DOI 10.

1007/s11106-021-00214-4
Powder Metallurgy and Metal Ceramics, Vol. 60, Nos. 1-2, May, 2021 (Russian Original Vol. 60, Nos. 1-2, Jan.-Feb., 2021)

SINTERED METALS AND ALLOYS

REVIEW ON POWDER METALLURGY:

A NOVEL TECHNIQUE FOR RECYCLING
AND FOAMING OF ALUMINIUM-BASED MATERIALS

Naveen Kumar1,2 and Ajaya Bharti1

UDC 621.762: 669.71

The demand for aluminum is very high worldwide because of its high strength, low density, and high
electrical and thermal conductivity. Aluminum and its alloys are widely used in automotive,
aerospace, packaging, kitchen utensils, construction, electrical cabling, etc. To satisfy the high
demand, high production of aluminum and its alloys is essential. However, the sources of primary
aluminum (aluminum extracted from ores) are limited. Hence, the efficient recycling of aluminum is
vital. Conventional casting is often used to recycle aluminum and its alloys, although the efficiency
of such a method is very low. The researchers are therefore working to develop highly efficient
aluminum recycling techniques. Powder metallurgy is one of the novel techniques for recycling
aluminum due to its high use of materials, its low energy consumption, and its quasi-final production
of forms. The powder metallurgy technique is also beneficial in the manufacture of aluminum-based
metal foams. There are various ways to prepare aluminum-based metal foams using the powder
metallurgy technique. Aluminum-based metal foams are utilized in crashworthiness applications
because of their remarkable properties, like low density and high energy absorption capacity. In this
work, a study on various methods of recycling and foaming of aluminum-based materials by powder
metallurgy is performed. The parameters of the powder metallurgy process, such as the compaction
pressure, the weight or density of the reinforcements, and the type of reinforcement, strongly
influence the recycling and foaming of aluminum. In this work, the effect of compaction pressure,
weight or density fraction of reinforcements, and type of reinforcing agent on the recycling and
foaming of aluminum and its alloys was investigated.
Keywords: aluminum, scrap, recycling, foam, powder metallurgy, composite.

INTRODUCTION
Aluminum is the second highest consumed metal worldwide and the first in the list of highly consumed
non-ferrous alloys in the world due to its high electrical and heat conductivity, low density, moderate strength, and
high ductility [1, 2]. Annual aluminum consumption is approximately 60–80 million tonnes (including scrap metal),

1AppliedMechanics Department, Motilal Nehru National Institute of Technology Allahabad, Prayagraj,

India, 211004.
2To whom correspondence should be addressed; e-mail: chaudhary56naveen@gmail.com.

Published in Poroshkova Metallurgiya, Vol. 60, Nos. 1–2 (537), pp. 67–75, 2021. Original article submitted
July 25, 2020.

52 1068-1302/21/0102-0052 2021 Springer Science+Business Media, LLC

75% of which is extracted from ores [3, 4]. Aluminum scrap accounts for only approximately 25% of annual
demand [5]. Recycling aluminum scrap is another challenge [6, 7].
The conventional process of aluminum recycling is characterized by a significant loss of material due to
oxidation of metals during melting, waste due to the inclusion of slags, waste produced during casting and
processing, and so on [8]. Approximately 50% of materials are lost through the conventional recycling process [9,
10]. Powder metallurgy is a highly effective method for recycling metals and alloys [11]. In the powder metallurgy
process, well-mixed powders are compacted at high pressure and then sintered to produce the end product [12]. The
scrap generated during the processing and cutting of metals can be recycled without significant material loss by
powder metallurgy. In powder metallurgy, the substance is treated under the melting point [13]. As a result, there is
no material loss due to metal oxidation. Furthermore, powder metallurgy fabricates a product of almost final form
so that there is no need for further machining or much less machining is required [14]. There is thus a strong use of
materials in the powder metallurgical process [15]. Powder metallurgy is, therefore, a great alternative to aluminum
recycling. Powder metallurgy is also a good technique for the manufacture of aluminum foams because of the high
use of materials, less scrap, less energy consumption, etc. [16].
The physical and mechanical properties of a powder metallurgy product depend largerly on parameters of
powder metallurgy process, such as compaction pressure, sintering temperature, and sintering time. Reinforcing
materials also have a significant effect on the properties of metallic foams and composites produced by powder
metallurgy. This work involves further analysis of the physical and mechanical properties of recycled aluminum
and aluminum foams and composites manufactured by powder metallurgy method.

RECYCLING OF ALUMINUM-BASED MATERIALS

With limited sources of aluminum ores, efficient recycling of aluminum is essential to sustainable
development. Powder metallurgy is an innovative way to recycle aluminum, suggesting three different ways [17].
The first, is the direct recycling of unreinforced aluminum chips and primary aluminum powder. The second,
involves strengthening the aluminum scrap chips in the primary aluminum matrix. The third, one is to strengthen
other reinforcement materials (i.e., SiC, B4C, TiO2, etc.) in the scrap-aluminum matrix. Figure 1 shows the flow
charts for the recycling of aluminum by three different methods using powder metallurgy.
The physical and mechanical properties of recycled aluminum products depend on various parameters such
as chip shape and size, chip weight fraction, the weight fraction of reinforcement, compaction pressure, sintering
temperature, and sintering time. The effect of these parameters on the physical and mechanical properties of
recycled aluminum will be demonstrated in the following sections using three different methodologies.

Fig. 1. Flow chart for the recycling of scrap aluminium: a) without reinforcement and primary
aluminium; b) with primary aluminium; c) with added reinforcements

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 Direct Recycling of Unreinforced Aluminium Waste and Primary Aluminium. In this method of direct
aluminum recycling, no other material is added, i.e., reinforcing materials and primary aluminum. Fogagnolo et al.
recycled the aluminum alloy (AA6061) and aluminum matrix composite chips directly by the powder metallurgy
route without reinforcement and primary-aluminum [18]. The chips were recycled using two processes: cold
pressing followed by hot extrusion and hot pressing followed by hot extrusion. Aluminum alloy chips recycled by
hot pressing followed by hot extrusion (ultimate tensile stress of 309 MPa) was found to have better mechanical
properties compared to aluminum alloy chips recycled by cold pressing followed by hot extrusion (ultimate tensile
stress of 292 MPa). The ultimate tensile stress of recycled (cold-pressed followed by extrusion) aluminum matrix
composites reinforced with Al2O3 (172 MPa) was established to be higher than the ultimate tensile stress of primary
composite (151 MPa). An increase in strength resulted from grain refinement and higher oxide content. Fogagnolo
et al. also studied the effect of compacting pressure on the green density of recycled aluminum alloy. Figure 2
shows how compaction pressure affects the green density of recycled AA6061 and AA6060. The graph shows that
the green density of AA6061 increases sharply as the compaction pressure increases and becomes almost constant
at 700 MPa. Dragosek et al. also recycled aluminum alloy chips (AA6060) (small and large) by powder metallurgy
without reinforcement and primary aluminum [19]. Dragosek et al. observed a similar effect of compression
pressure on the green density of AA6060 (large chips) [19]. It was further observed that after compaction at the
same compaction pressure, the green density of a sample with large chips was above the green density of a sample
with small chips. The green density of the sample with small chips was lower due to the suspension of small chips
because of the high surface area of interaction.

Fig. 2. Green density vs. compacting pressure curves for recycled AA6061 and AA6060

Direct Recycling of Aluminium Scrap with Primary Aluminium. In this direct aluminum recycling method,
primary aluminum is mixed with scrap aluminum in a certain proportion, and a two-phase material is formed. The
properties of the three-phase material produced depend on the weight fraction of the primary aluminum. Sherafat et
al. investigated the effect of the AA7075 chip weight fraction on the physical and mechanical properties of
Al/Al7075, a two-phase material made using powder metallurgy [20]. Figure 3 illustrates the green density and
hardness of Al/Al7075 with a variable weight fraction of the AA7075 chips. The graph shows that the green density
decreases as the weight of the AA7075 chips increases and the hardness increases. A decrease in green density is
due to the reduction in the weight fraction of highly ductile and highly deformable primary aluminum. Primary
aluminum acts as the binder between the chips, which increases the density. Hardness increases as the weight
fraction of Al7075 grow due to the hard nature of Al7075 chips. Canakci et al. also studied the similar effect of the
AA7075 chip weight fraction on the green density and hardness of the two-phase material Al/Al7075 produced by
powder metallurgy [21]. Sherafat et al. also considered the effect of the AA7075 chip weight fraction on the tensile
strength of the recycled Al/Al7075 samples [20]. Like hardness, the tensile strength also increases with a higher
weight fraction of Al7075 due to the reduction in the weight fraction of the highly ductile and highly deformable
primary aluminum.

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 a b
Fig. 3. Impact of Al7075 chip weight fraction on green density (a) and hardness (b)

Direct Recycling of Aluminium Waste with Added Reinforcements. In this method of direct recycling of
aluminum, reinforcement materials, such as SiC, B4C, TiO2, etc., are added to the scrap-aluminum matrix to
improve the strength and other properties. Fuziana et al. recycled aluminum alloy chips (AA6061) directly with 4%
Al2O3 added by powder metallurgy [22]. The A6061 chips were cleaned and mixed with aluminum powder. Then
the mixture was ball-shaped at different rotation speeds (100, 150, and 200 rpm) to produce powder of different
sizes. Then samples of different powder sizes were prepared through compaction followed by sintering for the
effect of powder size on the green density and hardness of recycled AA6061 composites. Figure 4 shows green
density and hardness with respect to particle size (AA6061) graphs of AA6061/Al2O3 composites. Green density
and hardness increase with reduced particle size. Increased green density and hardness are attributed to reduced
porosity and particle size.
Yao et al. also recycled aluminum alloy chips (AA6063) directly by adding SiC reinforcement through
powder metallurgy [23]. The AA6063/SiC composite samples were made using spark plasma sintering followed by
hot extrusion. The effect of the weight fraction of SiC was observed on the tensile strength of recycled AA6063
composite materials.
Figure 5 shows the tensile tension and tensile strain of the AA6063/SiC composites with the different
volume fractions of SiC. The graph shows that the yield strength and yield strength of composites increased as the
content of SiC increased, whereas the percentage elongation at the breaking point is decreased. It is due to the harsh
nature of SiC strengthening.

Fig. 4. Green density and hardness of AA6061 + 4% Fig. 5. Effect of the SiC on the tensile stress and the
Al2O3 composites with different particle size tensile strain of AA6063/SiC composites

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 FOAMING OF ALUMINIUM-BASED MATERIALS
Foam is the process by which light and very porous foams are produced. The use of metallic foams is on
the rise in developed and industrialized countries because of their unique properties such as ultra-low density,
excellent sound damping, and high energy absorption capacity [24]. The major challenge for researchers is to
produce high-strength mechanical foams. Different reinforcing materials are added to increase the strength of
metallic foams. Powder metallurgy is a very simple and efficient method for the manufacture of metal foams thanks
to a high control of porosity [25]. In powder metallurgy, porosity is easy to manage by controlling the compaction
pressure. A further advantage of powder metallurgy is the ease of handling, as the production process takes place
under the working point. There are two ways in which aluminum foam can be easily produced through powder
metallurgy. The first is the manufacture of foam using space-holder material, and the other involves foaming agents
to produce metal foam.
Space Holder Technique. In this method, the volatile space-holder material (low melting point or self-
combustion point) is blended with aluminum and then compressed at high pressure. This volatile matter is then
dissolved or removed through fusion or combustion. Next, compact green aluminum is sintered to produce high
porosity and high strength metallic foam [26]. Moradi et al. manufactured aluminum foam through powder
metallurgy and space holding technique [27]. Spherical carbamide ((NH2)2CO) particles were used as space holding
material. Boron carbide was used as a reinforcement material. Aluminum, boron carbide, and carbamide powders
(50 wt.%) were mixed and compacted at high pressure. After that, carbamide was dissolved by placing green
compacts in a water container. Then the green compacts were sintered at 650°C. The effect of boron carbide
addition has been observed on the compressive force and energy absorption of Al/B4C composites.
Figure 6 shows the yield strength and energy absorption of Al/B4C composite foams with different weight
fractions of B4C. The graph shows that the elasticity limit and energy absorption increase as the volume of boron
carbide becomes greater. Density also decreases with the addition of boron carbide due to the low density of boron
carbide compared to aluminum. Thus, the addition of boron carbide has positive effects on the strength and energy
absorption capability of the aluminum composite foam. Surace et al. used the same technique when manufacturing
aluminum foam [28]. The effect of various process parameters was examined on the properties of aluminum foam.
The weight fraction of aluminum was considered the most influencing parameter. Optimal parameters for better
physical and mechanical properties are 550 MPa compaction pressure, two-hour sintering time, and 40% rotation
fraction of aluminum [29].
Use of Foaming Agents in the Manufacture of Metal Foam. In this method, a foaming agent is mixed with
aluminum and compressed to a pressure sufficient to stop the compaction of the point. Then the material is heated at

Fig. 6. Yield strength (1) and energy absorption (2) for Al/B4C composite foams

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 Fig. 7. Initial and final density of aluminium samples compacted at different pressure

a high temperature. At high temperatures, foam decomposes, and gas is released from the material [30]. If there is
sufficient interconnectivity between the aluminum particles, the fluency of gases will decrease, and the gases will
remain in the aluminum matrix. When heated above the melting point temperature, the aluminum melts and
encloses the gas produced during the decomposition of TiH2 [31]. That way, the material will expand. In this way,
high resistance and low-density foam are generated. Kennedy et al. manufactured aluminum metal foam with a
foaming agent [32]. The TiH2 foaming agent (0.6 wt.%) was added with aluminum, and the mixture was pressed at
high pressure to the point compaction stage. The material was then heated to a high temperature (up to 800ºC) with
a heating speed of 210 K/min. The holding time was much lower at high temperatures (5 min at 660°C and 2 min at
800°C). The effect of compacting pressure on the initial (pre-foam) and final (post-foam) density of aluminum
samples was observed.
Figure 7 shows that the final density is higher than the original density of samples compacted at low
pressure. This is due to the lack of foamability caused by the high porosity of the material. The gas escaped easily,
and the material did not expand substantially. For high-pressure compacted samples, the gas could not escape due to
the reduced porosity, and there was an enormous expansion in the molten material. The volume of samples
compressed at 474 MPa was increased by 218% after foaming. Flores et al. also used the same technique in the
production of aluminum foam [33]. The Ni-coated TiH2 was used as a foaming agent. The density of foam
produced by Ni coated TiH2 was more than the density of foam produced by uncoated TiH2.

CONCLUSIONS
The following conclusions can be drawn following the comprehensive literature review on the recycling
and foam formation of aluminum-based materials.
Powder metallurgy is a highly effective method of recycling and foaming aluminum-based materials.
Aluminum-based composite, recycled directly through powder metallurgy, has better mechanical properties than
primary composite. Recycling aluminum scrap with the addition of primary aluminum results in a two-phase
material with less porosity.
Chip weight fraction, chip size, and compaction pressure are the most important parameters affecting
aluminum recycling through powder metallurgy. The optimal compaction pressure range observed, chip weight
fraction, and chip size are 550–700 MPa, 40–60%, and <310 µm, respectively.
The powder metallurgy-space holder technique is found to be very simple and useful for the fabrication of
aluminum foams. Powder metallurgy is also suitable for the manufacture of aluminum foam using a foaming agent.
However, high-pressure compacting is necessary for this process.

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