DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH DESIGN

UNIT 4
Descriptive research design is a research method that describes the
characteristics or behavior of the subjects or phenomenon that is being studied. It
involves overall overview of the variables without influencing or manipulating it in any
way. This design does not attempt to answer “why” and is not used to discover
inferences, make predictions or establish causal relationships (Bhat, 2012).

UNDERSTANDING DATA AND

Types of Descriptive Research Design

1. Descriptive Normative Survey. This type attempts to establish norms based

on a large number of survey data. It is used to describe trends in a large

WAYS TO SYSTEMATICALLY
population of individuals. The survey data may be demographic data or data on
average perception of a set of respondents.

Example: A group of researchers wants to know the profile of all principals of

COLLECT DATA
public and private schools in the Philippines, they may include in their
instruments variables like age, sex, educational attainment, IQ, languages
spoken, civil status, average family size, and others.

2. Correlational Research Study. This design is used when the researcher

SUMMARY OF SCORES wishes to find out the extent of which different variables are related to one
another. In this design, you will have two or more quantitative variables in the
DESCRIPTIVE EXPERIMENTAL DESCRIPTION PROBABILITY same group of subjects. It is design to find the similarities of the variables, not
RESEARCH RESEARCH OF SAMPLE SAMPLING a difference between their means. Correlational does not mean causation. It
DESIGN DESIGN does not follow that one variable causes to other.

Act 1: ______ Act 1: ______ Act 1: ______ Act 1: ______ Example: Finding the correlation between mental ability and grade in math;
Act 2: ______ Act 2: ______ Act 2: ______ Act 2: ______ gender and math performance; and advertising cost and sales.

3. Descriptive Evaluative Studies. This study focuses on judging the “goodness

NON- DESIGNING ESTABLISHING DATA of a criterion measure”. It can be done in short or long period of time.
PROBABILITY THE VALIDITY COLLECTION Longitudinal Studies. It is a study that establish changes in criterion
SAMPLING INSTRUMENT PROCEDURE measure over a long period of time. Example, the researchers want to
study the changes in IQ of 9-10 years old kids over a five-year period,
Act 1: ______ Act 1: ______ Act 1: ______ Act 1: ______ the researchers must test the same group of subject over the five-year
Act 2: ______ Act 2: ______ Act 2: ______ Act 2: ______ period.
Cross-sectional Studies. It is a study designed to evaluate changes
over time by comparing at the same point of time, but different subject
representing different stages. Example, the researchers test children
QUNATITATIVE DESCRIPTIVE INFERENTIAL HYPOTHESIS
IQ simultaneously, 9-10, 11-12, 13-14, 15-16, 17-18 years old to see
DATA DATA DATA TESTING
changes in criterion.
ANALYSIS ANALYSIS ANALYSIS
4. Assessment/ Evaluation Study. It is undertaken to assess the worth, success,
Act 1: ______ Act 1: ______ Act 1: ______ Act 1: ______ effectiveness, or efficiency of a certain policy, or practices when applied to a
Act 2: ______ Act 2: ______ Act 2: ______ Act 2: ______ group of subject. Assessment studies imply measurement of certain key
indicators without attaching any judgement to them, however evaluation implies

1
putting judgment and valuing too the measurements obtained. Assessment and

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evaluation always go together for one cannot go together without basis for such.
Student’s Name: ______________________ Strand/Yr/Section: _________
Parent’s Signature: ____________________ Date: ___________________

Example: A research on measuring the effectiveness of K-12 program six years
from today on the basis of such factors such as cost, efficiency and impact on
quality.
5. Descriptive Comparative Studies. This is a study design to establish a formal
procedure to compare and conclude that one variable is better than the other if
significant difference exists. It endeavors to find the significant differences
between two or more groups of subjects on the basis of a criterion measure.
Example: gender (male vs. female), preschool attendance vs. no preschool
attendance, or children with working mom and without working mom.
OUR BRAIN NEEDS EXERCISES. DO THIS!
True or False. Write T if the statement is correct and F if the statement is
incorrect. Write your answer on the space provided before each number.
_______ 1. Descriptive research design focuses more on the “what” of the research
subject rather than the “why” of the research subject.
_______ 2. Assessment/evaluation study is a study which focuses on judging the
“goodness of a criterion measure”.
_______ 3. Correlational research attempts to find out how one variable causes changes
to other variable.
_______ 4. Descriptive comparative desired to determine significant difference between
two or more variables.
_______ 5. Correlational research study determines similarities between variables.
_______ 6. Survey is one data collection method used in descriptive normative study.
_______ 7. Descriptive research involves correlational, observational and experimental.
_______ 8. Cross-sectional study takes a long period of time to be done.
_______ 9. Descriptive normative survey involves a wide class of data when establishing
norms or standard on it.
_______ 10. Descriptive Evaluative determines the degree of the relationship of two
variables.
LET’S TEST YOUR BRAIN! REMEMBER THIS IS RECORDED BY
YOUR TEACHER… OOOPS NO PRESSURE!
Name: _______________________________ Date: ___________________________
Section: _____________________________ Score: __________________________
Identify the type of descriptive research design best use in each of the
following situation. Choose the letter of your answer from the choices inside the box.
a. Descriptive Normative Survey d. Cross-sectional Study
b. Correlational Study e. Descriptive Comparative
c. Longitudinal Study f. Evaluation Study
____ 1. A group of students wishes to correlate the performance of the STEM students
between Science and mathematics.
____ 2. Seron wants to know the efficiency of digital devices to the learning of the ICT
students.
____ 3. Mr. Gahit wants to know if the percentage of women diagnosed with breast
cancer increases with age. He gathers three groups of women with different age and
conducts a survey at same point of time.
____ 4. The teacher wants to know if there is a significant difference between the
performance of children living with their parents and living with their relatives.
____ 5. Researchers would want to observe participants from childhood to adulthood to
understand how growing up in different environment influences traits, habits, and
personality.
____ 6. Some researchers want to compare the effectiveness of three groups of
managers A, B and C and determine if there is significant difference between their
management strategy.
____ 7. Rita and her friends conduct a study involving the demographic profile of the
respondents.
____ 8. Mrs. Soles conducts a research study on the English Proficiency of the Grade
10 students and compare the result to the standards of DepEd.
____ 9. Allison wants to determine the effectiveness of school portal to the students and
parents in accessing school news and information.
____ 10. Gaby conduct a study to know if there is a significant relationship exist in
student’s anxiety in math on their class performance in math class.
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Parent’s Signature: ________________________ Date: ____________________
 EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGN Factors Affecting Experimental Plan
Experimental research is used to investigate cause and effect relationship
between the variables. It also known as intervention because you do more than just 1. History. Unexpected events that occur during first and second measurement
observe the subject. This design manipulates one variable (dependent variables) to see during experimental period that affect the results of the experiment.
if it has an effect to the other variable (dependent variables). A factor treatment is 2. Maturation. It is the process of maturing of the participants either biological or
introduced into the research investigation and the researcher attempt to isolate the psychological during the course of experiment regardless of the event may
effects of such treatment by means of control. affect the result of the study. For example, if the project lasts a few years, most
participants may improve their performance regardless of treatment.
Types of Experimental Research Design 3. Testing. The subject may be aware of the contents of post-test because of the
same contents in pre-test. So the subject learns from pre-test rather than the
1. Pre-test/ Post-test Controlled Group. This designs requires two groups in treatment.
equal standing: one is controlled group; and the other is experimental group. 4. Mortality. The loss of the subject from comparison group could greatly affect
Both groups will be given pre-test. During the experimental period, only the the results of the study. The subject may drop out of the experimental plan or
experimental group will receive the treatment. After the experimental period, suddenly disappeared during the course of the study.
both group will be given post-test. Then the researcher may now compare the 5. Interaction Effect. It means that the result of the study was affected by the
result of the post-test of both groups. extraneous factors such setting, time and condition of the experimental set-up.
Take note: This design is threatened by certain factors: maturation; test- 6. Measuring Instrument. Changes in calibration of instrument, observers, and
wiseness; and natural attrition. scorers may cause changes in the measurements of the variables.
Group Pre-test Treatment Post-test 7. Statistical Regression. It is when the pre-test of the subjects is extremely far
Experimental O O O from their score in post-test. This threat is caused by the selection of subjects
Controlled O X O on the basis of extreme scores or characteristics.
8. Differential Selection. Selection of individuals with different previous
2. Single Group Pre-test/ Post-test Design. It is used when there is a limited knowledge or ability which would affect the final measurement of the study.
number of respondents in the study. The single group will be given a pre-test 9. John Henry Effect. Henry outperformed a machine under an experimental
followed by the usual practices then post-test will be administered. Afterwards, setting because he was fully aware that his performance was compared with
same group will be given a pre-test followed by treatment and then post-test. that of a machine. The subject in the controlled group is aware of their
Take note: This design is threatened by certain factors: maturation; test- disadvantage, thus working harder to outperform the experimental group.
wiseness; and natural attrition.
Group Pre-test Treatment Post-test YOUR BRAIN NEEDS EXERCISES. DO THIS!
Group A O X O
Group A O O O
Identify the word/s being described in each statement. Write your answer on the
3. Solomon Four Group Design. It makes use of four group in equal standing space provided.
(two experimental group and two controlled group). The first two group followed
the pretest post-test controlled group. The third group is given no pre-test but _______________1. A factor that affects experimental plan due to the loss of the subject.
has treatment and post-test. The last group given no pre-test and treatment but _______________2. An experimental research design that requires a large number of
has post-test. subjects.
Group Pre-test Treatment Post-test _______________3. It is a design used when there is a limited number of respondents.
_______________4. A group in experimental research that does not receive treatment.
Experimental A O O O
_______________5. A factor that affects the experimental plan when the subject from
Controlled A O X O
controlled group outperform the subjects from experimental group.
Experimental B X O O
_______________6. Experimental design that requires one controlled group and one

3
Controlled B X X O
experimental group.

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_______________7. A factor that affects experimental plan due to the effects of taking
a test on the outcomes of taking a second test.
_______________8. A factor that affects experimental plan due to the biases which may
result in selection of comparison groups.
_______________ 9. A group of subject that receives treatment during the experimental
plan.
_______________10. A scientific method that establishes the cause and effect
relationship between the variables.
LET’S TEST YOUR BRAIN! REMEMBER THIS IS RECORDED BY YOUR
TEACHER… OOOPS NO PRESSURE!
Modified True or False. Write TRUE if the statement is correct, if false, change
the underlined word/s to make the statement correct.
_______1. Experimental research seeks to test and answer hypothesis.
_______2. Mortality is when a subject suddenly disappeared during the experimental
plan.
_______3. In experimental study, the group that receives treatment is called controlled
group.
_______4. A super typhoon occurred during the experimental plan where in the result
of the study is affected. This factor is called history.
_______5. Testing happens when the subject is aware of the contents of post-test in
the form of pre-test.
_______6. The subject in experimental study needs to be different before and after the
experiment
_______7. Interviewers are very careful to their first numbers of interviewees, but
eventually got tired after 10th interviewee which affect their scoring. This is example of
measuring instrument
_______8. Single group pre-test/post-test design eliminates Howthorne effect, effect of
maturation and attrition but requiring a large number of respondents.
DESCRIPTION OF SAMPLE
Before you proceed to this lesson, take note of the following terms first:
 Sample. An individual that represent the entire population of a target
respondents of the study. This is the subgroup of the population
 Population. A group of individuals that the researcher is interested in studying
that usually has common or similar characteristics.
 Sampling frame. A complete list of all cases in the population from which the
sample will be drawn.
It is important that the researchers know the sample size of their study. It is a waste
of resources if the researchers include all the elements in their target population. The
following are some reasons for the use of samples:
 Using sample saves time compared to complete census
 Using sample saves money because it is less costly
 It allows more particular attention to be given to a number of elements
than doing a census
 Less sampling error in survey
Slovin’s Formula
Slovin’s formula is a statistical formula used to obtain an accurate sample size
(n) given the population (N) and margin of error (e). Margin of error (e) is the allowable
error margin in research. Slovin's Formula calculates the number of samples required
when the population is too large to directly sample every member.
The sample size can be obtained using the formula
𝑁
n= where n = sample size; N = total population; e= margin of error
1+𝑁𝑒 2
Example 1: A researcher wants to conduct a survey. The population of a big school where
the researcher wishes to get his respondents is 11,000. Find the sample size if the margin
is 5%.
Step 1. Using the Slovin’s formula, substitute the given data.
11,000
n=
1+(11,0000)(0.05)2

_______9. Differential selection is the selection of individuals with different previous

Take note: Change percent number to decimal number
knowledge or ability which would affect the final measurement of the study.

_______10. Mortality is a factor that affects experimental plan when the participants in
5%  5  0.05
controlled group outperform the experimental group. Step 2. Solve the denominator part first. Follow PEMDAS.
Parent’s Signature: _________________________ Date: ____________________

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11,000 11,000 11,000
n=  n=  n=

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1+(11,0000)(0.0025) 1+27.5 28.5
 Step 3. Divide the data to get the sample size LET’S TEST YOUR BRAIN! REMEMBER THIS IS RECORDED
BY YOUR TEACHER… OOOPS NO PRESSURE!
11,000
n=  n= 385.96 or 386
28.5
A. Based on the given problem, supply the needed information in the box below.
Then the sample size that the researchers need is 386.
Mr. X conducts his study on Brgy. Caniogan, Pasig City. The total number of
YOUR BRAIN NEEDS EXERCISES. DO THIS! residence b is 3,800 according to the residence list in barangay. Mr. X uses five percent
margin of error to come up with the total number of participants of his study which is 367.

A. Put O if the statement is correct and X if not. Write your answer on the space Sample: Population: Margin of error:
provided before each item

_____ 1. Sample is a subgroup of population. Sampling Frame: Formula to be used:

_____ 2. Selecting sample from population is called sampling.

_____ 3. An accurate sample size means getting the equal half of the total
population. B. Solve for the sample size of given problem. Show your complete solution (5 pts
each).
_____ 4. Slovin’s formula is used to determine sample size. 1. In your study, the size of your population is 27,150. What is the size of your
_____ 5. Using sample is costly and timely. sample if you allow 5% margin of error?
Solution:

B. Solve the sample size of given problem. Show your complete solution (5 pts
each).
Suppose that you have a group of 1,000 city government employees
and you want to survey them to find out which tools are best suited to their jobs.
Find the sample size using 2% margin of error.
Solution:

2. For instance, in your research, your population is 10,000 and the margin of
error you allow is 5%, what is your representative sample?
Solution:

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Parent’s Signature: ___________________________ Date: ____________________
 PROBABILITY SAMPLING TECHNIQUE
The selection of components of the sample that will give a representative view of the
whole is known as sampling technique. Selecting sample can be biased or unbiased.
This lesson focuses on selecting sample unbiasedly. This is called probability sampling.
Probability Sampling refers to a sampling technique in which samples are
obtained using some objective chance mechanism, thus involving randomization. Please
take note that (1) If your population is LESS THAN 50, go away from probability sampling
and (2) your sample size should be AT LEAST 30.
After determining the sample frame and solving for sample size, it is time to for
deciding on how to select the sample of the study. There are different types of selecting
respondents under probability sampling. These are:
4. Cluster Sampling. The largest scale surveys used cluster sampling method. It
is used when the target respondents in a research study is spread across a
GEOGRAPHICAL LOCATION. In this method, the population is group into what
we called CLUSTER. Simple random sampling is used in selecting the cluster
5. Multi- Stage Sampling. Refers to the procedure as in cluster sampling which
moves through a series of stages.
Population  group into cluster  randomly select one cluster
randomly select sample from the selected
cluster
YOUR BRAIN NEEDS EXERCISES. DO THIS!

1. Simple Random Sampling. The basic probability sampling design in which the A. Identify the word/s being described in each statement. Write your answer on the space
chance of selection is the same for every member of the population. provided.
Two ways of selecting samples: _____________ 1. A sampling technique that use fish bowl method.
 by means of a TABLE OF RANDOM NUMBERS _____________ 2. It includes a series of stages before arriving to the final samples.
 by using the LOTTERY TECHNIQUES
2. Systematic Random Sampling. A sampling that follows regular intervals from _____________ 3. In cluster sampling, the population is divided into groups called __.
a list. It has a specific steps and procedures in doing the random selection of
_____________ 4. The sampling technique use when the target population is scattered
the samples.
in different geographical area.
Steps to follow:
_____________ 5. The process of selecting sample that represents the total population.
a. Divide population to the desired sample size (population ÷ sample
size= kth) _____________ 6. In stratified random sampling, the population is divided into groups
called __.
b. Choose one number from 1 to value you obtain from letter a
c. Start counting from the number you choose in letter b, you take
every kth of the number counts. B. In each of the following situation, identify the sampling method being used then
Example: Population= 500 explain your answer (2 pts each).

Sample size= 100 500 ÷ 100 = 5 (I will count every 5th in the list)
For instance, I choose 4 from 1-5. Therefore, my sample will be the
student number 4, 9, 14, 19, 24… until it reaches the maximum number which
is 500.
3. Stratified Random Sampling. The population is divided into groups (strata)
then simple random sampling is applied in selecting samples from each group.
Example: The target population is 1200 junior high school with the desired sample
size of 300. The researcher will get the number of students per level. Divide each
number of students per level by the total population of 1200 and then multiply by the
desired sample size of 300.
Population Sample Size
1. A group of volunteers has a list of the 100 senators. They decided to survey every
10th senator on the list about their position on farm subsidies.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
__________________________
2. The president of a college randomly selects two students from each department to
serve on a board.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
__________________________

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1st year = 350/1200 X 300 = 88 JHS =1200 = 300

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2nd year = 300/1200 X300 = 75 1st year 350 88
2nd year 300 75
3rd year 280 70
4th year 270 67
 LET’S TEST YOUR BRAIN! REMEMBER THIS IS RECORDED BY NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING TECHNIQUE
YOUR TEACHER… OOOPS NO PRESSURE!
There is a time where a researcher encounters some hindrances on his
Name: ______________________________ Date: ___________________________ research where it is not possible to draw random probability sampling due to lack of time
Section: _____________________________ Score: __________________________ or budget. This is where the non-probability sampling can be useful.
If probability sampling gives equal chance of selection to all members of the
A. Matching Type. Match statement in Column A to its correct terms in Column B. population, non-probability sampling is a sampling technique that does not give all the
samples in the population equal chances of being selected. The selection of sample is
COLUMN A COLUMN B based on the subjective judgement of the researchers.
a. Simple random Types of Non-Probability Sampling
__1. A type of probability sampling where
the chance of selection is the same for b. Stratified random 1. Convenience Sampling. This is a method of selecting samples that are
every member of the population. c. Systematic random conveniently available to participate to the researchers’ study. This method is
d. Cluster sampling also called availability sampling.
__2. A type of probability sampling when
you choose every “nth” individual to be a Example: The researchers conducted survey on public area like mall and park
part of the sample. to quickly obtain public opinion on an issue about election of public officials.

__3. A sampling technique that divides the

population in group and randomly select
samples from each group.
__4. A type of probability sampling where
the respondents are divided into groups and
in each group the research selects samples.
B. In each of the following situations, identify the sampling method being used then
explain your answer (2 pts each).
1. Peter decided to divide the private company in NCR into five groups. He randomly
picks two company and interview all the workers of that company.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
2. The girl decided to make a study about the effectiveness of APK application to the
productivity of the employees. She randomly picks name of participants from the full list
of the workers in SMX Company.
___________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
3. The secretary of Education randomly selects 10 school in NCR for testing and 40
student names are randomly selected from a student list in 10 selected schools.
___________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
2. Purposive Sampling. This is also called judgmental or subjective sampling. In
this method, the researcher chooses only those respondents that he thinks
suitable to the study.
Example: The researchers conducted a study on why Grade 11 chooses TVL
tracks over Academic tracks. They find samples by asking first the question “Are
you planning to go to the university?”, Those who will say “No” would not be
included in the study.
3. Quota Sampling. A sampling technique wherein the researcher makes sure of
equal or proportionate representation of subjects depending on which trait is
considered as basis of the quota. The bases of the quota are usually age,
gender, education, race, religion and socioeconomic status.
Example: If basis of the quota is college year level and the researcher needs
equal representation, with a sample size of 100, he must select 25 1st year
students, another 25 2nd year students, 25 3rd year and 25 4th year students.
4. Snowball Sampling. A sampling technique wherein the researcher looks for a
respondent to participate in the study then ask that respondent to refer another
respondent who can participate in the study. This is used when researcher finds
it difficult to locate special numbers of a population.
Example: The researcher conduct research involving eight ethnic group called
Mangyans maybe 8,000 according to official records. But it is difficult to locate
those subject because of distance and some have little contact with outside
world.

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Parent’s Signature: __________________________ Date: ____________________
 YOUR BRAIN NEEDS EXERCISES. DO THIS!
_____________________________________________________________________
Identify what is being described in each item. Choose the letter of your answer on the _____________________________________________________________________
box. 2. The researcher wanted to investigate a certain issue regarding same sex marriage.
He then asks someone who is suitable to his study, then ask that respondent to give him
a. Non- Probability Sampling f. Quota Sampling someone else who can also participate in his study. ___________________________
b. Biased g. Randomization _____________________________________________________________________
c. Judgmental Sampling h. Subjective _____________________________________________________________________
d. Convenience Sampling i. Quota _____________________________________________________________________
e. Snowball Sampling j. Qualitative Research _____________________________________________________________________
3. A group of NGO volunteers are conducting a research regarding good lifestyle of
people. They conducted their study on a certain mall and ask people who dress good
_____________ 1. The type of research which commonly uses non-probability sampling
and look healthy. _______________________________________________________
_____________ 2. Probability sampling is to objective; non-probability sampling is to __ _____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________ 3. The selection of sample in non-probability sampling
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________ 4. The kind of sampling where in the researcher select samples based _____________________________________________________________________
on researcher’s knowledge and credibility. 4. A group of researchers wants to study the career goal of the grade 11 to 12 on their
school with a total of 6,000 students. They found out that 60% of this are grade 11 and
_____________ 5. A type of sampling technique that does not give all members of
40% are grade 12. Their target sample is 500. The researchers get the 60 and 40 percent
population equal chances of selection.
of 500 to come up with to their sample size. __________________________________
_____________ 6. Also known as availability sampling _____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________ 7. The limitation that researchers set in quota sampling
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________ 8. The non-probability sampling is different from probability sampling _____________________________________________________________________
because it does not follow ___ 5. Mr. Yu makes a study about the environmental engineers but can only name 5. He
asks these engineers if they knew any others. They give him some others who in return
_____________ 9. The sampling that use referral method because the researcher asks
make additional contacts. In this way, Mr.Yu manages to contact 50 other environmental
respondents to refer another possible respondent.
engineers._____________________________________________________________
____________ 10. A type of non-probability sampling where the researcher divides the _____________________________________________________________________
population into group with the basis of quota. _____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
LET’S TEST YOUR BRAIN! REMEMBER THIS IS RECORDED _____________________________________________________________________
BY YOUR TEACHER… OOOPS NO PRESSURE!

A. In each of the following situation, identify the sampling method being used then
explain your answer (2 pts each).

1. A group of students wishes to conduct a study on a certain university with 5000

students. Their target respondents are 100. They simply stand at the main gate of the
school and ask 100 persons that pass by on that area. __________________________

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_____________________________________________________________________
Parent’s Signature: ____________________________ Date: ___________________

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_____________________________________________________________________
 DESIGNING THE INSTRUMENT
 Choose type of questions in developing the statement. It can be:
 Dichotomous questions. A question with only two choices such as
One of the important part of research study is the instrument because the quality
“Yes/No” or “Like/Dislike”.
of the research findings depends on the quality of research instrument. In research,  Open-ended questions. A question that normally answers the
instrument is the general term use by the researcher for measuring device such as
question “why”.
surveys, questionnaire, test, and etc. On the other hand, instrumentation is the action
which is the process of developing, testing and using the instrument. Take note that Example: What do you like most about your school?
instrument is the device while instrumentation is course of action (Prieto, Naval, & Carey, _______________________________________________
2017).
 Closed questions. It is also called multiple-choice questions. It
Background consists of three or more choices.
Example: What is the highest education of your mother?
Do a basic research on the chosen variables or construct of the research study. ___ elementary ___ high school ___ college
Choose a construct that you can use to craft the objective of the questionnaire. Construct
means the characteristics that you wish to measure or evaluate (e.g. weight, academic  Rank- order Scale questions. A type of question that ask for ranking
performance, etc.). After identifying the construct, it is easily to state the purpose or the given choices or items.
objective of the questionnaire and the research questions as well. There are five types
Example: Rank the following base on their importance in work as SHS
of variables: dependent variables; independent variables; control variables; continuous
student. (3= highest and 1=lowest)
variables; and discrete variables. __ doing homeroom activities
__ going to library
Questionnaire Conceptualization
__ using computer
 Choose response scale where the respondents answer the question in your
study.  Rating Scale questions. It is the Likert scale form.
Example of scales are: Example:
 Yes / No Statement 3 2 1
 Yes / No / Neither I feel lazy doing homework
 Likert Scale. It is used to measure behavior quantitatively. I am motivated to learn because of interesting
Here is some example of Likert Scale learning tools
Frequency of Use Agreement Frequency of Occurrence
Always Strongly Agree Very Frequently YOUR BRAIN NEEDS EXERCISES. DO THIS!
Often Agree Frequently
Sometimes Undecided Occasionally Identify the word/s being described in each statement. Write your answer on the space
Rarely Disagree Rarely provided.
Never Strongly Disagree Very Rarely
____________ 1. A type of question answerable by yes or no.
 Generate questions based on the objectives of the research study. These are ____________ 2. It is used to measure behavior of each respondent quantitatively.
the guidelines in developing questions for your questionnaire:
 The questions should be clear, concise and simple. Avoid lengthy and ____________ 3. It refers to the traits of that is being measured in the study.
confusing questions ____________ 4. A variable that causes change to the dependent variables.
 Classify question under each statement based on your problem
statement ____________ 5. A type of question that allows the respondents to share their thoughts.
 Questions should be consistent within the needs of study ____________ 6. Type of question that has three or more choices.

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 Avoid sensitive and debatable question

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 Avoid jargon or unfamiliar words
 3. Please rate your level of satisfaction in the quality of student
____________ 7. Type of question that asks the respondents to rate answers based on services provided by your school.
their own perspective. 5= Very Satisfied 4= Somewhat Satisfied 3= Neither
Satisfied nor Dissatisfied
____________ 8. A type of question with two choices only. 2= Somewhat Dissatisfied 1= Very Dissatisfied
____________ 9. It is the process of developing, testing, and using the instrument.

____________ 10. Type of question that asks the respondents to rank the items on each 5 4 3 2 1
statement. Registrar’s Office
Canteen
LET’S TEST YOUR BRAIN! REMEMBER THIS IS RECORDED BY
Student Information System (SIS)
YOUR TEACHER… OOOPS NO PRESSURE!
Comfort Rooms
Classroom Ventilation
Cashier’s Office
A. Modified True or False. Write TRUE if the statement is correct, if not, change the College/ Department staff
underlined word/s to make the statement correct.

____________ 1. Avoid making lengthy and confusing questions in your survey 4. Please rate the following personal goals to Senior High School (SHS) in
questionnaire. order of importance from 1 to 6 with 1 indicating most important goal, 2 second
____________ 2. Open-ended questions usually answer the question “what”. most important goal and so on.
____________ 3. The quality of the research findings depends on the quality of the
research instrument used. _______ To pursue college education
____________ 4. Dichotomous questions are questions where three or more choices _______ To be employed after graduation
are provided. _______ To enhance my self-esteem
____________ 5. Likert scale is use in measuring the perspective or behavior of the _______ To become a useful citizen
respondents qualitatively. _______ To develop good attitudes
B. Based on the sample research instrument below, identify the type of research _______ To be socially and intellectually mature
questions used.
STUDENT SATISFACTION ON STUDENT SERVICES IN A PRIVATE CHOICES:
SECONDARY SCHOOL
 Dichotomous Question
Dear student, thank you for being a respondent for this survey. Please
help us improve our services by completing this survey.  Open - ended Question
 Close- ended Questions
Gender: ___ Female ___ Male  Rating Scale Question
Age: ___ 15-16 y/o ___ 17-18 y/o ___19-20 y/o ___21 & above  Rank-order Scale Question

1. Gender ________________________________________
1. What is your overall satisfaction rating with our school services?
2. Age ________________________________________
___ Very Satisfied
3. Question #1 _____________________________________
___ Somewhat Satisfied
___ Neither Satisfied nor Dissatisfied 4. Question #2 _____________________________________
___ Somewhat Dissatisfied 5. Question #3 _____________________________________
___ Very Dissatisfied 6. Question #4 _____________________________________

10
2. Please explain your answer.
________________________________________________________

Page
________________________________________________________ Parent’s Signature: __________________________ Date: ___________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
 ESTABLISHING VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY OF THE INSTRUMENT
In the previous lesson, you learned how to conceptualized a questionnaire.
The next step is establishing the validity and reliability of the questionnaire or instrument.
This lesson discusses the general criteria of good research instrument which are the
validity and reliability.
Establishing the validity of the questionnaire
Validity refers to a degree to which the instrument measures what it intends to
measure. It involves collecting and analyzing data to assess the accuracy of an
instrument.
Here are ways to assess the validity of a set of measurement:
 Face Validity. A subjective type of assessment. This is the simplest and easiest
type of validity where in the validator skim the surface of the instrument in order
to form an opinion. Moreover, it is often criticized as the weakest form of validity
(Stephanie, 2015).
 Content Validity. It refers to the appropriateness of the content of an
instrument. A type of validity that most often includes expert or people familiar
with the construct being measured. The expert make judgement about the
degree to which the items in the questionnaire match the objective of the study.
 Criterion Validity. This type of validity measures how well the relationship
between a measure and an outcome. It can be measured in three ways:
 Convergent validity. Shows instrument is highly correlated with
instruments measuring similar variables. (e.g. geriatric suicide
correlated to depression)
 Divergent validity. Shows the instrument is poorly correlated to
instruments that measure different variables. (e.g. correlation is low in
instrument measuring motivation and instrument measuring self-
efficacy)
 Predictive validity. The instrument that has correlation with future
criterion. (e.g. score of high efficacy test related to preforming task
should predict the likelihood of completing task)
 Construct Validity. Defines how well a test measures what it claims to
measure. It is used to know whether the operational definition of a construct
align to the true theoretical meaning of a concept. There are three types of
construct validity:
 Homogeneity. This means that the instrument measures one construct
only.
 Convergence. The instrument measures construct similar to other
instrument.
 Theory evidence. This is when behavior is similar to theoretical
propositions of the construct measured in the instrument.
Establishing the reliability of the questionnaire
Reliability refers to how accurate and precise the measuring instrument. It yields
for consistent responses over repeated measurements. In order to have a reliable
instrument, you need to have questions that yields consistent scores when asked
repeatedly.
Here are ways to assess the reliability of an instrument:
 Stability or Test-retest reliability. This is the simplest type of reliability where
in the same questionnaire is administered twice and correlation between two
set of score is computed.
 Split-half method. Also called equivalent or parallel forms. This is done by
administering two different set of questionnaire but with same topic and
correlation between two set of score is computed.
 Internal consistency. This is when the instrument measures a specific
concept. It is estimate based on a single form of test administered on a single
occasion.
Pilot testing of the questionnaire
Once you have done assessing the validity and reliability of instrument, the next
step to take is to pilot test the questionnaire before distributing it to the target respondents
of the study. Pilot testing is like pre-testing the instrument. You may find 10-15 people to
answer the questionnaire. In this process, participants could put remarks on some
questions. This could help you to enhance your questions.
Revise the questionnaire
After identifying some problem in your questionnaire, revise the questionnaire
based on the feedback of the participants during pilot testing. However, do not forget that
the questionnaire should match the research objective.
YOUR BRAIN NEEDS EXERCISES. DO THIS!
Identify the word/s being described in each statement. Choose the letter of your
answer in the box. Write the letter on the space provided above each number.
i. Validity u. Face validity
T1. Test-retest Reliability r. Questionnaire
m. Construct validity s. Pilot testing
e. Reliability n1. Criterion related validity
11
n2. Content validity t2. Split-half method
Page
1. It is a degree to which a test measure what it intends to measure.
2. It measures the relationship between measure and outcome.
3. The process of pre-testing the instrument before distributing to the target respondents.
4. Testing reliability by giving the test twice and correlating two set of score.
5. A series of questions where the respondents provide their responses.
6. The subjective form of validating instrument.
7. It refers to whether the operational definition of a variable actually reflects the true
theoretical meaning of a concept
8. It refers to how accurate and precise the measuring instrument.
____7. The degree to which a test predicts another variable it should predict, such as
the National Assessment score predicting success in a specialized field of the student.
____8. This refers to the extent to which a measure is related to other measure as
specified in a theory.
____9. An instructor distribute a set of test to his class, a few days after, he distributes
another set of test but on same topic as the first set of test. This method of assessing
reliability is called ___.
____10. This type of validity measures how well the relationship between a measure
and an outcome.

9. A process of validating with the help of experts. Parent’s Signature: _________________________ Date: ____________________

10. Also called equivalent or parallel forms.

____
1
____
2
____
3
____
4
____
5
____
6
____
7
____
8
____
9
____
10
DATA COLLECTION PROCEDURE
Data collection refers to the process of gathering information. In quantitative
LET’S TEST YOUR BRAIN! REMEMBER THIS IS RECORDED research, data collection method relies on random sampling and data collection
BY YOUR TEACHER… OOOPS NO PRESSURE! instruments that fit various experiences into predetermined responses categories that
Match the definitions/examples with the correct type of reliability or validity. produce results that are easy to summarize, compare and generalize.
Technically there may be more than one correct answer for each definition/example, Sources of data
but each term is intended to be used only once.
 Primary sources. Are known as raw data which can be collected from original
a. Split- half method f. Predictive Validity
source like experimental test results, questionnaire survey, and observation.
b. Stability g. Validity
 Secondary sources. Data that has already been collected by someone else
c. Content Validity h. Pilot Testing
such as books, reports, journals, magazines, and others.
d. Construct Validity i. Criterion Validity
e. Reliability j. Convergent Validity
There are various methods in collecting data that will be discussed in this
The following are the definitions and examples:
lesson, along with its advantage and disadvantage.
____1. The Psychological Scale have a high correlation with self-esteem.
1. Interview
____2. Ten people write their comments on the questionnaire regarding of the This method of collecting data involves presentation of verbal reply from the
questions that they don’t understand. respondents. This is done by asking questions to the respondents verbally. This method
assumes that the participant’s point of view is more meaningful and their perspectives
____3. The degree to which a test actually measures what it intends to.
affect the success of the project.
____4. The consistency of results across repeated measurement.
Here are the types of interviews that could be used by the researchers:
____5. A high score in math anxiety truly reflects the high degree of math anxiety of the


12
subject. What type of validity is this? Structured Interviews. The researcher asks a standard set of questions and
____6. An English class takes an EPT then take it again after a week so the instructor nothing more. The researcher follows a specific format with the same line of

Page
questioning. This is to ensure that each interview is delivered in the same format
can assess the ___ of the test.
 and same order to every respondent. It usually performs by well-experienced  Paper-pencil questionnaire. This method is commonly used by the researchers.
researchers. It can be sent to large number of respondents and save researcher’s time and
money.
Advantages: Disadvantage:
- The information at greater depth
- Chance to clarify questions to the
- Time consuming and Advantage: Disadvantage:
respondents expensive - Respondents are truthful to their response - Some of the respondents do
because their responses are anonymous not return the questionnaire

 Face-to-face interviews. This is the most frequently used in quantitative  Web-page questionnaire. It is an internet based research where in the
research method and it can be done anywhere where.
respondents will receive an email which contain an address that would take
Advantages: them to a secure web-site to fill in the questionnaire.
Disadvantages:
- Establish rapport between researcher and
- Time consuming and expensive
participants
- Impractical when large samples Disadvantages:
- Chance to clarify ambiguous questions to
involved Advantage: - Exclusion of people who do not have
the respondents
- Much quicker than pencil-paper computer
method - Not sure of the accuracy of respondent’s
 Telephone Interviews. It is used when the researchers have no time to meet the responses
respondents personally. However, the response rate of the respondents is not
as high as the face-to-face interview.  Self-administered questionnaire. Usually distributed through mail, filled out and
Disadvantages: administered by respondents where they return this to the researchers via
Advantage: email. It can be used to elicit detailed information from respondents who might
- Biased to those with telephone only
- Less time consuming and less
- Little time given to the respondents not be accessible.
expensive
- Bias information may be more
Questionnaires usually make use of checklist and rating scale to help
 Computer-Assisted Personal Interviewing. A form of personal interview where researchers simplify and quantify respondents’ behaviors and attitude.
in the interviewer bring along laptop and directly enter the information or
response of the participant to the database. 3. Observations
This is way of collecting data by watching behavior, events or noting physical
Advantages: Disadvantages:
- Save researchers in bringing hundreds of
characteristics in natural setting. This method is usually used in in the situation where
- Expensive to set up
questionnaires - Required the interviewer to the subjects are unwilling or unable to provide the needed data through survey or
- Save time in processing data have laptop interview. Observation can be as follows:

2. Questionnaire  Overt Observation. An observation where the respondents are aware that they
Its main purpose is to extract data from the respondents. It serves a standard are being observed.
guide of the researchers in asking information from the respondents. There are normally  Covert Observation. An observation where the respondents are unaware that
four sections in a questionnaire namely: they are being observed.
 Direct Observation. The observation occurs during the interaction.
1. Respondents identification data. It includes the profile of the respondents.  Indirect Observation. The observation occurs on the result of the interaction.
2. Introduction. It may include the researcher’s request for help, and purpose of
study. Observation can make use of recording sheet and checklist which is the
3. Instruction. The respondent’s direction on how to move through the standardized way of collecting data. Field notes are least standardized way of collecting
questionnaire. observation data.
4. Information. The series of questions and statements that seek response.

13
Page

4. Tests
This method provides a way to assess subject’s knowledge and capacity to
apply knowledge to new situations. There are various forms of test depending on the
needs of the researchers in their study.
 Norm-referenced test. Provides information on how the subject performs
against a normative group.
 Criterion-referenced test. Determine whether or not the subjects have attained
mastery of skills.
 Proficiency test. Provides an assessment against level of skills attainment, but
includes standards for performance at varying levels of proficiency.
YOUR BRAIN NEEDS EXERCISES. DO THIS!
Identify the word/s being described in each statement. Write your answer on the space
provided.
____________ 1. It is a method usually used by observing the subject of the study.
____________ 2. A method used to assess the knowledge of the subject.
____________ 3. A type of interview that requires laptop to the researcher during data
collection.
____________ 4. The section in questionnaire where you can find the series of questions
and statements.
____________ 5. It refers to the process of collecting data.
____________ 6. This is the type of interview that includes list of names from telephone
directory.
____________ 7. A type of test that determine if a certain skill is achieved or not.
____________ 8. A type of questions with two choices only.
____________ 9. An observation where the respondents are not aware that they are
being observed.
____________ 10. This method of collecting data involves presentation of verbal
responses from the respondents.
LET’S TEST YOUR BRAIN! REMEMBER THIS IS RECORDED BY
YOUR TEACHER… OOOPS NO PRESSURE!
Identify the kind of quantitative being described in each of the following scenarios.
Choose the letter of your answer from the choices inside the box, then explain your
answer. (2 pts each)
Criterion Reference Test Web-based questionnaire
Face-to-face Interview Computer-Assisted Personal Interview
Covert Observation Telephone Interview
Paper-pencil Questionnaire Overt Observation
1. A representative from Department of Education watched ten random classes through
video recording to observe if teachers teaching strategy meet the objectives of curriculum
competencies. ___________________________
Explanation:___________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
2. A researcher wishes to identify the mastery skill level of the Technical-Vocational
students in Rizal High School. He administered an assessment to the target subject of
the research to gather data. ___________________________
Explanation:___________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
3. A company conducts a quick interview based on the list of people on their landline
directory. ___________________________
Explanation:___________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
4. A group of researchers conduct study on the effectiveness of Audio-Visual Learning
to the academic performance of Senior High Students in Rizal High School. They
distributed a copy of questionnaire to the students that are involved to their study.
___________________________
Explanation:___________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
5. A researcher does a house visit to conduct interview regarding the lifestyle of a
teenage mom. He directly encodes information from his interviewee to his electronic
device. ___________________________
Explanation:___________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
14
Parent’s Signature: ___________________________ Date: ____________________
Page
 QUANTITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS
After collecting the data needed for the study, it’s now time to organize then and
get ready for the data analysis. A researcher should always ensure that the data are
complete, accurate, and valid and has been organized properly. Quantitative data
analysis is a systematic approach of investigations during which numerical data are
collected and the researchers transform what are collected into numerical data.
Purpose of Data Analysis Plan
 Describe data sets;
 Determine the degree of relationship of variables;
 Determine the differences between variables;
 Predict outcomes; and
 Compare variables.
Data Analysis Strategies
 Exploratory Data Analysis. This is used when it is not clear what to expect from
the data. It makes use of numerical and visual representation such as graphs.
Since the research interest is new, it is possible to find some inconsistencies.
 Descriptive Data Analysis. This is used to describe or summarize data in a
meaningful way leading to a simple interpretation of data.
The commonly used descriptive statistics are those that analyze
distribution of data such as: frequency, percentage, measure of central
tendency (mean, median, mode), and dispersion (range, average deviation,
standard deviation).
 Inferential Data Analysis. This is used to test hypotheses about a set of data to
reach conclusions and generalizations beyond merely describing the data.
The commonly used inferential statistics includes test of significance
of difference such as t-test, and ANOVA. Also the test of relationship such as
Product Moment Coefficient or Correlation or Pearson r, Spearman rho,
regression, and Chi-square test.
Quantitative Analysis in Evaluation
It is important to determine the level of measurement of quantitative data before
proceeding with analysis of data.
The following are the levels of measurement scales:
 Nominal Scale. It is used for labeling variables. It also called categorical
variables. The number assigned to the variables have no quantitative values.
Example: If you want to categorize respondents based on gender, you
could use 1 for male and 2 for female.
 Ordinal Scale. It assigned order on items on the characteristics being
measured. Numerical value or quantity has no value except its ability to
establish ranking among set of data. However, the difference in order between
the rank are not specified.
Example: order in honor roll (first honor, second honor, third honor)
 Interval Scale. It has equal units of measurement, thereby, making it possible
to interpret the order of scale scores and the distance between them. However,
interval scale does not have a “true zero”. Variables can be added and
subtracted, but cannot multiplied and divided.
 Ratio Scale. It is considered as the highest level of measurement. It has
characteristics of an interval scale but it has a “zero point”. All descriptive and
inferential statistics can be applied on ration scales. Variables can be added,
subtracted, multiplied, and divided.
YOUR BRAIN NEEDS EXERCISES. DO THIS!
True or False. Write T if the statement is true and F if not. Write your answer on the space
provided before each number.
___ 1. Ordinal scale is a measurement scale that ranks the variables.
___ 2. Data analysis plan refers to describing how the data will be cleaned, transformed,
and analyzed.
___ 3. The weakest level of measurement scale is ratio scale.
___ 4. Percentage is categorized as descriptive statistic.
___ 5. Descriptive analysis includes t-test and ANOVA.
___ 6. Exploratory data analysis is used when it is not clear what to expect from the data.
___ 7. Inferential data analysis is used when there is testing of hypothesis.
___ 8. Interval scale is also called categorical variables.
___ 9. Inferential statistics includes the mean, median, and mode.
___ 10. The highest level of measurement scale is the ratio scale.
15
Page
 LET’S TEST YOUR BRAIN! REMEMBER THIS IS RECORDED
DESCRIPTIVE DATA ANALYSIS
BY YOUR TEACHER… OOOPS NO PRESSURE! Descriptive data analysis provides simple summaries about the sample and
the measures. Different statistical measures are used to analyze data and draw
A. Determine what type of data analysis are statistical tools given in each item. Choose conclusions under descriptive data analysis (Trochim, 2006).
the letter of your choice below.
For the present study, the following statistical measures of descriptive analysis
A. Descriptive Data Analysis B. Inferential Data Analysis were used to compute further statistical testing:

_____1. Chi-square _____6. Pearson r 1. Measures of Central Tendency.

_____2. Mean _____7. Mode Central tendency is sometimes called ‘measures of location’, ‘central location’,
or just ‘center’. It is a way to describe what’s typical for a set of data. There are three
_____3. Range _____8. Standard Deviation
major ways to show central tendency: mean, mode and median.
_____4. T-test _____9. Spearman rho
1.1 Mean. The mean is the average of a set of numbers. It is the most widely used and
_____5. ANOVA _____10. Percentage simplest measure of central tendency. It is frequently used for interval or ratio
variables. The mean is calculated by getting the summation of all observation divided
B. Indicate which level of measurement is being used in the given scenario. Choose the
by the number of observation.
letter of your choice below.
Formulas:
A. Nominal Scale C. Interval Scale ∑𝒙 𝒔𝒖𝒎 𝒐𝒇 𝒐𝒃𝒔𝒆𝒓𝒗𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
Ungrouped Data X =  mean =
B. Ordinal Scale D. Ratio Scale 𝒏 𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒐𝒃𝒔𝒆𝒓𝒗𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
∑ 𝒇𝒙𝒎 𝒔𝒖𝒎 𝒐𝒇 𝒇𝒓𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚 𝒙 𝒎𝒊𝒅𝒑𝒐𝒊𝒏𝒕
Grouped Data X=  mean =
𝒏 𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒐𝒃𝒔𝒆𝒓𝒗𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
____ 1. Mr. Abalos enlists the top 10 greatest movie of all time. ∑ 𝒇𝒙 𝒔𝒖𝒎 𝒐𝒇 𝒇𝒓𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚 𝒙 𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍 𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆
Weighted Mean X =  mean =
𝒏 𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒐𝒃𝒔𝒆𝒓𝒗𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
____ 2. The nurse records the gender of each patient.
____ 3. A veterinary clinic keeps record of the weight of their patient dogs. 1.2 Median. The median is the middle value of a given set of measurements, provided
____ 4. The organizer of the basketball lists down the jersey number of all players. that the values are arranged in increasing or decreasing order. It is also the most
appropriate measure of central tendency for ordinal data.
____ 5. A PAGASA officer record the temperature in degree Celsius for the month of
September. For Ungrouped Data
____ 6. Meteorologist lists the temperature in degrees Kelvin for the month of August. The median may be calculated from ungrouped data by doing the following
____ 7. The teacher of a class of tenth graders records the letter grade for mathematics steps:
1. Arrange the items or scores from lowest to highest.
for each student. 2. Count to the middle value. If there are two middle numbers, average the
____ 8. The teller keeps track the amount of his client’s saving account. two.
____ 9. The researcher records the family income of his subject for two consecutive
For Grouped data
months.
If the data are grouped into classes, the median will fall into one of the classes
____ 10. A car magazine lists the most expensive hotels in United States. 𝑛
and the ( )th value.
2
n
−𝐹𝑐

16
2
Formula: median ( )=L+i ( )
𝑓𝑚
Where: L = exact lower limit of the class containing the median class

Page
Parent’s Signature: _________________________ Date: ____________________ i = interval size
 n = total number of items/observation x is the mean
Fc = cumulative frequency in the class preceding the median class
fm = frequency of the median class n is the number of values

YOUR BRAIN NEEDS EXERCISES. DO THIS!

1.3 Mode. The mode is the most appropriate measure of central tendency when data
are on nominal scale. It is also the quick approximation of average but the weakest
measure of central tendency.
In cases where there is more than one observation which is the highest
but with equal frequency, the distribution is bimodal (with 2 highest
observations) or multimodal with more than two highest observations. In cases
where every item has equal number of observations, there is no mode.
2. Measures of Dispersion
Dispersion in statistics is a way of describing how spread out a set of data is. It
is important for describing the spread of the data, or its variation around a central value.
It is also called measure of variability.
The measures to be considered are the range, average or mean deviation,
standard deviation and the variance.
Identify the word/s being described in each statement. Write your answer on the space
provided.
____________ 1. It is also called measure of variability.
____________ 2. It refers to measures of spread of data about the mean.
____________ 3. A mode that has two observations.
____________ 4. It refers to the midpoint of distribution.
____________ 5. A statistical symbol that disregard the negative values of a data.
____________ 6. The absolute deviation of a dataset is the average distance between
each data point and the mean
____________ 7. It refers to the most frequently occurred value in a set of data.

2.1. The Range. The range is the difference between the largest and the smallest values ____________ 8. It is the sum of all observed data divided by the number of observation.
in a set of data. However, it only gives us knowledge of the spread of data but it does not ____________ 9. It is sometimes called measure of central location.
tell us about the disperse of values from central tendency.
____________ 10. It refers to the difference between the highest value and lowest value.
2.2. Average (Mean) Deviation. The mean absolute deviation of a dataset is the average
distance between each data point and the mean. It gives us an idea about the variability
in a dataset. Absolute value is used to disregard the positive or negative value of data. LET’S TEST YOUR BRAIN! REMEMBER THIS IS RECORDED
| 𝑥− 𝑥 | BY YOUR TEACHER… OOOPS NO PRESSURE!
Formula for Ungrouped Data AD = ∑
𝑛
where; Σ is Sigma, which means to sum up ; | | (the vertical bars) mean
Absolute Value A. Modified True or False. Indicate whether the statement is true or false. If false,
change the underlined word or phrase to make the statement correct.
x is each value
________________ 1. Range is used to know how much data can vary.
x is the mean ________________ 2. To understand the dispersion of data from a measure of central
n is the number of values tendency, we can use mean deviation.
________________ 3. Measures of dispersion is also called measures of location.
2.3. Standard Deviation. The standard deviation (SD) is a measure of spread or ________________ 4. In order to know the most appearing data in a set, researcher
variation of data about the mean. SD computed by calculating the average distance that must use mean.
the average value is from the mean. It is used to measure the confidence in statistical ________________ 5. Standard deviation is used when the researchers wish to know
conclusion. the measure of confidence in statistical conclusion.

17
∑( 𝑥− 𝑥 )2
Formula for Ungrouped Data SD = √ B. Indicate the appropriate descriptive statistical treatment to use in a given scenario.

Page
𝑛−1
where; x is each value Explain your answer.
1. The teacher collected the scores of her students in their remedial test. Data showed o For independent samples (when respondents consist two different
that three students scored 82, five students scored 90, four students scored 85, and one groups)
student scored 81. Using statistical tools, the teacher come up with the answer 85. Case 1: 𝛿1 𝛿2 unknown or n1 ≥ and n2 30
(𝑥1 − 𝑥2 )−(𝜇1 − 𝜇2 )
z=
a. How did the teacher get 85? Explain. (3pts) 𝛿2 𝛿2
√ 1 + 2
𝑛1 𝑛2
_____________________________________________________________________
Case 2: 𝛿1 ≠ 𝛿2 unknown or n1 < 30 and n2 < 30
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________ (𝑥1 − 𝑥2 )−(𝜇1 − 𝜇2 )
_____________________________________________________________________ t= df = smaller of n1 - 1 and n2 – 1
𝑠2
1 𝑠2
2
_____________________________________________________________________ √ +
𝑛1 𝑛2

b. What is the statistical treatment that the teacher used in the set of scores (mean, Case 3: 𝛿1 = 𝛿2 unknown or n1 < 30 and n2 < 30
median, mode, range)? (2pts)
(𝑥1 − 𝑥2 )−(𝜇1 − 𝜇2 ) (𝑛1 −1)𝑠2 + (𝑛2 −1)𝑠2
t= where: 𝑠𝑝2 = 1 2
_____________________________________________________________________ 𝑠2 𝑠2
𝑛1 + 𝑛2 −2
√ 𝑝 +
𝑝
_____________________________________________________________________ 𝑛1 𝑛2

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________ o For correlated/ dependent samples (when the same set of
_____________________________________________________________________ respondents or paired sets of respondents are involved)
_____________________________________________________________________ 𝑑− 𝜇𝑑
t= (df = n-1)
𝑠𝑑 √𝑛

 Between Proportions or Percentages

o For independent samples
(𝑝1 − 𝑝2 )−(𝑝1 − 𝑝2 ))
Parent’s Signature: ________________________ Date: ____________________ z= 𝑝𝑞 𝑝𝑞
√𝑛 + 𝑛
1 2

INFERENTIAL DATA ANALYSIS o For correlated/ dependent samples

𝐷−𝐴 𝑝1 −𝑝2
z= or z=
√𝐴 + 𝐷 √
𝑎+𝑑
Inferential data analysis is used to determine if there is a relationship between 𝑁

an intervention and an outcome as well as the strength of that relationship. Inferential

Statistics refers to statistical measures and techniques that allow us to use samples to
make inference and generalizations about the population from which the samples were
drawn. Below are the common statistical measures to measure significant differences
and relationships between variables:
1. Test of Significance of Difference (T-test)
A t-test is a type of inferential statistic used to determine if there is a significant
difference between the means of two groups, which may be related in certain features
(Kenton, 2019).
 Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)
This is used when significance of difference of means of two or more
groups are to be determined at one time. ANOVA relies on the F-ration to test
the hypothesis that the two variances are equal; that is, the subgroups are from
the same population. “Between groups” refers to the variation between each
group mean and the grand or overall mean.
o One-Way ANOVA. A one-way ANOVA has just one independent
variable. Example:
1. A difference in IQ can be assessed by Country, and County can
have 2, 20, or more different categories to compare.

18
Sample Table:
 Between Means.

Page
 YOUR BRAIN NEEDS EXERCISES. DO THIS!

True or False. Write T if the statement is true and F if not. Write your answer on the space
provided before each number.
_____ 1. Inferential statistics is used when the researchers want to test hypothesis.
o Two-Way ANOVA. Also known as factorial ANOVA. It refers to an
_____ 2. T-test is used to determine the relationship of two variables.
ANOVA using two independent variables. Two-way ANOVA can be
used to examine the interaction between the two independent _____ 3. Pearson r is a statistical tool for determining relationship between variables.
variables. Interactions indicate that differences are not uniform across
_____ 4. Z-test is used to determine the significance of relationship between variables.
all categories of the independent variables.
Example: _____ 5. Spearman rho is used when the data are in ordinal scale.
1. Examining differences in IQ scores (the dependent variable) by
_____ 6. T-test is also used to determine the significance of relationship in Pearson r.
Country (independent variable 1) and Gender (independent
variable 2). _____ 7. Chi-square is used when data are in interval scale.
2. Females may have higher anxiety scores overall compared to
_____ 8. Both ratio and interval variables are applicable in Pearson r.
males, but this difference could be greater (or less) in western
countries compared to northern countries. _____ 9. Inferential data analysis is used to determine if there is a relationship between
an intervention and an outcome.
2. Test of Relationship
_____ 10. ANOVA is used when finding significant difference between two or more
 Spearman Rank-Order Correlation or Spearman Rho. It is used when data groups at one time.
available are expressed in ranks (ordinal variables).
6 ∑ 𝐷2
𝜌 =1−
𝑁 (𝑁2 −1) B. The researchers want to determine the relationship of the Educational attainment of
the Parents to their socioeconomic status. What statistical test is best to use in this study?
 Chi-Square Test for Independence. It is used when data expressed in terms of
Explain your answer.
frequencies or percentage (nominal variables).
_____________________________________________________________________
(0−𝐸)2
x2 = ∑ [ 𝑑𝑓 = ( 𝑟 − 1 )(𝑐 − 1)] _____________________________________________________________________
𝐸
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
 Product – Moment Coefficient of Correlation or Pearson r. This is used when _____________________________________________________________________
data are expressed in terms of scores such as weights and heights or score in
test (ratio and interval variables).
o Case 1. When deviation from the mean are used.
∑(𝑥−𝑥)(𝑦−𝑦)
r=
[∑(𝑥−𝑥)]2 [∑(𝑦−𝑦)]2
o Case 2. When raw score from original observation are used.
𝑛 ∑ 𝑥𝑦−(∑𝑥)(∑𝑦)
r=
√[𝑛 ∑ 𝑥 2 −(∑𝑥)2 ] [[𝑛 ∑ 𝑦 2 −(∑𝑦)2 ]

 T-test to test the significance of Pearson r. This is used to determine if the

value of computed Pearson r is significant.

19
𝑛−2
t=r√
1− 𝑟 2

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 LET’S TEST YOUR BRAIN! REMEMBER THIS IS RECORDED
BY YOUR TEACHER… OOOPS NO PRESSURE!
HYPOTHESIS TESTING
A. Analogy. Choose the answer from the box. Choose the letter of your answer Hypothesis testing is a process in statistics by testing an assumption
regarding a population parameter. The methodology used depends on the nature of
in the box.
data used and reason for analysis (Majaski, 2019). The goal of hypothesis testing is
1. Pearson r : ___________ a. Nominal Scales whether to reject or accept the hypothesis that the researcher formulated in the study. It
b. Significant Difference between is used when data needs inferential analysis.
2. Chi- square : ___________
two groups
3. Spearman rho : ___________ c. Ordinal Scales Population and Sample
d. Interval Scales  Parameter a measure based on a population (population mean and denoted by
4. T-test : ___________ e. Ratio Scales 𝜇)
f. Significant Difference between
5. ANOVA : ___________ two or more groups  Statistics a measure based on a sample (sample mean and denoted by x)

Inferential statistics requires that sample be drawn by random sampling

because bias sampling have a tendency to give wrong inferences. Testing statistical
B. Indicate the appropriate descriptive statistical treatment to use for each of
significance is very important to determine if the inference is valid.
the given scenarios. Explain your answer. (5 pts each)

1. The researcher aims to know the relationship of females’ height to their age. What
statistical treatment is best to use in this problem?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Statistical Significance
 Statistical Significance refers to the relationship of variables caused by
something.
 Significance means probably true (not due to chance).
 Level of significance means that there is a chance that finding is true.
 Statistical hypothesis testing is used to determine whether the result of a data
set is statistically significant.

2. The CEO of a certain mobile application has a successful app which runs on the two
common operating systems. He wants to decide in which operating system to build new
app by determining which system has users that spend more money. He randomly picks
sample users from each operating system and measures how much money they spent
on the app in the past month. What statistical treatment should he use in this study?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Hypothesis
 Hypothesis is a preconceived idea, assumed to be true and has to be tested for
its truth or falsity.
 Inferential statistics could be a test for relationship or test for difference.
 Hypothesis has two types namely: null hypothesis; and alternative hypothesis.
 Null hypothesis is the one that is always tested by researcher. It always
indicates the there is no significant relationship or difference between the group
means.
 Alternative hypothesis indicates that there is a true relationship or difference
between the group means.
 Results will show that:
1. There is a meaningful relationship or difference between two groups, thus
reject the null hypothesis
2. The difference or relationship between the two group is not large enough
to conclude that the groups are different or correlated thus you fail to reject

20
null hypothesis.

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Parent’s Signature: _________________________ Date: ____________________
 YOUR BRAIN NEEDS EXERCISES. DO THIS!
Type I and Type II Errors
 Type I error is committed when researcher rejected null hypothesis when in fact
it is true. A. True or False. Write T if the statement is true and F if not. Write your answer on the
 Type II error is committed when the data produce a results that fail to reject the space provided before each number.
null hypothesis when in fact the null hypothesis is false and need to be rejected.
____ 1. Parametric test uses interval and nominal scales.
____ 2. Hypothesis testing is done in inferential data analysis.
Parametric and Nonparametric Statistics
 Parametric test is used for interval and ratio scales of measurement. It requires ____ 3. Null hypothesis denotes that there is no significant relationship between the
that the samples are drawn from normally distributed population and the variables.
selection of each case should be independent of the other. Population should ____ 4. Hypothesis is a pre-assumption of the researchers that does not need to be
have equal variances. tested.
 Nonparametric test does not specify normally distributed population and ____ 5. Parameter is measured based on the population.
similarity of variance. It is used for nominal and ordinal data.
B. Complete the table by supplying the information needed.
Steps in hypothesis testing Research Data:
School Administration wants to know the beneficial effect of computerization in
1. State the hypothesis.
TVL class. A sample is taken to 200 sample students. Data results: z-test = -1.46, ∝=
Null hypothesis (H0) X=Y
0.01, Critical value = 2.58
Alternative hypothesis (Ha) X>Y/ X<Y
2. Choose the statistical test and perform the calculation.
A researcher must determine the measurement scale, the type of
Step 1. State the hypothesis
variable, the type of data gathered, and the number of groups.
3. State the level of significance for the statistical test. H0=
Alpha (∝) is a symbol used to denoted significance. The level most
Ha=
frequently use are .05, .01 and .001
4. Compute the calculated value.
Used appropriate formula (lesson 5) for the significance test.
Step 2. Define the following:
5. Determine the critical value that the test statistics must attain to be significant.
Look for critical value in appropriate table for the distribution. Critical - Measurement scale:
value defines the region of rejection from acceptance of null
- Statistical test to perform:
hypothesis. Example of distribution using ∝=.05

Step 3. State the level of significance for statistical test:

Rejection region acceptance region Rejection region

Step 4. Computed data results:
6. Make a decision.
If the calculated value is greater than critical value, reject the null

21
hypothesis. If critical value is larger, you failed to reject the null
hypothesis.

Page
Step 5. Determine the critical value:
 Research Data:

A researcher conducts an experiment to know if a caffeine drug has an effect to

the spider. After series of test, he knew that the mean response time for spider not
injected by caffeine drugs is 1.2 seconds (𝜇=1.2s) and the mean score for 100 injected
spider is 1.05s. Results shows that SD= 0.05, z=3, ∝= 0.05
Step 6. Make a decision (reject or accept the hypothesis):
Step 1. State the hypothesis
H0=
Ha=

Step 2. Define the following:

LET’S TEST YOUR BRAIN! REMEMBER THIS IS RECORDED
- Measurement scale:
BY YOUR TEACHER… OOOPS NO PRESSURE!
- Statistical test to perform:
A. Modified True or False. Write T if the statement is true and if not, change the
Step 3. State the level of significance for statistical test:
underlined word/s to make the statement correct.

___ 1. Critical value defines the region of rejection from acceptance of alternate
hypothesis. Step 4. Computed data results:
___ 2. Null hypothesis is the one that is always tested by the researchers.
___ 3. Inferential statistics requires biased selection of sample.
___ 4. Type I error is happened when researcher rejected null hypothesis when in fact it
is true.
___ 5. Nonparametric test needs to use normally distributed population and similarity of
Step 5. Determine the critical value: Shade the rejected region.
variance.
B. Complete the table by supplying the information needed.

Step 6. Make a decision (reject or accept the hypothesis):

22
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Parent’s Signature: _____________________________ Date: __________________
 GUIDELINES IN WRITING METHODOLOGY
Part of the research paper is discussing the methods you used in accomplishing
your study. It discusses the type of research you used, your process of collecting and
analyzing the data, the materials you used, and your rationale for doing those methods.
Here are the guidelines in writing quantitative research methodology
(McCombes, 2019):
1. Explain your methodological approach. Begin with discussing the research
problem you are investigating, and the kind of data you need to answer it. In
experimental research, it requires a carefully designed study that can be
replicated by other researchers.
2. Describe your methods of data collection. Give full details of the tools,
procedures and materials used to gather data, and the standard used to select
participants or sources for study.
Surveys. Describe where, when and how the survey was conducted. The
following question might be helpful:
 How did you design your instrument (e.g. Likert Scale)?
 How did you find and select participants?
 Did you conduct surveys by phone, mail, online or in person, and how
long did participants have to respond?
 What was the sample size and response rate?
You might include the survey questionnaire in the appendix part so the
reader can see how was the data collected.
Experiments. Give full details of the tools, techniques and procedures you
used to conduct the experiment. It is especially important to give enough detail
for another researcher to reproduce your results.
3. Describe your method of analysis. Discussed the process of analyzing data.
However, avoid discussing any of the result of the study. In quantitative
research, analysis of data is based on numbers. It might include the software
you used to analyze the data (e.g. SPSS) and the statistical methods you
used (e.g. regression analysis).
4. Evaluate and justify your methodological choices. Justification is more
needed if your approach used is not based on standard knowledge. Discuss
why the methods were suitable for your objectives, and show that this approach
might contribute to the body of knowledge.
Take note of the following (Faltado, Bombita, & Boholano, 2017):
 Design. Explain if your study is within or between group design. Include the
variables included and approach you used in the study.
 Participants. Describe the participants in your study including their total
number and the process of selecting them.
 Procedures. Properly explained your procedure. It includes the procedure you
have done before, during and after gathering data.
 Always write your methods in past tense.
 Provide enough details when doing experimental research. It is for the other
researchers to replicate your work.
 Used proper APA format.
 Take a rough draft of your work with your research teacher for additional
assistance.
 Always proofread your paper.
YOUR BRAIN NEEDS EXERCISES. DO THIS!
A. True or False. Write T if the statement is true and F if not. Write your answer on the
space provided before each number.
_____ 1. Methodology discusses the design used in the study.
_____ 2. Methodology includes the procedure on how the data was collected.
_____ 3. Methodology should be written in present tense.
_____ 4. Methodology discusses the related literature in the study.
_____ 5. Methodology discusses the statistical treatment used in data.
B. The following is some of the information that may be included in the methodology
chapter. Check the blank that are included in methodology.
___ Sampling procedure used ___ Materials used
___ Background of the measures ___ The limitation of the study
23
___ Statistical data used ___ Period of investigation
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 LET’S TEST YOUR BRAIN! REMEMBER THIS IS RECORDED BY
YOUR TEACHER… OOOPS NO PRESSURE!

A. Fill in the blanks. Fill the broken statement with correct word to complete the idea in
each item. Choose your answer in the box below.

instrument past design experimental

teacher APA appendix irrelevant
participants procedure aims proofread

1. Methodology should be written in __________ tense.

2. Use proper __________ format in writing your methods.
3. Always seek assistance with your research __________ to help improve your
work.
4. Place your full questionnaire in ___________ part so the reader can see how
you collect your data.
5. Always ___________ your works to check your grammars and spelling error.
6. Make sure to provide enough details when doing ___________ research so
that the other researchers can replicate your work.
7. Discuss the ____________ of your study including their total number and the
process of selecting them.
8. The methods must be appropriate to fulfilling the overall __________ of the
study.
9. Avoid including ___________ information your methods.
10. Explain how your ___________ were made and validated.

B. Discuss briefly the following:

Research Design
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Participants
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Procedures
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Statistical Treatment
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

24
_____________________________________________________________________

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Parent’s Signature: __________________________ Date: __________________