplification and gain control. The simplest form of a low pass active filter is to
connect an inverting or non-inverting amplifier.

High pass filter:

A first-order active high pass filter as its name implies, attenuates low high frequency
frequencies and passes operational amplifier. signals. The It consists of a passive filter
section followed by a non-inverting filter, except frequency response of the circuit is
same as that of the passive that the amplitude of the signal is a non- inverting amplifier
increased by the gain of the amplifier and for same as for the low pass filter the value
of the pass band voltage gain is given as 1+R2/R1, the same as for the low pass filter
circuit.

Wave Forms:
High pass Filter and low pass filter
OBSERVATION TABLE:

2nd order low pass filter

Input Input Output Gain=Vo/Vin Gain in db

frequency voltage voltage =20log (Vo/Vin)
(KHZ) (Vin) (Vo)
0.1 5.44 4.52 0.827 -1.649
0.2 5.44 3.23 0.588 -4.612
0.3 5.44 2.18 0.401 -7.937
0.4 5.44 1.41 0.259 -11.734
0.5 5.44 1.02 0.187 -14.563
0.6 5.44 0.79 0.145 -16.773
0.7 5.44 0.61 0.112 -19.015
0.8 5.44 0.45 0.082 -21.723
0.9 5.44 0.39 0.071 -22.974
1.0 5.44 0.34 0.0625 -24.082

2nd order high pass filter

Input frequency Input Output Gain=Vo/Vin Gain in db =

(KHZ) voltage voltage 20log
(Vin) (Vo) (Vo/Vin)
0.1 5.44 3.97 0.729 -2.745
0.2 5.44 7.97 1.465 3.316
0.3 5.44 10.75 1.976 5.915
0.4 5.44 10.42 1.915 5.643
0.5 5.44 9.66 1.775 4.983
0.6 5.44 9.04 1.661 4.407
0.7 5.44 8.23 1.512 3.592
0.8 5.44 7.40 1.367 2.675
0.9 5.44 6.80 1.252 1.938
1.0 5.44 6.31 1.159 1.281
Applications:
1. Used in loud speakers to reduce the low-level noise.
2. Eliminates rumble distortions in audio applications so these are also called treble
boost filters.
3. These are used in audio amplifiers to amplify the higher frequency signals.
4. These are used in equalizers.

Procedure:
1. Connect the circuit diagram as shown in figure.
2. Switch on the power supply.
3. Give suitable input voltage from function generator to circuit.
4. The first section of negative input operator as a closed loop inverter(A=-1) and the
second section is just a buffer for positive output. When input signal is positive, then
output of first op-amp remains saturated near GND and diode turn into high impedance
setting, signal to flow straight to buffer stage non-inverted.
5. Observe and measure the output voltage with the help of CRO.

Precautions:
1. Avoid loose connections.
2. Take readings without any parallax error.
3. Handle equipment with-care.

Result: Hence, first and second order low pass and high pass filters and designed.
Circuit Diagram:

Model Graph:

A) Full Wave Rectifier B) Half Wave Rectifier

 EXPERIMENT NO.: 08
DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT OF PRECISION RECTIFIER
Aim: To design and verify precision rectifier using OP-AMP
Apparatus:
S No Equipment Type Quantity
01 Precision Trainer Kit Phys Tech 1
02 CRO - 1
03 Function Generator - 1
04 Connecting Wires Banana Plugs Type 1

Theory:
The precision rectifier is a configuration obtained with an operational amplifier in order to
behave like an ideal diode and rectifier. In a normal diode rectifier, the cut in voltage across
the diode will result in reduction of output voltage and inaccuracy of rectification. If ideal
rectifier is needed in an application, a precision rectifier may be used.

We can adapt the circuit by using two op-amps. The first op-amp forms a precision rectifier
as before, although the diodes are reversed. This means that the output at Va will be zero for
negative inputs and -Vi for positive inputs. The second op-amp forms an inverting summing
amplifier with an output voltage.

Precision rectifiers are measurement circuits, rather than power converters. They are used
to make accurate measurements of AC voltages. Precision rectifiers come in a huge range
of variations. Some puttee diodes in a feedback path, others use two identical on-chip diodes,
one as a reference to generate an offset. Others use clever inverting amplifier to avoid diodes.

The basic circuit implementing such a feature is shown on the right, where can be any load.
When the input voltage is negative, there is a negative voltage on the diode, so it works like
an open circuit, no current flows through the load, and the output voltage is zero. When the
input is positive, it is amplified by the operational amplifier, which switches the diode on.
Current flows through the load and, because of the feedback, the output voltage is equal to
the input voltage. The actual threshold of the super diode is very close to zero, but is not
zero. It equals the actual threshold of the diode, divided by the gain of the operational
amplifier.

Applications:
1. High signal processing
2. Suitable for audio circuits
Procedure:
1. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram.
2. Apply sine input waveform of above 1khz frequency with minimum amplitude form
signal generator to input voltage.
3. Observe the output in CRO at output voltage.

Precautions:
1. Avoid loose connections.
2. Take readings without any parallax error.
3. Don't touch the circuit with wet hands.

Result: Hence precision rectifier is designed and developed.

 ASSEMBLY OF DOL AND 3-POINT STARTER WITH NVC CONNECTIONS
AND OVERLOAD OPERATION

Aim: To perform the assembly and wiring of a DOL and 3-point starter with NVC
connections and over load operation.
Apparatus:
1. Assembly control panel of DOL and 3-point starter
2. Three Phase Induction Motor
3. DC Shunt Motor
4. Connecting Wires
Theory:
3-Point Starter:
A 3-point starter is a device that helps in the starting and running of a DC shunt
motor or compound wound DC motor (similar to a 4 point starter).Now the question
is why these types of DC motors require the assistance of the starter in the first
place? Well, it's due to the presence of back emf (Eb), which plays a critical role in
governing the operation of the motor. The back emf develops as the motor armature
starts to rotate in presence of the magnetic field, by generating action and counters
the supply voltage.Hence the back emf at the starting of the motor is zero, but it
develops gradually as the moto gathers speed.
DOL Stater:
The working principle of a DOL starter begins with the connection to the 3-phase
main with the motor. The control circuit is connected to any two phases and
energized from them only. When we press the start button, the current flows
through the contactor coil (magnetizing coil) and control circuit also.The current
energises the contactor coil and leads to close the contacts, and hence 3-phase
supply becomes available to the motor. The control circuit for a DOL Starter is
shown below.
If we press the stop button, the current through the contact becomes discontinued,
hence supply to the motor will not be available, and the similar thing will happen
when the overload relay operates. Since the supply of motor breaks, the machine
will come to rest.The contactor coil (Magnetizing Coil) gets supply even though we
release start button because when we release start button, it will get supply from
the primary contacts as illustrated in the diagram of the Direct Online Starter.
Connection Diagram of 3-point starter:

Connection Diagram of DOL Starter:

Procedure:

1. Check main MCB in off position

2. Connect main 3-Phase supply to input of 10 starter to input motor
3. Connect output of DOL. starter to input of it
4. Switch on main MCB, push on green button and observe working of starter
5. Check main DC MCB in off position
6. Connect the positive to input of 3-point starter Connect the positive to input of
1-point starter L and A to motor armature Al terminal.
7. Starter F to motor field F1 terminal
8. Connect A2 to 12 and negative of input supplies 9. Switch on main MCB and
start 3-point starter with hand lever and starter and observe working of starter

Precautions:
1. Avoid loose connections
2. Don't touch the circuit with wet hands
3. Take readings without any parallax error.

Result: The assembly and wiring of a DOL and 3-point starter with NVC
connections and overload operation is designed.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
 EXPERIMENT NO:10

WIRING OF CONTACTOR
AIM: To do the wiring of contactor and observe the working
condition.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
I. assembled panel of a contactor
2. Connecting wires.
Theory: A contactor is an electrically-controlled switch used
for switching an electrical power circuit. A contactor is
typically controlled by a circuit which has a much lower
power level than the switched circuit, such as a 24-volt coil
electromagnet controlling a 230-vblt motor switch.
Unlike general-purpose relays, contactors are designed
to be directly connected to high current load devices. Relays
tend to be of lower capacity and are usually designed for
both normally closed and normally open applications.
Devices switching more than 15 amperes or in circuits rated
more than a few kilowatts are usually called contactors,
Apart from optional auxiliary low-current contacts,
contactors are almost exclusively fitted with normally open
("from A") contacts. Unlike relays, contactors are designed
with features to control and suppress the arc produced when
interrupting heavy motor currents.
Contactors come in many forms with varying capacities
and features. Unlike a circuit breaker, a contactor is not
intended to interrupt a short circuit current. Contactors
range from those having a. Breaking current of several
amperes to thousands of amperes and 24 V DC to many
kilovolts. The physical size of contactors ranges from a device
small enough to pick. Up with one hand, to large. devices
approximately a meter (yard) on a side.
Contactors are used to control electric motors, liqhting,
heating, capacitor banks, thermal evaporators, and other
electrical loads. AC contactor is widely used in power
transmission system. Applicable to long-distance frequent
switching on. And switching end DC main circuit and large
capacity control circuit in, it main control object is all motor,
and can also be used for electric welder control, capacitor
banks, and the electric heating device, lighting equipment
and other loads. For example, power industry, industrial and
mining enterprises, iron and steel plants, and some large
power will use it. Can also cooperate with the fuse, the
dynamic air circuit breaker, thermal relay and other electrical
use, in order to better protect the line current.
An air conditioning unit is a complex system of
electronic components that must work together so that AC
contactor is widely used in power transmission system.
Applicable to long-distance frequent switching on and
switching end DC main circuit and large capacity control
circuit in it main control object is all motor, and can also be
used for electric welder control, capacitor banks, and the
electric heating device, lighting equipment and other loads.
For example, power industry, industrial and mining
enterprises, iron and steel plants, and some large power will
use it. Can also cooperate with the fuse, the dynamic air
circuit breaker, thermal relay and other electrical use, in
order to better protect the line current.
PROCEDURE:
1. Check the input MCB in OFF position.
2. Connect the circuit as shown in the diagram.
 3. Switch on the main MCB.
4. Observe the working of contactor.

RESULT: Thus we done the wiring of a contactor and

observed the working condition.