MINERALOGY AND GEOCHEMISTRY OF IROAI

ORES OF THAKURANI MINES, DISTRICT

KEONJHAR, ORiSSA

DISSERTATION SUBMITTED
IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT FOR THE DEGREE OF
MASTER OF PHILOSOPHY
IN
GEOLOGY
FACULTY OF SCIENCE, A. M. V., ALIGARH
1383

BY
PARYAIZ AZAM QAQRI
M.Sc.

DEPARTMENT OF GEOLOGY
AUGARH MUSLIM UNIVERSITY
ALIGARH
 ^r''','^
;/j
^%
.M

24 :^AY ,>.

DS569

^-•aj^
f"!
 Dedicated to
my father
JANAE S.G.A. QADRI
who has been a strong source of
inspiration to m® since ray childhood
 CONTENTS

DEPARTMENT OF GEOLOGY
ALIGARH MUSLIM L NiVERSiTY
A LIGARH-202001

Dated 2;b«^«U.934-'

Ibis i s to certify that Mr, Barvaiz Az&m

;(,ada7l l)as coapXeted bis rase&rcb vc»'k under my
sdps:!i:'Visioa i a p a r t i a l fulfiliaeQt for the «i\Ard of
degree of Mestar of Philosophy of tho Allgarh MusXiffi
Qnivursity, AXigarh. Shis «(H'k i s aa origioaX
contrtbiitica to our koowXedg* of ii-on cares
mifieraiogy Bad gsoehemistry,
E« i s aXXoved to submit th« vork for the
H.Phil degrte of tna AXigarh Kuslia atjivsrsity,
Aii2&::h,

u i p l , Masraloi, (K. S.iUPbiX)

Qniverait^ of Heidelborg
west C-3j'aaoy
 Microstruoturss & Textures ••• 46
Paragenesis ••» 50

CHAPTER-V GEOCHEMISTRY ,•, 53

Distxlbution o£ major oxides ••• 55
Mutual Relationship o£ the significant 59
oxides with the V^o^a

Inter Element Relationship ••• 67

CHAPTER-VI SUMTIARY & COIICLUSIOiJ ... 73

TABLES ••• 78

HISTOGRAMS ••• 86
GRAPHS ••• 93
MAPS ••• 99
REFEREHCES •«• 102
PLATES •«• 113

*************

*********

*****
 LIST OF TABLES

Table-I Oeological distribution of Indian ores.

Table-Il Stratigraphy

Table-III Iron Ore Reserve

Table-IV Paragenesis of the iron and associated manganese

mizMtrals of Thaktirani mines,

Table-V Distribution of major oxides in the iron ores of

ThaKurani mines*

Table-VI Correlation coefficient of the major oxides of

Thakurani mines iron ores.

Table-VII Data showing the range of major oxides of

Thakurani mines. District Keonjhar (Orissa).

Table-VIII Data showing the niean value and standard deviation

of the major oxides of iron ores of Thakurani mines.
 ii

EXPIANATION OF PLATES

PLATE » I

Figure*! miotomicrograph showing micro>baiKling in granular

hematite(55 X}«
Figure-2 Photomicrograph showing replacement of Goethite by
hematite and limonite at the margins of goethite
crystals (55 X}.
Figure-3 Photomicrograph showing the replacement of magnetite
by hematite without any remnant of magnetite (55 X)»

PLATE » II

Figure-1 Photomicrograph showing replacement of martite

crystals by goethite (Pseudomartite), (55 X ) .
Flgure-2 Photomicrograph showing concentric bands of colloform
goethite (55 X ) .
Figure->3 Photomicrograph showing well developed cubic crystals
of martite embedded in granular hematite (55 x ) .

PLATE » III

Figure-1 Photomicrograph showing hematite vein and at the

margin replaceaient by goethite and limonite
respectively (55 X ) .
Figure-2 Photomicrograph showing colloforra pslloraelane and
pyrolusite (55 X ) ,
Figure-a Wiotomicrograph showing segregation bands of
hematite and massive goethite (55 X ) ,
 lil

LIST OP FIGURES

Figure 1 Location map o£ the area

Figure 2 Geological map o£ Thakurani mines* district
Keonjhar* Orissa
Figure Map shoving iron ore area o£ Singhbhum,
Keonjhar and Bonai
Figuxre 4 Map showing iron ore deposits o£ Orissa
Figure H»l Histogram showing frequency distribution o£ Si02
Figure H*2 N N M a AljOj
Figuire H-3 It n a a CaO
Figure K->4 n n tt n a
n
^«2°3
Figure H«>5 ti » R a
liajO
Figure H-.6 H n a KgO
Figure H-7 M a a MnO
Figure H-8 M If u a
^2^5
Figure H-9 n M a a MgO
Figure H-10 H H a H TiOj
Figure H-11 H It a a HgO^-
Figure 0*1 tti d SiO^ contents
Figure G-2 H n a
Figure G-3 « m a
" ^2°
Figttre G-4 tt d a
Figure 0»5 N a N " MnO a
Figure 0-6 « M a
Figure G-7 N
« • MgO a
Figiire G-8 « m
" TiOj a
Figure G*9 •I
" CaO a
Figure 0-10 n -H^O^ a
 CBAPTER - X

INTRODUCTIOH

The iron and atmml industry is a key industry of

national importance, the development of various industrial
activities in the country is linked with its development.
In an under developed country any scheme for industrialisation
presupposes the development of the iron and steel industry*
Iron is known to have been used in Egypt from the
Middle Pre-historic times (7»000*6,000 B.C.) end its use is
well authenticated from at least the 4th Dynasty onwards.
Sir Flinders Petrie, the well known archaeologist, was of
the opinion that all such iron was of meteoric origin and
that manufactured iron did not come into general use until
after the assyrian invasion of Egypt in 666 B.C., for the
largest group tools found in this country at Thebes or as
of the age (Jour. Iron & Steel Inst., 1925, vol. 112, pp. 182),
Eminent metallurgist have held that iron and steel
were amongst the earliest metals manufactured by ii»n and
that the ancient people of India, China, Egypt and Mesopotamia
knew how to make iron (Day, 1887). Several instances of
ancient iron are given by Ooodale and Speer (1920)and by
Swank (1892).
 Glorious was the past o£ this basic Industry In India.
The country was a leader In the production o£ carbon and
steel In the world. The development of the modern Industry
in the country has been rather delayed, India lags for
behind the leading countries of the world in the production
of Iron and steel. The raw material and power resources of
the country, the vast labour force, and advancen^nt in science
and technology, all augur well for the development of the
country.
The major ixron ore producing countries in the world
are the U.S.S.R., Brazil, India, U.S.A., Canada and Australia.
The principal deposits in the U.s.s.R. and in the vicinity of
Black Sea (the Kerch, Krlvol Roy and Kursk deposits) and Oral
Kaseaakhastan (Mt. Magnituaya and Svevdlovsk deposits).
India has around 60% of world's high grade ore
reserves. The total reserves of iron ore are estimated to be
around 8,050 million tonnes. These would last for about 100
years at an assumed rate of about 84 million tonnes which is
twice the present rate of production. Of the three types of
deposits (magnetitlc, hematitic and limonitlc), the hematltic
variety consisting about B0% of the total reserves is of
considerable iii^>ortance because of its high grade quality.
About 43% of the Indian reserves are situated in Bihar and
Orissa (Table-I).

The hill ranges covering the parts of Singhbhum

district (Bihar) and Keonjhar, Bonai, Mayurbhanj and Cattuck
 3

districts (Orissa) fomi the major mining region. Important

mining centres of this region are Oaa« Hoaimindi^ 6oruniahisani#
Bolani« Barsua« BarajanxSa# Tomka# Daiteri and Kiriburu (Fig. 4)
The deposits o£ Bihar and Orissa l:»long to the
Precambrian iron ore series and the ore is within the banded
iron formations occurring as massive ore with iron content
around 60% (concentrated hy leaching)» blue duat ore (extremely
friable and micaceous hematitic powder) and weathered ore*

PHYSIOGRAPHY OF THE AREA

The Orissa state is divisible into four regions* The

KTorthern Plateau* The Central River Basin* The Eastern Ghats
hill ranges and the coastal plains•
The Northern Plateau covering the districts of
Mayturbhanj, Keonjhar* Sundergarh and part of Ohenkanal*
is an undulating country having a general slope froai north
to south. The area of investigation viz.* Thakurani Hill lies
in district Keonjhar.
Thakurani Hill mass consists of three main ridges Which
rise about 3003 ft. from mean seal level. The hill mass
consists banded hematite-quertzite whereas the rich hematite
is exposed mainly on the top of the ridges. The rocks dip
generally to the northwest at high angles* but much contorted
and folded. Good hematite is exposed at eastern ridge but at
places foiand to be lateritised. The hematite is often covered
 d

with consolidated ore. The slopes of t M ridge are largely

covered with hematite and other debris. At the south and
of this ridge the hematite seems to pass laterally into
banded hematite-quartsite. The actual passage of one to
the other is not seen, owing to the covered nature of the
ground, but on following along the strike of the hematite
beds« often a few yards of covered ground, banded hematite-
quartsite occurs.
Western ridge is mainly covered with thick forest and
soil but contains a band of hematite which is iimll seen
towards the southern end of the ridge* The eastern end
western slopes of this ridge shows good exposures of banded
hematite<-guartasite •
At the southern ei^ of the middle ridge, rich laminated
and massive steel grey hematite are well exposed but lower
down the slopes is banded hematite-quartsite. According to
Percival (1934} the rocks seem to be bent into an anticlinal
fold, but the dip is very variable. The hematite seem to
become lateritic at the north end of the ridge.

LOCATIOH & ACCESSIBILITY OF THE AREA

The Thakurani Hill (22^06* t 85**26») selected for the

present investigation is located at about 12 miles south-east
of Barbil (22*^07• i 85**24»), district Keonjhar, Orissa and
is included in the one inch topographic sheet no. 73 F/8 of
Survey of India.
 :)

The area is approachable from Jamshedpur by train

as well as by bus via Jamda (Fig. X)»

CLIMATE

The climate o£ the area is tropical with high sismmer

temperature and heavy rainfall. The laaxiimira tenqperattire
during sumoaer period touches about 40®C* in the month o£
April and ?4ay* During winter months sometimes the temperature
falls below 15^C«

TOPOGRAPHY

The area in which the iron ore bodies occur consists

mainly of a mass of hills and ridges largely covered with
reserved and protected forests of sal trees. The small valleys
between the hills usually have a goc»l layer of soil* which is
often cultivated but the hilly area is rather sparsely
inhabited. The hills rise about l«OdO to X«500 feet from
ground level. To the north east of the iron ore area stenches
the granitic plain of Singhbhum, The iron ores are located at
Thakurani Hillland the main iron ore range, running in a
south-southwest direction,

DRAINAGE

The general drainage of the area is to the northeast and

the principal rivers being tiie Karo^the KOira and the Baitami,
 i)

SCOPE & PURPOSE OF IMVESTIGATIOK

The area undertaken for the present study lies in

Orissa state and foctoing parts of iron ore series* Iron ores
occurs as bedded deposits Which is rich in hematite* Till
todete no comprehensive work has been undertaken as regards
to the geochemistry of these deposits* It is therefore, the
author has the systematic collection of all the lithological
units including the hematite bands in or^ier to determine the
geochemical variation, if any# between the various lithological
units.
Such a study together with the studies of iron ores
under reflected light might reveal the possible source of
iron concentration besides suggesting a geochemical classifica-
tion of the ores for their specific econcmic uses based on
their chemical quality* It may also throw some light on the
metallogeny of these deposits*

PREVIOUS INVESTIGATIONS

Bose, P*N* (1904) of Geological Survey of India

discovered iron ore at Gorumahisani in Mayurbhanj state*
This was brought to the notice of Mr* Jamsetji Ktauserwanji
Tata who caused the deposit to be further investigated by
Messers* Perrin end l-teld, C M * <1915) of Hew York* This
deposit on which the great firm of the Tata Iron and Steel
Cos^any was founded* has since lost its position as tho
premier source of supply to the steel worki in favour of
the {loaimmdi deposit in South Singhbhtim, Sonbolle« R* {1907)«
a prospector, first discovered the Singht^tium iron ore deposits,
viz., KK}tu Burn and Fansira Burn.
Earlier accounts of these ores were given by Weld,CM.
(1915) and Parsons, E. (1922) before the geological problems
were clearly appreciated, Jones, H.C. (1923) described in
detail the iron ores of Singhbhmn, Keonjhar and adjoining
areas. Again, Jones and Krishnan, M.S. (1924*25) worked
together in BansacB state and then in the year 1925*26 and
1926*27 in the Keonjhar state with the help of the new maps
produced by the Survey of India.

Nairayana Xyer worked with Jones during 1923*24 and

1924*25 on the iron ores of Singhfahiira and Orissa deposits.
During his work Rairayana in 1924-25 and 1926*27 mapped most
of the granitic area with its dykes. Hobson, G.V. (1927)
completed the mapping of eastern Singhbhuun that was left blank
during the work of Jones and Krishnan (1924*25).
Dunn, J.A. (1929) comprised both tlw iron ore series
in the older metamorphics of Singhl^um area. He noticed at
Gurumahisani that the iron ores banded hematite-quartzites
and apparently also phyllitic rocks, have been metamorphosed
to a magnetite-cutnmingtonite grunerite rock, which is
according to imnn (1929) possible, but unlikely, that
curamingtonlte grunerite has developed in these rocks as a
 a

result o£ regional metamorphism. Percival* F*G. (1931), was

the first who made a cosigjrehenslve study of the iron ores of
Hfoaimmdi and suggested sedimentary origin for banded hematite-
quartzites because they tsrere precipitated from igneous thermal
solutions poured out on the sea bottom.
Dunn (1936, 1941) while working on the iron ores of
the eastern Singhbhum and adjoining areas described the
minerographic characters of the ores v/hlch was published
in Hemoir by Geological Survey of India, He observed that
magnetite was not the primary iron minerals, it has been a
product of nffitamorphisra. Krishnan (19S4) vrarked in detail
over ths iron ores of Singhbhum and Keonjhar areas describing
the three major groups vi2#, Gangpur, Iron Ore and Kolhen
v;hich was published by Geological Survey of India in its
Bulletin*

Chakraborty, K*L« (1958) stated that Ciumoingtonite-

magnetite rocks occurring in Badampahar are ascribed to the
thermal metainorphism caused by the intrusion of mafic igneous
rocks. According to caiosh, P.K.i Prasad, U#? and Ghosh, R.B.
(1963) the different facies of the banded iron formations
throughout the Singhbhurai-Keonjher-Bonai belt and Badampahar
areas in the east, can best be explained on the assumption
that they were formed in a barred basin or basins,

Sikka (1963) mad© a study over banded hematite-

quartssites of Bihar, Orissa and Hadhya Pradesh and has
grouped the iron fornmtions of these areas into Bonai and
Bose deposits which according to him, formed the shores of
the Satpura geosyncline*
Acharya# S. (1964) working at the stratigraphy of the
banded iron formations of the Daiteri-Tomka area* observed
that the lower contacts of the banded iron formations are
not sharp. He considered the banded cherts as irt>n formations
tnough they do not contain any iron, because of their
stratigraphic and physical continuity.
Earlier work by Prasada Raoj G«H»S«V,7 Murthy, IT.G.K*
and Deekshitulu, M,H* (1964} on stratigraphic relations of
Precainbrian iron formations and associated sedimentary
sequences in parts of Keonjhar, Outtack, Dhenkanal end
Sundergarh districts, shoiaeA that lava# sandstones, and
grits around the shale banded hematite jasper forrruattions of
Keonjhar-Bonai (Iron Ore Stage of t5unn) constitute a separate
older sequence and hfs revealed two older sequences containing
banded iron forimtions,
Chakraborty and Tarx>n (1968) reported the presence of
quart2-cuinntingtonite«-granurite-magnetite with a«K>site ani
quarts-actinolite-soisite magnetite developed in Orissa at
the contact of banded iron formation and gabbro.

While Iyengar, S.V.P, and Banerjee, P,K. (1971)

observed that Noanmndi iron forn ation and manganese bearing
shales, are younger than the Gorumahisani-Sukinda iron
forrretions because the latter is seen to pass below the
horse-shoe«shaped Moaniundl sync line whose western lii^ is
overturned.
 10

Mt2khopadhyaya» A» and Chanda* S*K* (1972) studied the

silica diagpnesis in the banded hematite jasper and bedded
chert associated with the Iron Ore Qrotip of Jarada-Koire valley,
Orisse* and £ound that spheralites are syngenstie in origin*
possibly originating from precipitation as a colloidal gel,
Reczrystallisation tends to oblterate the spherulitlc structures
and leaves as shadowy palin^sest of the original spherulite
marked only by a circular outline of iron oxide.
Pichaimithu, S.C» (1974) while working on banded iron
formations of Orissa said that the deposits of the Singhbhuas-
Keonjhar-'Bonai belt suggest deposition in a deeper part of the
basin or in a different basin, as it primarily contains fine
sediments deposited as chetnical precipitates*

METHODOI,0GY

All spectrophotoraetric measureraents were made with a

Beckman DU-2 Spectrophotonwter by developing coloured ions of
the respective elements, all of ndiich were made in the range
400-700 mja* The revised method of Shapiro and Brannock (1956)
for analysis of silicate rocks was adopted. The chemical
analysis data are shown in Table-V,

PREPARATION OF SAHPt^ S0LOTI0W5

The major part of the analysis is made on two solutions,

which are designated solution A and Solution B»
 V

Solution A is used in the determination of siO^ and

AijOj* Xt is prepared by fuaing 0«1 grara of the seiQpIe p3\ii6.ee
HaOH in a nickel crucible* In thia way deccxnposition is obtaine<2
very quickly and at a comparatively low temperature.
Two reference standard solutions end e reference blank
solution are prepared sicailtaneoualy with solution A» The
reference blank solution is prepared in the saxm way as
solution A €»ajept that sacaple pov?der is ondtted,
solution B is used in the deterainetions of TiOg, total

iron, r-mO, ^2^5' ^'^^* ^^' ^2^ ^^ ^^* ^° prepare this

solution* a 0*5 gram sample poiirder is digested overnight with
m and HgSO^ in a large covered platinum crucible on a steam
bath, HP is then cmmoved iy^f heating until copious fumes of
SO. are given off* and the residue is dissolved in water and
made to volusiip*
To Biiniiaise contaiaination fr<»« glass, the aliquots of
solution B was stored in plastic bottles.
CoEHiblned water CHgO^) is determined by taking 0.5 gram
of the seniJle po%^«r in a six inch long tube of hard glass,
closed at the one end with a bulb blown there. The weighed
cample is transferred inside the bulb by tmens of a thin strip
of glaxed papers. The sample is heated to red he©t for
half an hour end the loss of ignition Is weighed. The
difference give the weight of total water* For each sample
a fresh tube is used.
 12

ACKIIOWLEDGEHENT

Hie author wishes to expxress his deep sense of gratitude

and appreciation to Mr. M.H.A. Sajid, for his valuable guidance
and constant encouragenMint all through the accomplishment of
this work.
The author place on record his indebtedness to
Prof. S.H. Rasul (Ex*C3iairman)« my ex-supervisor, for his
constructive criticism and valuable advice during completion
of this dissertation.
The author is also grateful to Prof. V.K. srivastava.
Chairman, Department of Geology, A.M.U., Aligarh, for providing
necessary facilities and taking keen interest in this work.
To Mr. Syed Hamid Hasan Khan, Xiecturer, Computer Centre,
A.M.U., Aligarh, the author owes special thanks for his valuable
help during the computer programming.
The author is particularly grateful to his friend
Mr. Rayaz Ahmad who never failed to help at every stage.
The author is grateful to Mr. NOman Ghani, Dr. L.A.K. Rao
and Mr. Mohd. Ajmal with whom many fruitful sessions of
discussion arranged.
Ihe author appreciate the valuable help readily received
from Mr* Shahid Farooque during photography of ore samples.
Many thanks are due to Mr. S, Mohd, Hasan, Habeeb Ahmad,
Zakir Husain, Nazar Ali Khan for the help they extended in their
respective fields*
 13

The author wishes to express his deep a^reclatlon to

the Orissa Mining Corporation Ltd* and to Mr. S,A. Rahlm for
providing all sorts of facilities during the field work at
Barbll, district Keonjhar*
The author avails of this opportunity to acknowledge
the blessings and good wishes received frcmi his mother and
last but not least the author Is also thankful for the nK>ral
strength and support which he received from his wife.
In the end, the author has the pleasure to acknowle»dge
the U.G.C. Fellowship,
 14

CHAPTFR - II

STRATIGRAP-IICAL AND STRUCTURAL SET-UP

STRATIGRAPHY

The geological history of Orlssa commencea with the

fornation of the granulitic rocks of the Eastern Ghats
Group, These are probably the oldest rocks having acted as
the baaeir.ent for the deposition of Iron Ore Group sediments
as seen in the Dharwar and Brahmani valley tracts (Sarkar,
1972).
The most imoortatt group of iron ore deposit in
India occurs in south Singhbhum and adjoining districts of
Keonjhar and Bonei between the latitudes 21°40*?^and 22°20'NF
and lonciitttdee 85°5«E and 85°32»E.
Banded iron formations constitute an important member
of the Iron Ore Group which is niore than 2700 m.y, in age
according to Sarkar, Saha and Miller (1969), While the name
•Dharwar* was coined by Foote (1B86) to designate the
schistose rocks in •Central Deccan and southward as far as
the northwestern corner of the wilgiri massif, while Fermor
(1909) generelised the use of the term pnd applied it to all
sedimentery schists lying below the Epachaen unconformity,
Dunn (1929) accepted this view and employed it to comparise
both the Iron Ore Series and the older metamorphics of the
 15

Singhbhum areas. According to Krlshnan (1935) the Iron Ore

Series, the Gangour Series, and the Older Metamorphic Series
form the Upper, Middle, and Lower sections respectively o€
the Dharwars,
Later, Permor (1936) came to the conclusion that the
important masses of hematite quartzite end hematitic ore
that occur in the iron ore series seems to provide the
deciding factor in favour of the Iron Ore Series being
equivalents of the Dharvars in South India, The presence
of banded iron formation was thus used to decide whether
a sedimentary sequence should be considered as Dharvar or
not. Later, Dunn (1940) rejected this mode of correlation on
the ground that in •Rajputana, Central Provinces and Chota
tfegpur, there are several systems of schists of which any
one system may or may not be the equivalent. He discussed
this problem and suggested that the term 'Oharvrar* should
not be used to designate the schistose rocks outside the
type area in K^rnataka, since all these unfossiliferous
deposits can not be considered as synchronous or even
homotaxial.

Besides the iron formations, the Iron Ore Group

includes a sequence of lava, shale, and sandstone. Although
the stratigraphical relationship of the iron formation with
lava is not consistent throughout south Singhbhum and
adjoining terrains, the lava is nowhere directly in contact
with the banded hematite Jasper but a shale is always
between them (Sarkar ftnd Roy, 1966) the iron ore groups
 lb

overlies unconforraably the Older Metamorphlcs ( 3200 m.y,)

and separated by an unconformity, underlies the Dhanjori
Formation (1600-1700 m.y.).
The earliest attempt at working out the stratigraphy
was made by Jones in 1923 (Table-II, No. 1) and followed by
Krishnan in 1937 (Table-II, Mo. 2 ) . Gangpur, Iron Ore, Kolhan
were recognised as three major groups. The Singhbhum-Keonjhar-
Bonai belt of Bihar and Orissa (Fig. 3 ) contains chiefly
banded hematite jasper rocks, while banded hematite quartzites
are exposed in Thakurani Hill (Fig. 2) and Tomka areas in
Orissa. Considerable work was done in the field to establish
stratigraphy by Dunn (1929, 1937, 1940), (Table-II, No. 3),
and Dunn and Dey (1942). The Iron Ore Series of north and
east Singhbhum was divided into a lower Chaibasa stage and
an upper iron ore stage. The iron ore formation which consists
of banded hematite jasper, basic igneous rocks, phyllites and
tuffs, was supposed to be present on either side of the Copper
Belt Thrust - a well marked thrust zone 200 km, long which
separates the low grade metamorphics of the south from the
high grade rocks of the north. Earlier, intensive structural
and stratigraphic studies have been made in this region by
Sarkar and Saha (1959, 1962, 1963, 1964, 1966), and Sarkar,
Saha and Miller (1967, 1969), Three distinct orogenic cycles
were recognised by them in this region, viz., the Older
Metamorphic Orogenic Cycle (3200 m.y.) and the Singhbhum
OrOgenic Cycle (850 m.y.). They observed that the banded
hematite-jasper in Singhbhum north Keonjhar and north
riayurbhv nj must be older because the end of iron ore orogeny
is placed at 2700 m.y, Sarkar (1972) considers that the Iron
Ore Group sediments, pyroclastics, and volcanics were
deposited on the eroded Older Metaroornhlcs and associated
granites mainly under unstable shelf conditions, While
Percival (1931)« (Table-li, Ho, 4 ) . Correlated the iron ore
stage rocks on either side of the thrust, and found striking
lithological differences, especially in the absence of the
banded hematite-jaspers in the north though they are prominent
in the iron ore series in the south,

A detailed study by Prasada Rao, Murthy, and

Deckshitulu (1964) besides establishing that the lavas,
sandstones, and grits around the shale-banded hematite-
Jasper formations of Keonjhar-Bonai (iron ore stage of Dunn)
constitute a separate older sequence, has further revealed
two older sequences containing banded iron formation.
The Goxrumahisani-Sukinda belt, which comprises
banded hematite quartzite, banded magnetite quartzite,
quartzites, and phyllites is intruded by the Singhbhum
granite. The Noamundi iron formation consisting of shales,
banded hematite Jaspers, and manganese bearing shales, is
considered to be younger than the Gorumahisani-Sukinda iron
formation because the latter is seen to pass below the
horse-shoe shaped Noamundi syncline whose western limb is
overturned (Iyengar and Banerjee, 1971). The main difference
between these two formations are manganiferous whereas such
 J8

manganese bearing members are not present in the Gorumahisani

sequence. The manganese ore deposits occurring in the Iron
Ore Group rocks of the Bonai-Keonjhar belt have been described
by riurthy and Ghosh (1971).
The lower contacts of the banded iron formf>tions are
not sharp at Daiteri-Tomka area, however, the banding starts
in the lower quartzite itself signifying the rhythmic change
in the geochemical conditions of precipitation (Pichamuthu,
1974). The change-over from the lower quartzite to iron
formation, however, is completed within a few feet and
laterally also within a short distance of a few feet, the
ore minerals change over to jasper or chert, and therefore,
the banded cherts though they do not contain any iron, have
to be considered as iron formations because of their
stratigraphic end physical continuity (Acharya, 1964).

LITHOLOGY

The iron ores of the area occur in the Singhbhum-

Keonjhar-Bonai belt (Fig.3 ) of iron ore series which is
in Keonjhar overlying tne Older Dharwars unconformably
according to Krlshnan (1937) are associated with banded
hematite-quart7ite and shales, which a n of typical
sedimentary aspect and almost un-metarnorphosed, and vrere
considered to be possibly of Post-Dharwer age (Jones,
1923),
 13

Banded Hematite-Quartgite

The hematite-quartzlte is often very highly folded

and contorted and faulted on a small scale. These structures
are s\ibjected to compression during the course of composition
and partly to the result of slumping of the material during
the process of leaching of the silica and enrichment by
ferric hydroxide through the agency of circulating ground
waters (iCrishnan, 1937).
The small scale folding and puckering often seen in
the formations are due, as pointed out by Spencer and Perclval
(1952), to compression while the material was still soft
enough to accomodate itself to features as well as slump
structures were impressed on them after final consolidation
during period of folding and enrichment by ground water. At
end near the surface the material has generally been converted
into massive hematite. The depth to which enrlchmc?nt too't^
place must have been controlled by former topography <ind the
availability of drainage channels for the carrying av^ay of
silica.
The occurronco of lenticular masses of powdery ore,
often showing original bedding where undisturbed, shov;s
that thought the silica has been leached away completely
or nearly so, its place has not been filled by the
filtration of iron oxide.
 20

Mixed ore end banded hetnatito-quartzite Is mainly

exposed in the southwestern part of the area while a small
patch of this, is located In the west north of the area
covered by dumped material end soil.
The banded hematite-Jasper contains varying
proportions of iron oxide and silica. Owing to their
greater hardness they stand up as prominent ridges and
cliffs on weathered surfaces, the hematite bands often
stand up while the jasper bands form depressions owing
their being partly leached out. The bands vary in colour
fro>Ti grey or white to lavender, red and brown to black.
They may shov/ intense cumpling and contortion and minute
faulting and dislocation. The silica in the jasper band
is sometimes of chalcedonic nature and sometimes micro-
crystalline. The individual layer varies in thickness in
different exposures from almost the thinness of a knife's
edge to as much as one inch or more, vjhile the average is
about one-tenth of an inch. The banding is not always very
regular. Owing to the fact that it is highly folded the
apparent thickness is often deceptive.

Banded Hematite Quartzite Is mainly exposed in the

Kforthern West part of the area and it occupies the larger
part of the Thakurani Hill (Fig. 2 ) .

Small patches of banded hematite quartzite is also

found in the southern part. There is a considerable
 21

literature on the origin of the similar banded hematite

rocks in different parte of the world, but none of the
theories put forward have been generally accepted to explain
the thin alterations of silica and iron oxide. Percivel
(1931) while describing the iron ores of ttoaraundi suggested
that the rocks are of the result of chemical precipitation,
but the conditions under which this precipitation took place
is still uncertain, although it is generally assumed that the
precipitation took place under marine conditions. The rocks
at the present time, are undoubtedly in a different condition
from that in which they were originally deposited, similar
rocks in the Lake Superior area have been shovm to have
cherts or sideritic shales (Wagner, 1928),

Shale/Phyllite

The shelee are usually soft and finely laminated

in the area of investigation but in the north and north-
western part of the area, they often become phyllitic in
character, and show an incipient cleavage which runs at a
fairly high r.ngle about 67 to the bedding.
The enrichment has affected not only the iron
formations but also the associated shales. Such enriched
shales have been found as underlying the hematite quartzite
at the area of investigation where a gradual passage from
shale to the ferrug^inous shale have been observed.
 9 9

where conditions have been favourable. Iron has been

brought In by meteoric waters, and replaced the shale
material. Shales are too soft to give continuous exposures
and they are usually covered with a mantle of soil.
At some places quartz veins ere found in the shales
and the rocks have a remarkable phyllltlc sheen, not
withstanding the gently undulating nature of the beds and
the normal ebsenc of close folding. Although the purple
colour of many of the shale is inherent since deposition
of thes8 beds, it is, in other cases, due to later staining
fay iron oxide (Dunn, 1940),
At times, the shale is ferruginous, and in this
case, it alters extensively at the surface, end more
especially at the top of the hills into laterltic material
which in some cases by further alteration have resulted in
hematitic iron ore bodies (Jones, 1923). The shales seldom
make any surface feature, and usually occupy the low ground,
except when they have been silicified or when capped by iron-
ore or laterltic material which acts as a protective covering
and being soft they are easily disintegrated to form a layer
of soil, so that in low ground their structure and character
are largely hidden by soil and debris,

STRUCTURAL SET«-IJP

The structural set-up of the Iron Ore Group rocks

 23

is hlghl/ complicated with the deveiopment of refolds and

reclined folds et places, hov/ever, the trends varies at
different places. In the Bonai region the quartzites of
Iron Ore Group have a subsidiary trend in a Itorth East -
South West direction. While in tlie Badampahar Gurtunahisani
area, a similar trend recorded by the banded iron formation
and the associated metabasites veers at the Bihar state
boundary in the north to assumed a Northeast-Southeast
direction.
It will be seen from Jone's map (1923) that the main
outcrops of banded hematite-quartzite form an elongated horse
shoe, open to the north and closed to the south in Bonai and
Keonjhar. The western rim of this horse shoe is the iron ore
range, the backbone of which is a more or lees straight and
continuous zone of banded hematite-quartzite. The eastern
rim is at its northern end at Noamundi mine, some eiqht
miles from the iron ore ran^e, and in contrast to the
western rim is represented by outcrops of bended hematite-
quartzite of varying width. Smaller outcrops of banded
hematite quertzite occur within the area enclosed by the
horse shoe; this area consist largely of phyllites v;ith tuffs,
lavas and some cherts, end in addition, occasional outliers
of Kolhan rocks. On the western side of the horse shoe there
is a wide area of lavas between which and the banded hematite-
quartzite there is a zone of phyllites increasing in width to
the north. On the eastern side of the horse shoe there is
 24

a J In s wide area of lavns, with occasionally a thin zone

of phyllite intervening between them and the banded-
hematite-quartzite.
Most of the central area v/ithin the horse shoe
aopears to be occupied by phyllites Jone*sraap#however,
gives an impression of the extent of these phyllites
between Noamundi (22^09' j 85^28•) and Iron Ore Range as
far the greater part of the area coloured as phyllite is
thickly covered with alluvium, or laterite.

Joints and Slickensides

Jointing is sometimes very marked in the shales end

is well seen in the area of investigation and they generally
strike in a east-north-easterly direction and dip in north-
north-west sometimes at high angle, about 68 and north to
south and west-northeast to east-southeast and secondary
Joints running generally to east to west.
The shales generally split along the bedding planes,
but towards the north of the area, cleavage is also well
developed, and often runs nearly at right angles to the
strike and dip of the original bedding in the shales, as
is indicated by the bands of different colours in the rock.
Exposures of the shales are not very good and being
soft, nature, folds and slips are not often seen and the
movement has taken place is evident from the slick^nsided
surfeces that are occasionally exposed. Bands of cherty
rocks occasionally occur in these shales*

Folding and Faulting

Although tnere is change of dip and strike where

folds occur, these make practically no difference to the
general strike and dip of the rocks as a whole. The general
structure of the iron ore series in the southern part of the
iron ore area is an asymmetrical synclinorium-pitching towards
the north. The west arm of this syncllnorium is slightly
overfolded and dip towards the west, whilst the east arm is
complicated by the folding, but has a general dip of 45 in
a westerly direction. This syncllnorium pitches towards the
north. Hear the Singhbhum-Keonjhar boundary and towards the
north, the structure becomes obscure owing to excessive
folding faulting and largely to the covered nature of the
ground.

The structure is generally only to be made out where

the banded hematite-quartzite is exposed as the shales are
too soft to give continuous exposures, and they are usually
covered with c mantle of soil.

Faulting in the shales is often indicated by numerous

slicken.ided surfacss, but is impossible to trace the faults
for any distance, owing to the soft nature of the rocks, and
to the covering of soil which is usually present.
 'c6

CHAPTER - III

IRON ORES

Iron Is the most versatile of all materials so far

known to n»n. No wonder. Iron provides the framework of
modern civilization. It Is difficult to think about modern
machines and equipments without steel. There are engines of
steel and tools of steel; the machines to make the machines
are also made of steel.
With its myriad uses in roads# rails, bridges, tunnels,
trains, n»tor-cars and trucks, steel has helped the development
of the net work of transportation and communication that has
fostered the growth of modern civilization.
The development of modern urban civilization has been
possible thanks to the intelligent utilisation of iron and
steel. Beginning from the sky scrapers and giant structures
in modern cities, the stoves, refrigerators, steel furnitures
and a host of consumer durables are made of steel. Agricultural
development has attained a new meaning today with the tractor,
the harvester, equipments for irrigation and other mechanical
implements. Thus, human activities in the present era are
related in one way or anotiier to iron and steel. I should say
that our food would be less plentiful if there was no steel for
spades end hoes, our water less pure if there were no pipes.
 M
27

Basic is the manufacture of Iron and steel to a nation's

economic life. The production and consumption of iron and steel
is rightly considered as a sinequanon of a country's industrial
prosperity.
Broadly speaking it can be said that the industrial
advancement has been in keeping with the avowed objective
of enabling the economy to reach as soon as possible^ the
stage of self-sustaining growth, for, despite the short
falls, notable progress has been achieved in the development
of iron and steel, heavy engineering and other capital goods
industries.

IRON ORE RESERVES OF Xm: AREA

India has around 60% of world's high grade ore reserves,

of which about 43% of the Indian reserves are situated in Bihar
and Orissa and these deposits belong to the Precambrian iron
ore series.
Orissa is endowed with a vast reserve and high grade
ores ranks second in the country's iron ore production. The
chief protores which gave rise to iron ore deposits by
supergene residual enrichment are the banded hematite
jasper/quartitites of Precambrian age. They are found in
two distinct cycles, one in the iron ore group associated
with hornblende schists and phyllites of green schist family
 2B

and the other In less metemorphosed rocks of the Kolra Simpllpa:

group. The iron ore formations of Koira Simplipal group
associated with basic lavas and shales are exposed as a
major low north-plunging horse-shoe shaped synclined in
the Bonai-Keonjhar belt of Sundergerh district*
The reserves of iron ore, as estimated by Geological
Survey of India (1974) in different areas of Keonjhar district
have been shown in Table-III,
The total reserves of iron ore of all grades are
estimated at about 8000 million tonnes in Orissa, of which
the proved reserves are 3800 million tonnes (of 59-69% Fe),

?TODE OF OCCURRF WCE

At Thakurani Hill mines banded rocks are very striking,

and consists of interbedded layers in varying proportions of
iron oxide, silica, and combinations of the two. The chert,
however, is not truely amorphous, but consists of fine
interlocking grains of quartz. At times silica is red and
jaspery, and this red jasper often forms a large proportion
of the rock. The iron oxide is usually hematite. It is in
these banded rocHs that most of the iron ore bodies occur,
and all gradations between them and iron ore are found.
The similarity of these banded rocks to the jaspilite
described by Van Hise and Leith (1911) in their monograph on
•The geology of the Lake Superior Region', was later on
recognised by Jones (1934).
 20

These rocks range froi • pure dense quartzite on the one

hand to pure massive iron ore on the other, every conceivable
gradation between the two extremes being found at some point
or other and often within the area and as a rule the ore
bodies do not have sharply defined walls, are siliceous banded
ferruginous rocks grade one into the other.
Weld (1915) in his description of 'The ancient sedimentary^
iron ores of British India* says on page 452 J-
"They are strikingly like the Precembrian iron ores of
Brazil, In fact, one is alnK>8t tempted to apply the Brazilian
term itabirite to the quartz iron ore beds, jaculinage to the
laminated and micaceous ores occurring within phyllites, and
canga to the surface accumulations of rubble-ore float and
rich laterite".
Fermor (1936) has suggested while describing similar
rocks from the Jabalpur district, that these rocks should be
called banded hematite-Jasper or banded hematite quartzite,
Percival (1931) has used the terra banded hematite-Jasper, but
the term banded hematite-guartzite has got into common usage
in the iron mining areas.
Owing to their hardness, and partly to the comparative
insolubility of the iron constituents they resist weathering
so they are usually the most conspicuous rocks in the iron
ore area, end are often found fuming steep cliffs, in which
the bands of materials of different colours iramediateiy attract
one's attention. The bands which are often very regular, vary
 30

from more partings up to several Inches In thickness« and in

colour from white to lavender grey# bright red, brown black
etc. The difference in colour is due to varying amount, and to
the character of the iron present. The bands of hematite,
although generally fairly regular, are found thicken and thin
out at times. The character of the siliceous bands varies
considerably some consisting mainly of chert of nearly white
to brownish red colour, others compact dark grey to reddish
grey, consisting of powdery hematite and magnetite in silica.
When exposed at the surface, the siliceous bands may
be leached away, say a quarter to half an inch, leaving the
hematite bands standing out as ridges* The thin veins of
hematite noted above as sometimes occurring in these rocks,
are left joinning the bands of hematite when the silica is
dissolved away.

TYPES or IROH ORE

Practically the entire ore body that occurs and is mined

in the area i.e. Thekurani Hill is hematite of various types,
but, of course, it is almost impossible to prevent a certain
admixture of hydrated material during mining operations.
Laterite which contains up to say, 45% of the iron is
abundant in the area, and a small gets snapped with the ore.
 n
In the mine quarry faces occasionally shale are
Interbedded with the banded-hematite quartzite, such shales
sometimes grade to ore.
The hematite varies from a massive steel grey type
through a porous laminated shally looking type of iron, to
a fine soft powder which averages well over 65% of iron. The
porous laminated tvpe at the surface is often somewhat hydrated
and often has a laterltic appearance.
There is usually no sharp line of division between the
different types and the one seems to pass gradually into the
other.
The usual type of ore is massive, hard and compact and
steel grey to dark and brownish black in colour. The following
varieties of hematite ore may be recognised :•
1. Hard ores (steel grey to brownish, massive and
laminated.
2, Moderately hard ores (laminated).
3, Blue dust (flaky, friable and powdery).
4. I<ateritic ores.

!• Hard Ores (Massive Hematite^

The massive ore, which is practically pure hematite,

has a steel grey colour, often with a metallic lusture, and
is usually extremely fine grained, dense and compact. It has
 32

a metallic ring when struck with a hananer. This ore has a

specific gravity of about 5,0 and specimens have yielded
up to 65% of iron. This massive ore often forms steel
cliffs, which are well seen at Thakurani Hill (22°06» j 85°26»),
The ore is well bedded, but is often broken into blocks
by Joints planes. At the surface this type of ore oftsn has a
polished appearance, and is sometimes coated with a greyish
black film. It is very resistant to weathering, but along the
edges of blocks a certain amount of rounding takes place
owing to weathering. Solution and alteration also take place
along the bedding and Joint planes and often result in the
formation of thin bands of lateritic material in the solid
ore. This solution and alteration of the massive ore can in
some cases be seen to cause a passage into a laminated shaly
looking oxre,

when seen in thin section, the ore grey and metallic

and often resembles magnetite, but is usually has a slightly
reddish tinge under reflected light.

2, Moderately Hard Ores (Laminated Hematite)

The laminated hematite varies in character, from a

reddish type through a grey laminated variety, which is dense
and compact, with a metallic ring under the hammer, and light
almost be classed with the massive ore, to a less solid
laminated variety, which is often inclined to a shaly appearance.
 3a

and is often extremely porous. This shaly appearance, is usually

due to thin laminae of the massive grey variety being interbanded
with thin laminae of less compact ore, often of a reddish colour
and usually very porous. The spaces in the porous varieties
occasionally have small grains of white quartz, or white, or
ferruginous shaly and kaolinic material in them. The bedding
in this type of ore is usually well masked, but owing to the
leaching out of much of the original material in the rock, the
ore is often vary contorted and broKen up into small fragments,
either by earth movements or by the weight of overlying material.
Cavities sometimes occur in this type of ore.
The specific gravity varies considerably, depending on
the proportion of massive ore end the amount of porosity, and
varies from 3,5 in the earthy varieties to about 5.0 in the
solid laminated types. Owing to their porous nature these ores
often become hydratad, and tend to become lateritised. As would
be expected, the iron content varies considerably, but is usually
well over 60% and in some of the denser typ; approaches very
closely to that of the massive varieties.

These seem to be no doubt that this type of ore has

resulted mainly from the leaching out of silica from the
banded hematite quertsite. There is also a type of laminated
shaly ore which 'las resulted from the alteration of the shales.
This type is rich in iron but gradually passes into the usual
shales of the area.
 34

3, Blue Dust (Powder Hematite)

The powdery variety Is usually so fine grained and

unconsolidated that it falls into powder at a touch, but
it usually cont'-»ins some lumps or bands of harder ore. This
powder ore can be seen in parts of most of the ore as where
mining or quarrying dperations have taken place and is well
exposed at some of Messrs. Bird and Company, workings at
Thakureni Hill (22^06• » 85°26»),
Although usually containing over 65% of iron, it is of
very little use at present, and is looked on with disfavoxir
by the blast furnace operations, as the material tends to
choke the blast furnace or get blown out into the flues.
This powder ore is at tiroes seems to pass laterally
into the friable laminated ore, and when looked at in situ
in a mining fare, it is difficult to imagine that it is a
soft powder, but immediately it is touched, it falls to the
ground as a powder.
Jones (1923) believed that the 'blue dust* which is so
frequently associated with the Indian ores, represents the
residue after the complete removal of silica from lamirated
hematite. Percival (1952) originally believ^^d that these
powdery ore represented a chemical precipitate such as might
be produced by the sudden chilling of magmatic solutions on
their injection in the sea.
 35

At some places at Thakurcml Hill (22°06» i 85°26»)

which were exposed faces the another there exactly similar
to banded hematite quartzite, but when touched it ran down
as a fine sand. Such leaching is obviously the work of recent
meteoric waters. Sometimes 'blue dust' at some exposed face
show perfect preservation of oil the minute structures e.g.
folds of tho banded hematite quartzite; these could never
have been preserved in such an incoherent material through
out earth movements of any magnitude.

4. Lateritic Ores

The lateritic variety occurs in large quantities through

out the iron ore area, as a surface alteration product, sometimes
of the iron ore itself, at other times of the ferruginous shales,
end at still other times of the hematite • breccia or other
rocks. Lateritisation is usually a surface feature but attention
has already been drawn to the formation of laterite bands along
the joints end bedding planes of the massive hematite. The
laterite is usually of too poor a quality and too rich in
alumina to be used as an iron - ore, though at times owing to
the presence of fragments of unaltered hematite in the mass,
the iron content is nearly 60%, and it becomes of economic
volue, but it usually runs to between 40 and 50 percent of
iron.
 At times the original bedding can be distinguished*
and then it is known to some extent from what type of rock
or ore the laterite has been derived, but at other times the
lateritisation has been so complete as to obliterate all traces
of the character and bedding of the original rock.

nimnG WTHOD

open cutrainingis practised at Thakurani Hill and also

the blast hole drilling is done to break vast quantities of ore,
by using large charges of liquid oxygen explosive.

COM>ITIONS WARRA?^TI^^:- O^BH CUT WORK

Open cut mining of minerals is justifiable technologi-

cally and economically when they lie immediately near the
surface or at a relatively small depth. In this connection,
it should be added that because of the considerable progress
made by mechanisation, minerals can be carried out to advantage
at ever-increasing depths.
Open cut work is also possible v;hen the deposit is not
exposed directly at the surface, but it is covered by consi-
derable amounts of overburden or country rocks* whose thickness
should not exceed a certain limit. In cases like this the
deposit may occur either horiszontelly or at any angle to the
horlEontal.
 37

The production unit of a mining enterprise extracting

the mineral by the open method Is called open pit. This term
Is analogous to mine, which extracts the mineral underground.
It should be noted thet the term open pit often also designates
an open mine workings In which' the mineral Is excavated by the
open cut method.

ADVANTAGES OF 0?EH CUT WOR/.If^S

1. The principal advantage is that the efficiency of labour

is considerably higher in open pits, v;hHe the cost of mining
Is lower.

2. Large working faces and the use of highly efficient

machines for the open mining of large deposits yield considerable
tonnages. The reconstruction of an active ooen pit enables to
raise production more quickly.

3. Open pits may have a shorter seirvlce life than underground

mines, since here it is possible to transfer the costly main
items of mining and transport equipments and machines to other
pits for further use. Hence, pits working even limited reserves
may yield large annual tonnages.

4. Open pits need no support, filling, ventilation and

artificial lighting (except at night).
 38

5. Percentage recovery of the mineral is higher in

open work.

6. When necessary, large size monoliths for construction

ani sculptursl purposes can also be quarried.

7. Working conditions in the open, in good weather -nd

not too severe climate, are better than underground mining,

8. There is less danger of accidents. However, the presence

in the pits of numerous machines, the wide-flung transport
netv'ork, blasting operations, the possibility of mineral and
rock blocks falling from the faces are a constant source of
potential accidents.
 39

CfiAPTFR - IV

MI?3ERAL0GY

Banded rocks of the area of investigation are very

striking, end consists of inter-banded layers in varying
proportions of iron oxide,fciiicaan^ et others is cherty.
The chert, however, is not truly amorphous, but consists
of fine interlocking grrins of quartz, nt times the silica is
red ©nd jarpery, and this red Jasper often forms a large
proportion of the rock. Tha iron oxide is usually hematite,
but soiitetimss cubes and octahedre of martite occurs, and all
gradstion betw.en them and iron ore ere found.
So far no mineragraphic study of the iron ortr of
Thakurani mines has been made by any one the earlier workers.
In coarse of the present invest!;3ation, the author, therefore,
avciiled of the first opportunity to examine in detail the
iron ore of Thakurani mines in K.onjhar district (22°27' t
85°35') of Orlssa state (which lies within latitude 17°48' s
23°24' and longitude 81°24' : 37°29•).
The workable deposits of iron ores of Thakurani Hill
occur along certain well defined ?ones. Small and scattered
pockets of blue dust occur rather infrequently at some places.
AS far as possible all tlie available types of iron
ore samples reoreaenting lateritic, hard laminated and
 40

friable were collected systematically from the different

sections (benches) of the open cast mines of Thekureni
Hill, While preparing the polished blocks of soft and
friable specimens some difficulty were encountered because
continuous cooking in Canaia balsom were required before
they could be finally polished. About 20 representative
samples of iron ores from the different locations have been
finally selected for ore-microscopic study.
Through mineragraphic study an attempt was made to
identify the ore minerals and their asserablageg, state of
oxidation* and finally their tsxtural relations and
persgenetic sequence,

MI?1ERAL0GTCAL DESCRIPTION

The mineralogical description of various iron and

manganesa minerals, v;hich are identified in polished sections
under reflected light are given below alongwith their
characteristic physical characters. Chemical formulae
of the iron and manganese minerals are adopted after Deer,
Howie and 7ussm.an (1962), end Hewett f^nd Fleischer (1960)
resoectively.
 41

IROM ORES

As far as the mineralogy of the Iron ores is concerned

hematite and martite being the dominant iron minerals of the
different ore types. Goethite and limonite represent the
secondary .-ninerelc formed by the conversion of the original
oxiie ores to hydroxides of iron by hydration under super-
ficial weathering while Pseudomorph of heisie'tite after
magnetite are called martite.

HEMATITE (FegOg)

The name hematite was first proposed by Theophrastus

in 315 B.C. because of its colour rese?r±)lcnce to blood, for
which the Greek v;ork 'hacme* ve. used (see Deer et al., 1962?
p. 21).
This is the principal mineral of the iron ore deposits
of Thakurani Hill, It is extremely variable in appearance.
There are all gradation fro. a hard, dense, massive steel
ore through a softer, darkened hematite to a lighter red,
soft, almost earthy ore. in even the steel grey dense
varieties (located rt hill-top) there are gradation from
massive ore to a banded material, the bands being composed
of fine end coarser hematite.
 42

Habit

Crystalline in hexagonal form, occasionally in thin

platy forms* as 'micaceous' hematlta. In Thekurani mine at
aome places a fine hematite powder known as 'blue dust* is
found. Simple twinninq is rare, commonly massive or
infoliatad or shaly aggregates; colour - iron black to
steel grey? streak - cherry red} lusture « submetallic;
hardness « 5.5 to 6; brittle; cleavage - none? specific
gravity - 5»0 to 4,2. Under reflected light hematite shows
white to grey white vrith feint bluish tone noticed more
clearly with oil immercion? moderate reflectivity? v;eak
biref lectanc-' and vask but distinct enisotrooism.

Etch reactions - all re,?gentf? negative,

MAHTITE

Kineraloglcally msrtite is hematite pseudomorphous

?fter magnetlt£ (ste Repf?, H.H., 1947; p, 488), Hematite
replaced primary magnetite without leaving -ny remnant
is regarded as second generation hematite (Pi, I, Pig, 3 )
«,nd further replacement of this second generation hetr.atita
(marti • crystals) by geothite har, been observed (Pi, II,
rig, 1 ) .

TfertitF exhibits all optical properties of normal

hem'-^tite except a little higher reflectivity and well
prescribed octahedral form of magnetite.
 43

GQE r^ITF {o<Fr^O^,H^Q)

named after the philosopher Poet Goethe (1749-1332;

see f>ana# 1962, p. 504)• Earlier the mineral was called
*Onegit', after the place of discovery Uj&\e Onega), but
since its properties were not described, the name has not
survived in inineralogical literature,

Habit

cryscalline form - orthorhombic; ususlly in sinter-

liXe; spongy, slay or pulv rulent. Etree'^ - brownish or
yellow brown, lusture - ac'ementine to aubn^etallic; hardness -
4,1 to S.S; specific gravity - 4,0 to 4,4,
Under reflected light gcethite occurs mostly in
coiloform bandc (PI, II, Pig, 2 ) , Sometimee streaks and
anhedral patches of geethite are. ?lso found (PI. Ill, Fig. 3).
It is dull grey in colour son^tim^s v^ith bluish tint.
Reflecting power - low, \;hich bscomes much rsore distinct
v/ith oil iiTnernion. ^^n inner reflection in sr-en in rneny
gr--.lns, usu-lly orangs» rolour--^'d, but ir often deep red,
r.pccif. H y with oil irnr-erelon. Anif.otro:-ic colour eifccta
ar^' vtry distinct.

rtch r«cctlDns - negative to all st^sndard reagents.

 44

LIMOMITF ( t FejOg.HgO?)

The name of limonite is derived from the Greek

•lemon* for meadow (allusion to meadow and bog iron).
Brown iron ore (limonite forms only in sedimentairy cycle,
first of all as a weathering product of iron-bearing
sulohides, oxides, carbonates and silicates (see Ramdohr,
1950? p. 1047). Limonite occurs witn massive goethite
(PI. I, Fig. II) and also as coatings in the microcavities;
colour-brovm or yellowish brown; streak - yellowish brown;
lusture - submetallic, silky ordull; hardness - 5,0 - 5,5;
specific gravity - 3,6 to 4.

Under reflected light limonite is dull brownish red

in colour rnd shows excellent reddish to yellowish red
internal reflection but the power of reflection is low
in comparison to Geothite ^nd further it is P I S O dull in
internal deep red reflection in comparison to goethite.
Etch reactions - negative to all stsndard rer-»gents.

PYR0LU3ITI (.MnOj)

Belongs to the fire grained variety while the

coarsely crystalline variety are called polianite
(Dunn, 1936).
 4.)

Habit

Crystal forni - orthorhomblc but usually pseudomorphous

generally forming fine matted prismatic needles; colour -
iron grey or met-^llic or opaque; hardness - 2 to 2.5; often
soils the fingers; specific gravity - 4.8.
Undt;r reflected light colour is v/Uts, faint yellow
tint, which increases in oil immersica, rather psleochroic;
reflectivity • high and strongly anisotropic.
Etch reactions - negative - HN0„, fCCN, FClj* KOH,
HgClj.
positive - HCl Bud aqua rcjgia, drop
eel our £• brown, but surface
UHc ffectrd.

FSlLOriLLANE ( m. InO , HnO ^ • nH. C )

i'tenganese oxide und hydroxide with the addition of

such eleraents as Ba, Hi, Co, K, Li, ?b (see Read, 1947;
p. 473). Fermor (1909) while describing the manganese ore
deposits of India regards this a3 a nangan.'te.

Habit

Usually amorphous, oft n botryoidel, colour - black;

streak - brovmish black? lusture - submetalllcj hardness -
5 to 6; specific gravity - 4,2,
 40

Under reflected light the mineral is seen to bp

finely crystc'lline and found to be associated with pyrolusite,
exhibiting bluish grey to greenish tinge colour with higher
reflectivity than the pyrolusite and in shades of grey it is
anisotropic.
Etch reactions » negative - KOH, HgClj
positive - HNO-, St ins light brown,
fumes tarnish, HCl, st-lns
brown to black. FeCl-#
stains light brown. H^O,
efferveflcas, no etching.

While studying the iron ore samples microscopically,

ic has besn found that the microleyerlng (PI. I, Pig. 1) end
microfaiding (Pl. II, Fig. 2) are the most common micro-
structures, present in the laminated iron ores end banded
heroatite-jasper have retained csrtain sedimentary structures,
particulatly the penaconttji.iporaneous deformations of iron
2.nd eilica bearing layers and other common feature is the
slum iitructure of sedimentary origin resulting from the
leaching of silica.

iollotiving .:rfc. the textures recognised in the oresi-

 AI (

Replacement Texture

In hypogene, replacement, as in supergene replacement,

a more soluble mineral is always replaced by a less soluble
mineral. Shouten, C, (1934) shovm that a single solution can
set up a train of replacement. Mostly the replacement in this
case is observed to proceed from the periphery of the grain
minerals. At the first stage thin skin of hematite surrounded
the goethite crystal (Pi. I, Fig. 2 ) , This rim of the hematite
is seen in other cases gradually penetrating towards the
centre, sometimes regularly (PI. I, Fig. 2 ) . In crystals
where the replacement of magnetite by hematite is completed
without any relict of reronants of magnetite (Pl, I, Fig, 3),
then such crystals are referred to as pseudomorphs of hematite
after magnetite.

In most of tliu laai^sive ores and laminated ores the

outer margins of these pseudomorphs have coalesced to give
i-ise to c^ n:ore or less contiguous band of hematite (Pl. I,
Fig. 3 ) , In some cases these martite crystals have been
replaced by goethite or gangue giving an impression of
pseudomartite (Pl, II, Fig. 1 ) . Replacement of hematite
by goethite has taken place in the cracks and fracture
planes (Pl. II, Fig. 2 ) .

Colloform Texture

The term •colloform* (implying colloid or gel-texture)

 4 p.

is used to describe the texture of minerals that occur in a

series of concentric curved or scalloped layers, in which the
curvature is always convex towards the younger or face surfacf
(Edward, 1966). A face surface, if present, is reniform,
botryoidal, marasnillary or even stalactitic. These curved
surfaces as Poydell, K.C. (1925) observed, are manifestations
of surface tension effects in viscous material, and ere
theretore indicative, though not by any means exclusively
of colloidal origin.
The iron oxides are deposited as a gel that hardens
into amorphous, sometimes limonite, or dehydrates as goethite,
or even hematites, under favourable conditions, Host of these
minerals are of supergene origin, and are deposited from cold
aqueous solutions, generally in open spaces, though the
solutions from which they art deposited are capable of
replacing the more or less weathered country rock (Edv;ard,
1366).

Colloforti texture is exhibited by goethite and

limonite. Rounded end concentric bands sometimes broken
concentric bands (Pi, II, Fig. 2) or mass of goethite are
commonly seen in the ores frora the zone of significrnt
wecthsring (PI. II, Fig. 1). However, the colloform texture
it not coravion in the iron ores even though goethite belonging
to collofom-. variety shows this characteristic.
 40

Granular Texture

Granular texture Is less commonly the result of

irmnedlate crystallisation In ore minerals than It is in
mogmatic rocks or oceanic salt deposits (see Ramdhor,
1969, p. 146), Granular texture is exhibited by the ores
consisting of subhedrnl to enhedral crystals of martite with
some goethite occupying the intargranular spaces (Pi. I#
Fig. 3 ). Granular hematite is also seen in the iron ores
(Pi. II, Fig. 3 ). 'Well developed cubic crystals of martite
are observed v/hich are embedded in the granular hematite as
v/ell as goethite (PI. II, Fig. 3 )•

Banded Texture

The banded textures are very widespread and in part

extreirnely fine. They con occur in a single grain end are then
really *textural' profortiec, as well as in an aggregate of
one or more mineral species (see Ramdhor, 1969, p, 149).
Banded textur.i: are very widespread in sedimencs and almost
the characteristic mcrks of dynaiaically metamorphosed ores
end are deposition feature of the protore is ideally retained
by the \ard and laminated iron ores consisting essentially
of equigrenular groins of martite with some massive goethite
(Pl. I, Fig. 3 ). The banding in these ores is quite cl ar
under the reflected light. Thin trains of goethite in some
ore? also serve to distinjuish banding (?1, II, Fig. 2>,
however, at places bands are deformed.
 50

Vein Texture

Vein texture is exhibited by some of the samples where

coarse grained scely hematite is cutting across the fine
grained hematite and martite. At the margins of the veins
replacement of hematite by goethite and limonite is seen
(PI, III, Fig, 3 ),

PARAGE r^JES IS

To determine the paragenesis o£ en ore, it is

necessary to establish for e^ach pair of minerals present
v;hether they were deposited simaltaneoualy, or whether the
period of deposition of one overlapped thrt of the other,
or v/hcther one x^p.o ds >osited eftex^ the other (Pastin, 1931),
It is evident from the texturel relation of the iron ore
miiierals that hematite which constitutes the bulk of the
iron ores appears to be distinctly of at least three
generations. The first generation hematites apparently
of primary origin, in microcrystalline and intimately
intx.r-mixed with cryptocrystalline sjlica. It usually
occurs aa microlryered (^1. I, Fig. i ) or banded segregations
(?1. Illt Fig. 3 ),

Martite re.'resents the second generation hematite

because this hematite is replacing the rrjagnetite completely
without leaving any remnant of the magnetite (=>1, I, Fig. 3).
 51

This type of inter-layered occurrence of martlte*rich and

hematite rich layers indicates that possibly both hematite
and magnetite (now martite) ^fere deposited as primary minerals*
The third generation of hematite is that which occurs as
coarse grained patches having irregular outlines (Pl« II#
Pig. 2 ) . These later generation hematite generally show
relatively higher reflectivity and brighter white appearance.
They are characterised by their uniform appearance as against
the gel line structure of first generation hematite*
To a limited extent martite has also altered to
pseudomorphically into goethite can be regarded as the
first generation on the basis of talcing into consideration
their textural relationship. Zt can be said that this first
generation of goethite in the time of sequence. However*
unlike martitization# goethitization appears to be a very
UQCommon process.

The first generation of goethite is at some places

replaced by the hematite, however, the laar^ite associated
with goethite should be later than the martite pscmdonrarph
after magnetite if goethitization and martitization of
magnetite are taken to be paragenetically overlapping or
even contea^joraneous. The massive and colloform goethite
is also recorded which are of second generation coatings
of limonite, associated with goethite (PI, I, Pig, 2)
suggesting that both are contemporaneous).
 5-3

It is found that to sofne extent pyrolusite and

psilo5nelr:ne are replacing goethlte and martlte (PI. Ill,
Pig. 2 )• Based on the aforesaid mlnerelogical and
textural studies, the paragenetlc sequence can be
suOTerlssd for the iron and manganese minerals presented
in Table-rv.
 53

CHAPTER - V

GEOCHEMISTRY

Iron is aroeinberof a family of elements which includes

titanium* vanadium* chromium* manganese* cobalt and nickel
(with atomic number 22 to 28} because of which there is fairly
close association of these in nature*

Iron is a very important and widespread nH^tal in nature*

the only metal which is nusre abundant in the earth's crust being
aluminium. Its atomic number is 26; atomic weight 5S«85| specific
gravity 7«4 to 7«8y melting point 1530°C« The pure roetal is
silver white* highly magnetic* ductile* and malleable. It
closely resembles to nickel and cobalt in chemical behaviour*
The core of earth is believed to be composed of an alloy of
iron and nickel. It forms 5,06% of the entire lithosphere
(Clarke* 1924)* S% of all igneous rocks (Washington* 1939) and
anything between 13 and 90 percent of the different types of
meteorites. Among the igneous rocks granite contains the least
amount (about 2.490 whereas pyroxinites and homblendites
contain the roast (about 8,5% to 11.7%). Iron is a constituent
of all living tissues both animal and vegetable*
 f^l

In the analysis of allicate rock8# both ferrous and

ferric iron are reported, usually expressed as oxides. Ferric
iron is frequently associated with aluininiui!i» and ferrous iron
with magnesium. This latter association is observed in the
formation of minerals with composition ar»l properties intermediate
between the pure iron and pure magnesium end members.
Sulphide minerals containing iron ore of considerable
economic importance. These minerals occur in both igneous and
sedimentary rocks* if present in more than trace amounts, can
introduce difficulty in the determination of ferrous iron.
Ferrous compounds are unstable in the preserve of
oxygen as they are easily oxidised. Ferric salts are easily
hydrolysed in natural waters. They give rise to ferric hydroxide
which is precipitated readily, paxrticularly in marine surroundirgs.
Org- nic colloides may also absorb ferrous compounds on their
surface.
Iron is quickly and completely precipitated in marine
surroundings as a gel. The source of marine iron deposits may
be solutions derived from weathering of rocks on land or from
submarine volcanic sources containing FeCl. and FeF,*
In the present study, the author has tried to find out
and to establish the relationship, if any, between the iron
oxides and the najor oxides respectively. The percentage of
various major oxides of Wiakurani mine iron ores are given in
Table-v. Further, to show the frequency distribution of the
 55

various major oxides* determined by the geochemical analysis*

e.g. SiOj*Al203» MQTO* CaO* TiOj* Na^O, KgO, MnO, PjOg, HjO*
(total water) and Fe.O^ (total iron )i8 shown by plotting the
histograms.
Moreover* to establish the relationship between the
various major oxides of the Thakurani mines iron ores*
correlation coefficient is also determined by the computer
(Table-VI).

DISTRIBUTION OF KA^R OXIDES

SILICA

An examination of Thakurani mines izron ores shows that

silica is strongly positively skewed and the maximuin frequency
percent lies between 5.0 to 6.0 percent class (Fig. H«l>.
Silica ranges from 5*06 to 13.04 percent (Table-VII) with a
mean value of 7.70 percent while the standard deviation of
silica is found to be 2.45 (Table-VIII).

MAJHim

Alumina is fairly low in comparison to silica in all

the examined iron ore seniles which shows a strongly positive
skewness and the maxiimun frequency percent lies between 4*0 to
5.0 percent class as indicated by the histogram (Fig« H«>2)«
AI2O3 ranges from 3#90 to ll.lO percent (Table-VI) with a mean
value of 5*63 percent and standard deviation of alumina is
found to be 2,065 (Table-VIll),

LIME

Calcium oxide shows a tendency towards positive skewness

where the maximum frequency percent lies between 11*0 to 12.0
percent as shown by the histogram (Fig. H-3)« Calcium oxide
ranges from 9,69 percent to 14»91 percent (Table-VXI) with a
mean value of 12*26 percent and the value of standard
deviation is 2*39 (Table-VZIX).

IRON

FegOg (total iron) content varies in different ore

bodies whereas the total hill mass consist of banded hematite*
quartzite. Iron shows a unimodal distribution except in few
cases where the maximiun frequency percent lies between 63*0
percent to 65.0 percent as shown by the histogram (Fig. H-4).
Iron ranges from 49.63 percent to 65,93 percent (Table-VII) with
a mean value of 59.99 percent end the value of standard
deviation is 5.49 (Table-VIII).
 0 i

SODIUM

Sodium oxide in the iron ores of the investigated

area is fairly low and shows a tendency towards negative
sHewness whereas the maxiwura frequency percent lies between
0.5 to 1«0 percent and 3*5 to 4.5 percent* classes* as
indicated by the histogram CFig. H-5), NajO ranges from 0,75
percent to 4.80 percent (Table-VII) with a mean value of 3,01
percent and the value of standard deviation is found to be
1,33 (Table-VIII),

POTASSIUM

Potassium oxide varies in its percent distribution and

it shows a tendency towards negative skewness and the maximum
frequency percent lies between 2.4 to 3*6 percent and 4.2 to
4*8 percent classes as indicated by the histogram (Pig. H-6)*
KjO ranges from 0,46 percent to 5#11 percent (Table-VII) with
a mean value of 3*29 percent and the value of standa^
deviation is found to be 1«28 (Table«»VIIX)«

Thakurani mines iron ores have fairly low percent of

manganese which shows a tendency towards positive skewness and
the maximum frequency percent lies between 0«3 percent to
 c: 8

0,6 percent as indicated 1^ the histogram (Fig. H-7). MnO

ranges from 0.09 to 2,11 percent (Table-VIX) with a mean value
of 0*91 percent and tbe value of standard deviation is found
to be 0.56 (Table-VlII).

PHOSPt«)ROUS
mmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmMmmmftm-

Phosphorous is also low in iron ores of the study area

which shows a tendency towards positive skewness and the taaxiimim
frequency percent lias in 0,0 to 0.2 percent class as indicated
by the histogram (Pig. H-8). PgOg ranges from 0.04 to 1.87
percent (Table-vil) with a mean value of 0.63 percsent and the
value of standard deviation is found to be 0.54 (Table-VIII).

Magnesia ia the iron ojres of the study area have very

low percent and very slight positive skewness is perceptible
v;hereas the maximum frequency percent lies between 0,0 to 0.3
percent and 0.6 to 0.9 percent classes as indicated by the
histogram (Pig. H-9), MgO ranges from 0.19 to 2#14 percent
(Table-VII) with a mean value of 0,69 percent and the value
of standard deviation is found to be 0.55 (Table-VIIl).

TITANHTM

Titanium is found to be variable in its percent

distribution and the maximum frequency percent lies between
0.4 to 0*6 percent and 0*9 to 1.0 percent classes as indicated
by the histogram (Pig. H-10), TiOj ranges from 0,33 to 1,01
percent (Table-VII) with a mean value of 0,65 and the value of
standard dsviatlon is found to be 0,22 (Table-VIIl),

WATER

Combined water (loss of ignition) shovs a very slight

positive skewness and the maximum frequency percent lies
between 4*0 to 4«5 percent class as indicated by the histogram
(Pig. H-lD* HjO**" ranges from 3,26 to 7.56 percent (Table-VII)
v^ith a mean value of 5.07 percent and the value of standard
deviation is found to be 1.37 (Table->VIII),

MUTUAL RELVnONSHIP OP THE SIGNIPICAOT OXIDES WITH THE Pe-O,

aiLZCA VS. IRO.^

Silica has a strong negative correlation coefficient

(r) « *9«930 which means both iron and silica are inversely
proportional to each other ^ i c h means that with the increase
of iron thexre is decrease in the silica content end vice-versa
as indicated by the diagram (Fig, G-1),
 GO

The oxidates connected with volcanic activity are

usually attributed to submarine eruptions o£ basic lavas
and copious aimdunts of hydrothexiotial solutions produced in
a closed basin. When the water of the basin cooled, carbon
dioxide escaped, and precipitation of calcite<-doloniite»,
and siderite-bearing niuds started, the sediments also contained
alternating layers of silica and ferric hydroxide (Rankama and
Sahaina, 1949 }• Additional iron was produced by annual wnathering*
Sot^titnes ferrous carbonate are precipitated under reducing
conditions, which may be later n^tamorphosed 1:^ hydrothernial
solutions giving rise to jaspilites an^ ferruginous cherts*
Sometimes silica was leached out and magnetite was deposited*
Silicates containing essential ferrous iron are easily
weathered to yield ferrous ions, generally as components
of bicarbonate solutions (Ooldschmidt, 19S8)*

ALUMiHA VS. mon

A significant negative correlation coefficient is

noticed between iron and alumina, (r) « ••0*664« The linear
relationship between ix^n and aluniina is demonstrated
graphically (Sig* 0*2)•
In lateritic weathering under tropical and subtropical
conditions, iron is collected as ferric hydroxide in the
weathering residue, along with aluminium hydroxide* Ferric
iron, being able to migrate in true solution only in acid
 (n

waters« differs from aliuniniiimr which may migrate both in acid

and in basic solutions, being precipitated only in the neighbour*
hood of the neutral point. When an acid weathering solution is
neutralised, ferric hydroxide is first precipitated, but
aluminium remains in solution until a higher pH is reached*
Consequently, iron and aluminium may beeoittt separated, even
though the separation is not quantitative (Rankama and Sahama,
1949).

SODIUM VS. IRON

A vezy weak positive correlation coefficient is noticed

between sodium and iron i*e«, (r) » 0»123« Both iron and sodium
are directly proportional to eacii other that is with the increase
of iron content there is a very slight increase in the sodium
and vice-versa which is clear by the linear relationship plotted
on a graph (Fig* 0*3)*
Pichamuthu (1935) observed that the amphibolite layers
were supposed to be remnants of mafic igneous rocks which on
alteration gave rise to the bended ferruginous quartzites. Both
mineralogically and chemically it bears no resemblance to an
igneous rock* The presence of NTajO in these bands was explained
by him (Pichamuthu, 1935) as ascribable to the sediments being
derived from the rocks of spllitic affinities adjoining the
iron fozonations* Some recent analyses of these mafic rocks show
as rnuch as 4 to 5*5 percent of soda (fCrishna Rao and Murthy,
1971)* Similar explanations have been given for the development
of soda an^jhiboles in the ferruginous quartzites of South Africa
 S2

(Hall, 19251 Wegner, 1928}. Both Pttacock (1928) and Hall (1930)
conaidered the soda to be original and dependent upon special
conditions of deposition resulting in soda rich bands in the
iron stones.

POTASSIUM VS. IRQgT

Potassium oxide is directly proportional to iron oxide

of the ore body, KjO is increasing significantly with the
increase of iron. Its correlation coefficient with iron is
positive (r 8 0*480)• A linear relationship is made out
(Pig. G<>»4)«

Potassitira in the iron ores like sodium are considered

to be ofroetasoroaticorigin (Pichamuthu, 1974 )• I«ate matasoniatic
development of alkali ang;}hiboles like riebeckite in the
Precanibrian iron formations of Kursk Magnetic Anomaly in Russia
has been reported by Glagolev (1967) due to the indroduction of
alkalies post-^dating the progressive raetamorphisra*

MAtlSAKESE VS.IROH

Iron content shows a high degree of negative correlation

with the manganese content of the ore. The value of correlation
coefficient (r) « ^O^OSSe. Iron and manganese are inversely
proportional to each other, with the increase in the iron
 63

content o£ the ore body« there is corresponding dacrease in

the manganese content* as indicated by th« graph (Fig. 0-5}•
In colloidal solution containing £erric and manganic
hydroxide is brought into contact with an electrolyte* the
separation of the two metals« according to Behrend (1924}« starts
with coagulation o£ the bulk of manganic hydroxide* while iron
still remains, largely or entirely, in solution* Behrend*s
laboratory experiments showed that the addition of electrolytes
to solutions containing an excess of iron over manganese always
caused the separation of a mixture of the hydroxides rich in
manganese first, followed later by a great quantity of an iron
rich mixture of the hydroxides*

PHOSPHOROUS VS« IRON

Positive correlation coefficient exists between

phosphorous and iron* Both are directly proportional to
each other* The value of correlation coefficient is determined
as (r) » 0*401 and a linear graph is plotted to make it more
clear (Fig. G-6)*
It has been observed that acid conditions (low pH)
generally pronuste the solution of iron and lakaline conditions
(high pH} proRK>te the precipitation of iron. Ferric hydroxide
is easily precipitated from aqueous solutions at about pH3,
ferrous h^roxide is first precipitated at about pH7 (Ooldsraidt,
1958). Precipitation of ferric iron under conditions of
 64

increasing pH is exenqpXified in many soils or soil horizons

o£ high pHt or in weathering residues o£ rocks which have a
distinctly alkaline reaction* e,g», limestoneSf anorthosite,
dunites* serpentines* There is also theroetascxaaticpxrecipitation
of linK}nite from circulating solutions in limestones and even*
in the case of ferrous iron* the nntasofnatic replacement of
limestone by ferrous carbonate*
Secondary enrichment of phosphorous may take place in
phosphate sedin^nts. Thus phosphates may become concentrated
when carbonates are leached away from phosphate bearing
calcareous sediments and phosphatio liuMistones (Rankama and
Sahama* 1949}•

FiAGNESIUM VS, IRON

Magnesium oxide is inversely proportional to iron oxide

and the value of correlation coefficient (r) • -O.SS?, A linear
relationship was established by plotting FeO vs. MgO (Fig. 0-7)•
Calcium andraangnesiumat first migrate during the
leaching of the ferruginous qiiartzites* but in the contact*
residual ores their concentration again increases and reaches
a peak; this is because these elements are brought in by
epigenetic solutions in the course of carbonatization of the
ore beds (Ousel'nikov, V,N, and Volkov, G.I.* 1966}*
 G5

TITANIUM VS. IRON

A very insigni£icant positive correlation coefficient

is noticed between titanitua and iron in the area under
consideration* the value of correlation coefficient (r) <• 0.0031,
A linear x^lationship is established graphically (Fig. 0-8)•
During weathering the titanium consequently i^mains in the
rasistates. I^ie most inqportant rock making titanium minerals*
particularly ilinenite ar^ rutile, are stable against weathering,
and consequently they remain unchanged in the resistalMt
sediments. Titanium contained in the structures of ferric
minerals (Pyroxenes, amphiboles, micas, etc.) is brought into
solution during the weathering* But it is prcxi^tly hydrolyzed
and carried into the hydrolyzates (Rankama and Sahama, 1949).
The absolute titanium amounts in the process of residual iron
ore carbonatization evidently remain unchanged (Ousel*nlkov
and Volkov, 1966),

LI!^ vs. IRON

Iron oxide shows a strong negative coefficient

correlation with calcium oxide (r) <• *0.602 ii^ieh Indicates
an inverse relationship. It means that with the increase of
iron there is decrease in calcium or llir» content and vice-
versa (Pig. G-9).
 66

The occurrence of ferrous carbonate* the mineral

slderite, FeCOg. aa a constituent of rock layers in sedimentary
series is probably in most* if not all# cases due to secondary
replacement of calcixim carbonate by solutions containing ferrous
bicarbonate with exclusion of oxygen either as gas or dissolved
in aquous solutions*
As a result of a series of experiments, Moore and
Maynard (1929) concluded that carbonated water is en effective
solvent able to dissolve sufficient iron and silica firom mafic
terrain to form a laxrge sedimentary iron deposit*

W;^T£R vs. IRON

Combined water (H^O'*') shows a significant negative

correlation coefficient with the iron i«e. (r) •• ••0.447*
Linear relationship indicates that with the increase in
iron content there is decrease in the water content (Fig* G-IO)
and vice-versa* The behaviour of iron in processes of weathering
is dependent largely upon the stage of oxidetion of the iron
compounds involved. In all the cases in which ferrous ions are
involved further oxldrtion is likely to occur, leading to the
formation of ferric ions* The increase in ionic potential from
ferrous to ferric ion, according to Goldschmidt (1958) leads to
hydrolytie precipitation of ferric hydroxides or oxides and
thus again to an immbolization of the iron* Reduction to the
ferrous state again can reproduce the ferrous ions*
 67

INTER ELEMEOT REIATIONSHIP

The nature of the products formed in both endogenic

and exogenic reactions depends decisively on the concentrations
of the participating elements* i«e* their abui^Uince* Although
the local concentrations of the reacting coirpounds in nature
are governed by many factors^ they depend ultimately on the
abundance relationship of the elements in question* It must be
added, on the other hand, that the knowledge of the abundance
relationships of the elements still does not suffice to determine
quantitatively the natiure of the substances formed in the reaction*
The rapid increase in understanding of the ultimate composition
of the atomic nucleus has resulted in the fact that now the
geochemist must also consider the abundance of the nuclides
which compose the various elements, in order to conqpletely
understand the abundance relationships of the latter*

Following are the significant inter-element relationships

of the iron ores of the Thakurani mines*

SODIUM VS. POTASSIUM

A significant positive correlation is noticed between

sodium and potassium foui»l in the iron ores of tiie area under
consideration* The value of correlation coefficient is
(r) » 0*663* A linear representation is made on a graph
(Fig* O*!!)* Sodium in association with other elements occurs
 G8

in considerable amounts. The ratio of sodium to silicon in the

lithosphere as a whole is probably similar to that in meteorites
(Qoldschmidtf 1958}• There can be no doubt that sodium has been
concentrated in the uppermost part of the lithosphere in rocks
of light residual magmas*
Sodium and potassium released during the weathering
remain in ionic solution, whcureas, aluminium reacts with silica
to form clay minerals, and also, perhaps, to form mascovite with
a part of the potassitim. As the sodium is extracted from the
rocks during the weathering, its absolute amount decreases in
the hydrolyzate sediments which are foxrmed as a result of
chemical decomposition. Potassium, on the other hand, goes
first into solution but does not remain dissolvedi it is
largely absorbed by, and even enriched in, clays. It has also
been suggested (Rankama and Sahama, 1949) that the difference
in the behaviour of sodium end potassium during the weathering
is caused by the greater resistance of potash feldspar as compared
with that of the plagioclase feldspar, which causes an initial
accumulation of potassium*

hXm VS. riAGHESIA

Correlation coefficient between CaO and MgO is found to

be insignificant i.e. (r) • 0.075 and linear J^lationship is
shown graphically (Fig. G-12}.
 GB

The ezthaneem«nt of calcium as against oiagn«8itxm in

average igneous rocks can be explained by the fact that
magnesium is eliminated by gravitational setting of early
crystallizates of heavy magnesium silicates from magmas.
Light minerals and lightar rocks rise towards the surface in
the course of vertical displacements. Goldschmidt (1958) stated
that calcium is not a typical element of very early magmatic
crystallisates« but is associated rather with magmas at the
transitions between the early and middle steps in the sequence
of fractional crystallization whereas the distribution of
magnesitun in the sedimentary sequence is fairly well known as
magnesium is always included in the analyses of the major
constituents of rocks.
Zn most cases of iireathering the magnesium ion enters
the cycle of sedimentation* in other cases it is precipitated
on the spot asreagnesite*MgCO^, or as dolomite* especially
in the weathering of olivine and olivine rocks. The precipitation
pf magnesium in carbonate sediments is a most interesting part
of the geochemistry of this elenmnt. It is probsble that a
precipitation of magnesium from sea water as carbonate is in
most cases connected with a transformation of calcium carbonate
into dol<»aite, but the conditions of such a transformation are
not yet exactly known (Goldschmidt* 19S8).

The average sedimentary rocks contains less magnesia

and more lime than the igneous rock from \«hich it is desired
(Leath* and Mead, 1915). Gruner (1922) noticed through his
 7f]

experiroents that magnesia is absorbed more rapidly than lime.

Moreover* the gi^at abundance o£ ferroroagnesian minarals*
whether igneous or metamorphic, suggest a closer relationship
between ixron and magneai\:Bn than between iron and calcium* The
concentration of certain el^nents sharply increases under
conditions of epigenetic mineralization such as calcium and
magnesium etc. as observed by Gusel'nikov and VolXov (1966).

SILICA VS. ALUMim

Coxrelation coefficient betifeen silica and aluminium is

strongly positive i.e. (r> • 0.662 which indicates that
relationship is directly proportional to each other. With
the increase of silica there is increase in the content of
alumina and vice-versa as shown by the linear representation
on a graph (Fig. 0->13).
During the weathering of silicate minerals silicon, like
aluminium is brought into ionic solution, usually in the form
of alkali silicates. If the weathering solutions becon«
concentrated, silica is precipitated as an amorphous gel,
e.g. in arid regions. If only a silica hydrosol is formed
during the concentration of the solutions, it may migrate
farther, because it is very insensitive to flocculation caused
by electrolytes in solution. Rankama and Sahama (1949) found
that ailica in solution may also react v/ith other substances.
The solubility of silica depends upon the pH of the solution.
 7I

The higher the Ph# the more silica goes into solution. If the
pH decreases for Instance, by the addition of carbon dioxide,
silica is precipitated. This process may sometimes lead to a
notable concentration of silica.
Orunder (1922) has found that the less silica, a
silicate mineral contains, the greater will be the amount of
cilica dissolved in the weathering solutions during the
pr:isence of dilute acids, hoxiever, Goldschmldt (1937) points out
that a certain portion of silicon, although sioall, might
originally be contained in thexrroal waters, which are often
rich, in silica. Silica is deposited from juvenile waters in
geysers and hot springs as siliceous sinter (geyserite) and
other spring deposits, which may often form beds of geological
importance, even though they are geographically not very
extensive. Other, chiefly inorganic, siliceous precipitates
(chert, flint, jasper) are very common in the geological column.
It might be jc^sslble that thermal waters carry a part of their
silica directly to the sea, whereby the silicon content of sea
water is bound to increase (Rankama and Sahama, 1949).

1*113: vs. SODIUM

Calcium and sodium is found to be Inversely proportional

to each other and therefore their corxrelation coefficient
(r) a -0.468, is negative which shows that with increase of
calcium there is decrease in the content of sodium or vice-
versa in the studied iron or«s which is evident by the diagram
 7;^

(Fig. G-.14).
During chemical weathering* the calcium bearing
minerals dec(xt^ose, and their calcium goes into solution as
bicarbonate. However, sorae calcium is tenqporarily retained in
the gone o£ weathering as carbonate or sulphate. According to
Rankaroa and Sahama (1949) the Na t Ca ratios shows no very
marked change when the igneous rocks and the shales are con^ared
with each other. Therefore, it is evident that the calcium, in
analogy to sodium, can not be notably absorb^ in clays, and
consequently the bulk of calcium liberated during the weathering
does not becoitts incorporated in the hydrolyzates. Calcium
1 liberated during weathering goes into solution as bicarbonate,
Ca(HC0^}2. From this compound calcium is precipitated readily
as carbonate, v^ich redissolves and finally all the calcium is
transported into sea.

Schloesing (1872) was the first to prove, by experiment

that the solubility of calcium carbonate in vmter depends on the
content of carbon diostide in the gaseous phase in equilibrium
with the acqueoua phase. Wattenberg (1936) has explained the
effect o carbon dioxide on the basis of the equilibrium which

exists between the solid calcium carbonate and the Ca and

2—
COj ions found in solution •

(solid)

According to Kuenen (1941), the deep sea deposits contain

about 15 percent CaO, and ell sediments formed contain
approximately 12.5 percent CaO.
 CHAPTER - VI

SUMMARY 6 CONCLUSION

The most Important number of the iron ore series*

from an economic point of view, is the banded hematite-
quart zite/jasper* The present investigation is nminly
concerned with the mineralogy and certain aspects of
geochemistry t^sides the mode of occurrence of the
Thakurani mines iron ores, district Keonjhar (Orissa).
To understand the nature of mineralisation
geochemistry of the iron ores was studic»d* spectrophotometric
analyses of iron ores wezre carried out to study the variations
in the iron content in all these deposits as well as the
major oxides. The product of alteration were critically
examined to reckon the reactions that might have taken
place during the course of deposition.
The deposits belong to the Precambrian iron ore
series and the ore is within the bandetd iron formations
occurring as massive ore with iron content around 65%
(concentrated by leaching), blue dust ore (extremely ^
friable and micaceous hematitic powder) and weathered ore, \
The area of investigation is a hill mass consisting
of three main ridges which rise about 1000-1500 ft. from
ground level and is consisting of banded hematite-quartzite
whereas the rich hematite is exposed mainly on the top of
the ridges. The rocks dips generally to the northwest at
high angles^ but much contorted and folded* Good hematite
is exposed at eastern ridge but at places found to be
lateritised. The hematite is often covered with consolidated
ore.
The banded heraatite-quartzite is frequently seen to
change into hard massive iron ore when followed laterally.
It occasionally passes also into laminate'^ ore with a shaly
appearance or into pockets of powdery ore which easily falls
to powder if disturbed. The powdery ore is seen to contcin
aggregates of martite and granular hematite, l^is powder is
apparently the residue of iron ore left after the complete
leaching away of the silica from the original banded hematite-
quartzite. Partially altered or unaltered masses of hematite*
Jasper are sometimes found amids the ore. These, however, show
a certain amount of enricfunent in iron as conpared to normal
type of hematite-quartzite.
The ore exposed at the surface in several of the
deposits is a massive, dark brown to steel grey, compact ore.
It generally weathers into large blocks about a cubic yard
or two in volume, this being helped by the presence of well
marked joint planes. Sometimes the massive ore may show
regular bedding without rraich evidence of sluiaping. The
exposed surface of the such ore has generally a dark brown
to black polished appearance owing probably to the presence
 ! •)

of a film of hydroxide which has been dehydrated. This type of

ore has irore than 60% of iron contents. Being very resistant
to weathering, it is found strewn about on and around the
outcrops* Such 'float' ore* found in association with larger
deposits may often amount to many thousands of tons.
The general stxructure of the iron ore deposits of
Noamundi and Joda East in the southern part, an asymmetrical
synclinorium pitching towards the north. The west arm is
slightly over folded and dips about 70** towards west, while
the east arm (Noannindl-Thakurani and Joda-Khondobond range) is
complicated by folding with a general westerly dip of about
45°. The structure becomes generally obscure due to excessive
folding, fsuiting and the largely covered nature of the
ground.
The stratigraphy of the iron ore series, like its
structure, has given rise to much controversy. It is so
because, in the area of the iron ore series so far
geologically mapped, no sequence of rocks has been finally
established. It is, however, widely accepted that the iron
ore series in Singhbhum and Keonjhar consists of nwtamorphtfsed
sediments made up of shales and sandstones together with
considerable intorbedded volcanic matters.
Mineragraphic study of the iron ores of the Thakurani
mine led to the identification of hematite, martite, goethite,
limonite besides pyrolusite and psilomelane minerals. From the
study of the textural and micro-structures of the iron ores
 76

of the study area« It la found that in most of the cases the

replaceiiient of magnetite by hematite Is coi^plete without any
relict reranants of magnetite, then such crystals are referred
to as pseudomorphs of hematite after magnetite. In most of the
massive ores and laminated ores the outer margins of these
pseudomorphs have coalesced to give rise to a nwre or less
contiguous band of hematite. Other In^ortant replacement
textures in the ore are those resulting from goethitisation
end later limonitisation of hematite.
Replacement of hematite by goethite along fractures,
vein# etc. have taken place and further rounded and concentric
bands/masses of goethite with colloidal silica are conmionly
seen in the ores from the zone of significant weathering.
The chemical analysis of these iron ores indicates that
the iron content ranges from 49.83% to 65.93%. Some of the low
values of iron obtained are due to the high percentage of
silica* present in the form of quartz. Major oxides of iron
ores of Thalcurani mines were determined viz.« SiO^* ^nO««

MgO, CaO, TlOg, NajO, KjO, MnO, Pg^S* "2^* ^^ ^®2°3 ^*®*®^
iron) and an attempt has been made to establish their
relationship with iron oxide. Correlation coefficient was
also determined to make it more clear. It is shown by chemical
analysis that iron oxide is inversely proportional to SiO.*
AijOj, MgO, CaO, MnO, HgO*.

In the light of the aforesaid studies follwoing

conclusion may be drawn «-
 7>--<

1, That by the action of meteoric waters through supergene

process of replacement and enrichment the original nature of
the iron ores of Thakurani mines have been changed,
2, ^ a t the formation of hard friable and powdery iron
ores have been taken place by the mass residual leaching of
silicaf oxidation of rnagnetite to hematite and deposition of
some hydroxide under certain favourable physiographic,
structural and physico-chemical conditions.
3, That supergene oxidation of magnetite into hematite and
their secondary enrichment with addition of colloform or
massive goethite were most effective in the upper part of the
deposit and as a result of which it gave rise to an upper zone
of hard and enriched ores consisting domlnantly of hematite
and goethite.

4, That iron has a tendency to increase and silica is to

decrease vertically.
5, That in the iron ores of Thakurani mines SiOj, ^2®3*
MgO, ^!nO, CaO and HjO"*" decreases with the increase in iron
oxide.

- _ >«• "• ' ' . *

A*"'.' •%*.
 8
TABLE - Z

Geological distri1:mtion of Indian ores

Formations {lature o£ ore Occurrences

Precarobrian
Basic & Ultra- Titoniferous & Bihar .» S*E, Singhbhum
basin rocks vanadiferous Orissa - MayurbhanJ
magnetites tlysore - South districts
Granodiorite Apatite- Assam - Jaitia Hills
magnetite rocks Bihar • Singfhbhum
Orissa - Bonai, Keonjhar &
MayurbhanJ
Banded Iron Hematite :!ysore - Shimoga«C3iikmanglore,
foriaations (massive, shaly etc»
powdery, etc.) Madras - Sandur
Bombay - Dharwar, Ratbagiri
- Bastar,Chanda,Drug,
«rabalpur
Banded Iron Magnetite- Madras - Salem,Trichinopoly,
formation quartzites Ountur
(metamorphosed) ?^sore - Shimoga etc*
HaP« - t^ndi
Cuddapah
Bijawar Hematite & - Gwalior, Indore,
ferruginous Bija'./ar, etc#
Gwalior quartzites Madras - Cuddapah, Vindhya
Pradesh, Rewa
Gondwana
Barakar Iron stones & Bengal - Birbhum
siderite Bihar - Aurangabad
Mahadeva
Iron stone •"ditto- Bengal - Raniganj coalfield
shales
Triassic Hematite & ICashmiz•
LiiBonlte
Jurassic
Rajmahal Trap Iron stones Bengal - Rajmahal
(interappean bed£0 Bihar - Birbhum
Tertiaxrv
I'liocene & Eocene Iron stones South India - Travancore,
7'telabar,etc«
Assam - H.E, districts
Quarternary U.P. - Kumaon
Many states - derived from
Laterite many formations including
Deccan traos.
 n M Q
0
4i © "
4J 1 u
M
u •H «> a 7B
1 4>x:
<H 4J
0/:
»
>-M 0 0) $ •l-H x: o
> to a ©
C O
10
G) M r
1^
<S) 0!
u
C G) (0 r-p
t!
C
t^
s> O G (0
4J 0
•H
K) U Q •0 N
O H >» Q) -P © 0
g o a •O 0>H
C C fiS •2 M
COO)
u lO 0 £
t/} U £9
ra 3 M
*-• CO ^ »< m 0*0

H
M I
S'
0»
-H
Id
•P OS (0
to Q> m
N cx:
© g

H Q

|g

x:
o © u u
to
c M
(5) fl M
©
•0
8 IB •0
H
H O 03 ^ m O

ta
3 jzs:
0 4i W 1
0 0} "H <a © ta
G A; SB 4)J: ©
D>0 ;<: U) •W+»'r|
•H O g n 4J<H'd
U 0 0) o
0 »-4 ^>
•H © u C9 4J « ©
0) > u x:-H x:+> ©
(OH •w O M "H M
, 0
MH 115°
H C
C
<0
h
ISS
© A M
D "H D ©^ CO 0*<H
o
 80

TABLE - III

Iron Ore Reserve

Keonjhar Resejrves in Average grade

district million tonnes (% Fe)

Thakurani Group 197 64

Boljani 489 62
Deposits north of Banspani 38 64
Joda east & '<hondband 200 64
Deposits of south Banspani 211 65
Gandhraardan 124 64
Deposits betv^sen Bhadrasahi & 59 64
Koira
Malangotoli Groups 609 60
 81

TABLE - IV

Paragenesls of the iron end associated manganese

minerals of Thakuranl mines

Time

Hematite ZZ

Martite
ooethite
Limonite
Pyrolusite
Psilomelane
 82
«* o «n in ri CM * tf> v4 « »
«-l CD ri «H '^ u>
o
o• • • r*
t o>
• • • • • o• o•
•4 <-n *-< 0^ *
o r4 ri CM o o o tn c^
« « t-l *

CM in o in r4 m Ov CM m o «^
o• o• ^ r*•- «-l ^ v^ CO ^ 00 in in
« • • • • • • f
c» ^ 10
CJ
o o m o o to
0>
o
r- >• r4 o CM CM «-i f-i ^ «* *o CM
CD <* O CO cr in rH <* ^ in
CO • • fl • • «n
• • • • » •
O* 10 "* 0* r-t
o m o o r* o
m
o
t
in CO 00 o o\ OJ CM o\ o
S fO
• u>
•
0»
•
r-t
•
ri
&
«
>
*-l
f
H
•
CM
• • o
e* ^»
CM
•
o •«» t-l <»> r* «-4 o rj o o to
t-<
<n *H c^
0
a N w CO in cv 0\ tn H CO >* v»
o in o• c» t* «0 00 CD m Oi N
to t • • • • • • • o• •
o in r* o m r4 o o t*
o r4 CO o
c \0
o
0
o N CJ o CO »-l «-l r1 <P4 H ^
0) Ov in o• 1-1 m CM 10 Cft o• O "•
in • f • • • • • • •
n u> ^ ^ o T4
o CM »<* <H <«• o
to o
6^

H 00 « «n » H <* CO •^ t- CM o
CM so r» r4 o• r<l CM ov CD '«#
• • • » * • • en
• • •
X Mi "* ^ M o CM o r4 "«
o 10 «-l o
14

o \D o P* H <^ 00 10 \0 CO (7t r- CO
O 0* (0 o> \0 "* <fs «0 m• CM o• o
g w •
tn
•
«n
• •
r>
•
Ch o
•
o
• •
'tf o O
•
in
(0 0»
o
c
o o Mi o o f* Ov vt CO 00 CO
•»
M
in
•
m
•
^
t
CO
•
CO
• o• '^• o* m• r*
•
§•
(> * o r4 o o CO o o r* c^
10 r-1
0)

Q
M *-t «n o o VO o r» tn -• ^ o
m• \0 0* f-4 r4 m 00 H m• o• H CO
• • • • • t • •
tn in «4 (M n ^ •
m f-l
o o o o o
10 o
M ^ o o CM m -¥
O fS Cl C4 O o o o o oCM o 3
to <
0)
1 5 1 ? ^ ^
 CM CO «-l 'tf <^ CM C^
«
fOo ro
CM
o
CD <«" in o
•f n r - c^ CO CN
tn o •-I rH
o
o o> «) r
**- r - <^ VO o
w c^ o o-I »* in
p- CM o »H o
w ^
•
o• ^
•
o• o* o• tn•
•
•
o• en• o•
tH
83
o ot o1 o1 o o
ot o o o1
, 1
o <0 m ^ t-l tn
ri <* tn o o
^ « o in fO NO
tH CM 00 o CO
in r^ yo
T-»
T-lm CM
in in
tn Ht-l
tn
ON
Ovo o
CM
oC4 «n o
-* o o CM tn
't '*
* ^f o o
in n
o
0* •
o o o o o o o O o« »H•
• • • • « • •
o*
1 1 i 1 1
C4 0^ o Ok <r-i <* in tH o tn CM
O r- CO NO 00 «OD
tn •-I in in -« o
^
t-l
00
o in 00
rM
o o
\n ON Ov m f-< ^ r-
CM o O
M M •^ fi
r» o o
in m «H o int
JE • • • o• o• • • • • o•
o o o1 o1 o o o O1 t-l o o
m CD f-« 10 CM c^ M o *-» 5J« ON
00 OD !*• <H 00 CO N o 11' CM r*
m O O 0» in CM tn o t-( M o
ocs OJ «-t 00 NO
r» VO tn vD o f* tH CM
i£ \o tn -* • * CM NO o• t-l CM o•
• t • • • • • • •
o ot o o o o o t^ o O o
1 1 1 1 1
n <0 (H NO OD r4 o CM in tH •*
ra «n « r* M o» o CM o »H in
O OD CJ CO t* CO r-t o cn r^ m in
C4 Mi CO CM CO NO CM o NO CM o i>
m CO H «* 'C CM o NO m• • o•
s •«#

M
t
•0
E «
o o o
1 1
• • • • •
o o o »-» o
1 1
• •
o o o1
> •H
a CD «n CM o «-i ON '^ tn tH
'*
1 g CM «n m
» CM
«-• m "^ o
t-l
c ON CO
«-l CM
00 VO
tH ON
«*
NO
n in
U O o CO o 0^ t^ o CM in ^ c ^ in
S 0
•»-»
H <-t <n
• •
o• O
•
^
t o• c«• CM• m• tn• tn•
n t) o o o o t-4 o o o c o
s g 1 p 1 1 1
1 tf> tn o "* 00 w H ri o
1 «0
CO
<0 <H NO r« o <H CM CO 00 tn 00
o 0» CO CM in o t^«' VO
00 in in in <Ti

%
5 Ch
in
•
to
M
•
O
VO r
•
*
o•
o ^
o• • • u>
NO tH
o
• *
tH
^
*
o
o o o o «-t o o o• o• o• o•
i t 1 1
CD <0 VO o CMinVO NO en tn
o r»- t^ o r» in r* t-l VO 3? CM
O c** o r * o in «n i* ON ifl tn r*
? <
"*
» tn
•
CD
•
CO
r>
•
o
ot
r* tn rs
* tn m
o• • <*• <*t o• ^•
o
*H
•
o O o t-l o o o o1 o o1 o
1 1 1 1 1
o ON o VO in rn r* t-l ON cn NO
m *o o l> VO t-< tn f* VO o m
fO o «*VO o r- M en mCM o m tH
00 tn o
t*
oC4 m
Ch
o eo
«6 o tn
o o
NO o tH <* o• •^
1*
"*
« * • • •
o o• o• o« o• o o• «
(>«
•? •?
«-l
1 t 1 f
00 o Ok VO NO CO 00 CO 0\ VO CM
m €0
CM o •* P» rH
<0 m en
CO CM CM
CD
O
t*
in
r*
NO
VO
VO
oCI U)
o VO o
in NO CO 00 t-lON tH
VD
o «0 CO CM tn en in «H o
fj
< •
o• • t • t • t •
cn•
o•
o r4 o• o O o o o o o o
1 t 1 1 1
o CO o tn CO ON CM cn CM o M
o CD tn 00 NO tn CJ 00 O ^ tn
N o CM o o ON CO in O r* <^
O o VO en tn 0» § NO CM in tn <^
•H ot VO o» >* in «-« tn NO CM * ^
«0 • t • • • t • • • •
ri
o o1 o o o1 oi o O o o
1
CO tn t
n oCM oCM CM oCM in 4-
o o o10 o oCM o o o
<
0)
CM i u s S 0.
CM
aT
 8^

TABLE - VII

i
Data showing the range ofroajoroxides of Thakurani mines.
District Keonjhar { Orissa )

Oxid« wt, % Range ( % )

SIO2 5.06 «. 13.04

3.90 •• 11.10
49.83 - 65.93
H9O 0.19 mm 2.14
CaO 9.69 4M» 14.91

TiO^ 0.33 . I.01

NagO 0.75 - 4.80
0.46 - 5.11
MnO 0.09 - 2.11

P2O5 0.04 mm 1.87

3.26 •• 7.56
 85

TABLE • VIII

Data showing the mean value and standard deviation o£ the

major oxides of iron ores of Thakurani mines

Oxides Mean value Standard Deviation

AljOj 5,636 2.06515

MnO 0,918 0.56566
PjOg 0,637 0.54816
HjO 5.075 1,37227
SiOj 7,708 2.45062
NagO 3,019 1,33787
KgO 3.292 1.28107
Fe^Oj 59.998 5.49014
MgO 0.690 0,55071
CaO 12.267 2,39068
TiO, 0,654 0,22949
 86

50
Si02
40

30

20^ IIMIIIUII m i l iiigijlll

^ 10 r""" t
c
u
O. 8 10 iS 12 13 14
>»
u Fig.H-1
c

cr 5 0 AI2O3
c
40

30

20

10 •f """•' •"!'"'

3 4 5 8 9 10 M^ -^2
Fig. H-2
 8'

50 CaO

40

30 I- p *

20

e
•

<-> JO _ . ^
i
1
V
i 1 1 1
9 10 I! {4 i5 !6 17 18
c
Fig. M"3
XX
6/ 50
^^2^3

40

30 r

20

JO h
T i
QL, x,.„ J
49 51 •K/^ >B^
55 5? 59 SI ^3 C>5 S7
Fig.H-4
 88

50
Na^O

40

30

20

"^ JO
4/
U

^™..,.„,™™Xn

0.5 1.0 1,5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5,0
o Ftg.H-5
c
iM 50 ^^2.0
cr

U. 40
30

20 h

10 .r-———-t

0 0.6 VI 1,8 2.4 3.0 3.6 4.2 4,8 .5.4

Fig. M-6
 89

50 MnO

40

30

20

10 r——I
u

0.0 0 3 O.S 0.9 1.2 t.5 8 2.1 2.4

o
c
c» 50

y- 40

30

20

to

X--. L
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0-S 1.0 1.2 14 l€ i.® 2-0
Fig N - 8
 90

MgO

40

30

20

c
<u
o
t_ 10
a.
u 0.0 0.3 0.6 0.9
c 1.2 1.5 1.8 2.1 2.4
CJ
Fig. H-9
cr
50 r

40

30

20

0
0.3 ).6 0.7 0.8 0.9 t.O I.:
Fig.H-IO
 01

50 H^O

40
c
O

30
o
20
0/

10 r——^
} 1
1 1 !
< 1
! 1
0 1
3.0 3,5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5 7.0 J
7,5 8,0
Fig.N"|i
 Si02

AI2O3

i
 93
Na^O

P
O
1

•.— «

.^
b
-
-
o
 94

MnO
IV M
o . 1 . — <

o» o o* o iJ»
o T 1 1 I
r 1 T i l l

-
I « o

o
o
o • • • •
11
1
' ^ O
b
00
o

P205
0 0 0 -. mm fV»
A a» to a* 0
»l
0° 1 1 "f T I 1 1 1 1 1
0
0
I
0

A
0
\
0 • II
OJ 0
0 • • • /
0

CD
0
 0^^

MgO

o
-si

Ti02
o o o —
b rs» A <i> 00 o
2j r 1 I 1 I 1 1
o
a
I
09
 9
^J6

CaO

Z?
o
o
(

^J

H2O

"23
o

o
 9'

CaO
<f> Oi *i>
o T~nr
p
I

fv*
2

o C»i -
o

Si02
tf^ 09 fU
-n O r- .^l 1^ J J J J 1 J p ., ^
i
o
P

>
M
o

CD

to

o '
 98

la.o

6.0

54.0
o
-re
u iZ.Oh

roo

8-0

0 2.0 4.0 2.0 4.0 €s,0

MgO NapO

FiG G - n FlG.G-iZ
 ne

FIG. »
/<*?

1 - - - •

i, BOvavo 1
,1 .3«0iS xi

mI t •
o
X
i
-i 1
d
^
^
;
? •- < Q • ^ [

2 « g ;a '. i
« " -' " t i
i ; ^ • -A

0
S
, 1 ";
i >f a '
a
3
"
O a ^

< * < 1 i »i
M
J
0
O
O X
» • • 1 «
 I'KURBONO

'woiH^/WoKAStR^

/ oKOOOOlH
PATHOi-V
/BiCHAKHANt 9 i
I PAHAR
i^OANOflAHAfl''^ i ' / »^ ^
^PAHAR \ j \ ^ \ • -

I ./ TBAOAM-/ I «
PUR
BONTM%"*

*rV|« «*liMM4<»,l«(4i

MAP OF THE mON-Of^E AREA OF SlNGHBHUM-KEONJHAR - BONAI

 1 f ] ;•.•

t/)
H
</)
«0' < O
(A) (X.
U)
o
OC
o
o o
IM

< ?5
z U1 _
 IDo

REFEREHCES

Acharya, S, 1964 Stratigraphy of the banded iron formations

of the Daiteri«>Toinaka area» Cuttack
district, Orissa, India« Rept, 22nd
Session, Int. GeoI« Cong., New Delhi,
part 10, p. 17.
Aiyengar,N.K.N, 1941 Preliminary report on the iron ores of
the Salem district, Madras, Rept. to
Govt, of Madras, G.O. No. 1781.
Aldrleh, H.R. 1929 The geology of the Gogebic iron range of
Wisconsin. Wise. Geol. Nat. Hist. Surv.
Econ. Ser., 24, Bull. 71, p. 136.
Alexandrov,E,A» 1955 Contribution to studies of origin of
Precanibrian banded iron ores. Econ.
Geol., V, 50, pp. 4S9-468.
Anhaeus8er#C.R.,1969 A reappraisal of some aspects of
Mason, R«,
Vlljoen, M.J, & Precandsrian shield geology. Geol. Soc.
Vlljoen, R.P«
Amer. Bull. T . 80.
Ayres, D.E, 1972 Genesis of iron-bearing minerals in
banded iron formation mesobands in the
Dales Gorge Member, Hamersley Group,
Western Australia. Econ. Geol., v. 67,
pp. 1214-1233.
Balaji Rao#B. 1923 Report on the work done during the field
season of the year 1920-21.Rec. Hys. Geol.
Dept., V. 21, pp. 133-136.
 104

Bastin* E.S. 1950 Interpretation of Iron textures, Geol*

Soc« hm» Mem. 45# p« 97.
Berner* R.A. 1969 Goethlte stability and the origin of red
beds. Geochlm. et Cosmochim. Acta, v. 33,
pp. 11.-30*
1970 Sedimentary pyrite formation. Amer* Jour.
Scl., V. 268, pp. 1-23.

Bose^ P.N, 1877 The iron industry of the western portion

of the district of Raipur. Rec. Geol.
Surv. Ind., V. 20, pp. 64-69.
Broderlck,T.H, 1919 S^ne of the relations of magnetite and
hematite. Bcon. Geol., v. 14, pp. 353-366•

Brown, J.s. 1943 Supergene magnetite. Econ. Geol., v. 38,

p. 137-148.
Chakraborty# K . L , 1 9 5 8 Kletainorphism of t h e banded i r o n formation
of Badaii^ahar, M^yurli^anj, I n d i a , and t h e
o r i g i n of t h e cuiraningtonite-magnetlte rock
PrcK!. Mat. I n s t . S c l . I7^«, v . 24 A, p.390
& 1968 f h e m a l metair^rphism of t h e banded i r o n
7aron, P.B,
fommtion of O r i s s a . Geol. Soc. Amer. Bui I .
V. 79, p . 365-374.
Crookshank, H» 1936 The iron ores of the Bailedile Ranger,
Bastar State. Trans. Min. Geol* Met. Inst.
Ind., V* 34, pp. 253-282.
Curtis,CD. & 1968 The formation of sedimentary iron minerals
Sp«ar8# D.A.
Econ. Geol., v. 63, p. 1105.
 105

Dubey, V*S* & 1943 The iron ore deposits of Kanjamelai hill,
KarunaHaran»C.
Salem district* ftedras. Qaar. Jour. Oeol.
Min. tmtm Soc» Znd,« v, 15, pp. 3-20,
Dunn# J*A« 1929 The geology of north Singhbhtam including
parts of Ranchi and Hanlc^un districts*
Hem. Geol« Surv* Ind., v» 54.
1935 The origin of iron ores in Singhbhum« Zndii
Econo. 6eol,# v. 30, p, 6430654*
1937 The mineral deposits of Eastern Singhbhuni
and surrounding areas. Mem. Geol. Surv.
Ind., V. 69, p. 197-206.
1939 Manganese near Chaibasa, Singhbhum* Rec.
Oeol. Surv. Ind,, v. 74, pp. 103-124*
1940 The stratigraphy of South Singhbhum. Mem.
Geol. Surv. Ind., v^ 63, p. 303**369v
1941 The origin of banded hematite ores in
India. Scon. Oeol., v. 36, p. 355-370.
1953 Banded hen^tite quartzite. Econ. Oeol.
V. 48,
1942 Geology and petrology of eastern
Dey, A.K,
Singhbhum and surroui^ing areas. Mem.
Geol. Surv. Ind., v. 69, Part 2.
Outt, A. & 1964 Origin and structure of Hoamundi and Joda
^andy« N«C.
east iron ore deposits. Rept. 22nd Se8sion«
Int. Geol, Cong., Part 5, pp. 101-110,
 lOB

Dutta« P.N* 19X0 On aorm iron ores of Chanda* Central

Provinces. Rec* Oeol. Surv. Xnd.» v. 38,
pp. 308-312.
Edwardsf A.B. 1968 Texture of the ore minerals and their
significance. Australian Inst, yin. Met.
p. 242.
Fenttoff L«L. 1909 Manganese ore deposits of India. Mem. Geol
Surv. Ind., v. 37, pp. 613-1294.
Foote, R.B» 1879 On the geological structure of the eastern
coast from Let. 15^ to Masulipatam. Mem.
Oeol. Surv. Ind», v. 16, Part 1# pp. 1«>268.
Ghosh, P.K., 1963 Hematite iron ores and associated banded
Prasad, u. &
Ghosh, R.B. rocks in Madhya Pradesh, Bihar and Orissa.
Rec. Geol. Surv. Znd., v. 92, pp. 239«252«
Gilbert, o. 1925 Some magnetite-hematite relations. Econ.
Oeol., V. 20, pp. 587-596.
Glagolev, A.A. 1967 Metaraorphisra of the Precambrian rocks of
the K.M.A., u.s.s.R. (Abstract) Econ.
Geol., V. 62, p. 552*
Grout, F.F. 1919 nature and origin of the Biwabik iron-
bearing foxrn»tion of the Mesabi range,
Minnesota. Econ. Geol., v. 14.
Gruner, J.W. 1922a Paragenesis of the martite ore bodies of
the Mesabi Range. Econ. Geol., v. 17,
pp. 1-14.
1922b The origin of sedimentary iron formations t
the Biwabik Formation of the Mesabi Range.
Econ. Geol., V. 17, pp. 408-460,
 irv

Qruner# J.W, 1924 Contributions to th© geology of the Mesabi

Range, Minnesota. Minn. Geol. Surv., Bull.
19* pp. 151-152.
^_____________^ 1946 The mineralogy and geology of the taconites
and iron ores of the Hesabi Range. Minnes-
ota* Iron Range Resources and rehabilita-
tion» St. Paulf Minn. p. 31.
Holland, T.H. 1900 The Chamockite series, a group of
Archaean hypersthenic rocks in Peninsular
India. r4em. Oeol. Surv. Znd., v. 28,
Part 2, pp. 119-249.
Huber, U.K. 1958 The environii«ntal control of sediiwsntary
iron minerals. Econ. Geol«# v. 53,
pp. 123-140.
1953 Relation of pH and oxidation potential
Garrells, R.K.
to sedimentary iron mineral formation.
Econ. Geol., v. 48.
Iyengar,S.V.P. & 1971 The Iron ore-Bengpal-Dharwar Oroup. Rec.
Banerjee, P.K.
Geol. Surv. Ind., v« 101, Part 2, p. 47.
«7ames, H.L. 1954 Sedimentary facies of iron formation.
Econ. Geol., V. 49, pp. 1455-1488.
Jay a ram, B, 1917 Preliminary note on the iron ore-bearing
and associated rocks in neighbourhood of
Maddur and Kunigal. Rec. Mys. Oeol. Dept.,
V. 15, p. 101.
Jones, H.C, 1923 The iron ores of singhbhum and Orissa.
Rec. Oeol. Surv. Ind., v. 54, pp. 167-302.
 108

Jones, H.C. 1934 The iron ore deposits of Bihar and Orlssa.
Mem. Oeol. Surv. Znd., v. 63# Part 2,
p. 167«»302.

Krishna Rao# 1971 The laterltlc Iron ores« itablrltlc

J.S.N. &
Murthy,B.S.ll. quartzlte and epldlorltes of the
Keranangundi area* Bababudan Hills, Mysore
State. Miner. Deposlta (Berl.)« v. 7,
p. 256.
Krishnan, M.S. 1935 The Oharwars of Chota llagpur - their
bearlr^ on soiM problems of correlation
ar^ sedimentation. Presidential Address,
Section of Geology, 22nd Znd. Scl.,
Cong., pp. 7-14.

1937 Geology of Gangpur State. Mem. Geol. Siirv<

Ind., V. 71, pp. 121-137.
1952 The Iron ores of Zndia. Iron ore
Syn^>08lum, 19th Inter. Geol. Cong.,
Algiers, pp. 503-532.

1954 Iron ores. Iron and steel. Oeol. Surv.

Znd. Bull. Ser. A. i7o. 9, pp. 1-137.

1955 Zron ores of Zndla. Znd. Assoc, for the

Cultivation of Science, Calcutta, p. 177.

Knuabein,w.C. 6 1952 Origin and classification of chemical

Garrels* R.M.
sediments in terms of pH and oxidation-
reduction potentials. Jour. Geol., v. 60,
pp. 1-33.
 inn

Lel^h* C«K« 1903 The »fe8abl iron-bearing district of M

Minnesota. U.S. Oeol. Surv., Mem. 147 pp.

XiepPf H. 1963 The relation of iron and manganese in

sedimentary iron formations. Econ, Geol.,
V. Sa, pp. 515-539.
1965 Origin of Precanrtbrian iron formations#
Ooldlchf S,S,
Econ. Oeol.« V. 59.

Mann, V*I* 1953 The relation of oxidation to the origin

of soft iron ores of Michigan. Econ.
Geol.f V. 48« pp. 251-281.

ttoore, E,s, 1918 The iron formation of Belcher Islands,

Hudson Bay, with special reference to its
origin and its associated algal limestones.
Jour. Geol., V. 26, pp. 272-303, 365-402,
506-527.

1929 Solution, transportation and precipitation

Maynard, J.E,
of iron and silica. Econ. Geol., v. 24,
pp. 506-527.
Mukhopadhyay,A. 1972 Silica diagenesis in the banded hematite
&
Chanda, S.K, jasper and bedded chert associated with
the iron Ore Group of Jaroda-Kolra valley,
Orissa, India, Sedim. Geol., v. 8, p. 119.
Worthy, V.N. & 1971 Manganese ore deposits of the Bonai-
Ghosh, B.K.
Keonjhar belt, Orissa. Indian Minerals,
V. 25, pp. 201-207.
Harayanaswaray,S. 1967 Charnockitic rocks of Tinnevelly district,
&
Lakshmi, P. Madras, Jour. Geol. Soc. Ind., v. 8,
pp. 335-337.
 1'')

Paul* D.K, 1964 Iron ore deposits of Qua, Singhbhum

district, Bihar, India. Rapt. 22nd Session
Inter. Geol. Cong.« Part 5, p. 169.
Parcival, P.O. 1931 The iron ores of Hoamundi. Trans. Min.
Oeol. Inst. Ind., v. 26, p. 252-261.
PichanTUthu#C.S. 1932 Metamorphosed amygdales in the Lingadhalli
traps, Kadur district, Mysore. Quart. Jour.
Geol, f'Jln. Met. Soc. Ind., v, 4, pp. 276-277
^^____^_^___^ 1935a The iron formations end associated rocks of
the eastern Bababudans, Kadur district,
Mysore. Half-Yearly Jour. ?^s. Univ.,
V. 8, pp. 17-35.
^___^___^__^_^ 1935b7The banded ferruginous quartzites of the
Bababudan Hills, Mysore State. Curr. Sci.,
V. 3, p. 14,
^_^^____^^__^ 1945 Algal structures in the cherts from
Oodguni, Tumkur district, Mysore State,
Proc, 32nd Ind. Sci. Cong., Part 3, p. 60.
^__^___^_____ 1950 jtoda rMtasomatism in the ferruginous
quartzites of the Bababudan Hills, Mysore
State. Proc* Ind. Acad. Sci., v. 31, p. 89.
„„„_„,,„_„^ 1951 ^mm observations on the structure and
classification of the Dharwars of Mysore
State. Curr, Sci., v. 20, pp. 117-119.
^___^___^_______^ 1952a Bababudanite. Rec. Vt^s, Geol. Dept.,
v. 47, p. 14.
. 1952b Hon-pleochroic acmite in the ferruginous
quartzites of Bababudan Hills, Mysore
 Ill

state• Quar. Jour* Geoft. Min. Met* Soc*

Ind*, V. 24, p* 55-60.
1963 The 'Dharwar System* and ita position in
the Indian Precatidsrian* Jour* Geol* Soc.
Ind., V. 4, pp. 79-87#
1967a The Precarctorian of India, in The Pre-
caoibrian, Ed. K* Rankama. Interscience
Publisher, p. 325.
1967b The structure andraetanrarphismof the
Dharwains of Mysore. Proc. syiap. Upper
Mantle Project, Hyderabad, Session IV -
Geol* Oeophys* Geochem* Studies on Dharwar
region, p. 119-126.

1973 Precacnbrian banded ixron formations* Jour*

Geol* Soc* Ind«, V. 14, pp. 280*281.

Prasada Eao, 1964 Stratigraphic relations of Precami^rlan

G.H*S.V«,
Murthy, y*G.K* iron formations ai^ associated sedimentary
&
Deekshltulu,M.N* sequences in parts of Keonjhar, Cuttack,
Dhenkanal and Sundargarh districts,Orlssa,
India* Rept, 22nd Session Int. Geol* Cong*
Part 10, p. 74.

Redhakri8hna,B*P*1951 The iron ore resources of Mysore, Bull,

Mys. Geol, Assoc*, so* 2, pp, 26-55.
Ramdohr, P. 1969 The ore minerals and their intergrowths.
Pargamon Press, p* 1174.
Rao, s.K«i«. 1969 A note on the ndndragraphic study of the
Doniraalai iron ore,Bellary district,Mysore
State,Indian Minerals,v* 23, p. 43,
 11

Roy# s»K« & 1939 Geology of the iron ore deposits of Mandi
nakherj««« A»!V«
State. Ouar. Jour. Geol. Min. Met. Soc.
Ind,, V. 11, pp. 49-78,
Saravanan* S. 1969 Origin of iron ores of Kanjainalai, Salem
district, Madras State. Indian Mineralogist,
V. 10, pp. 236-244.
Serkar» S.N. 1959 Revised correlation of the Iron Ore series
&
Saha# A.K* north and south of the Copper Belt ISirust
in Singhbhum and adjacent areas. Quart.
Jour. Geol* Min. Met. Soc. Ind., v. 31,
pp. 13-45.
1962 A xrevision of the Precairibrian stratigraphy
and tectonics of Singhbhuin and adjacent
regions. Quar. Jour. Geol. Min. Met. Soc.
Ind., V. 34, Nos. 2 and 3, pp. 97-132.
1963 On the occurrence of two intersecting
Precanibriau erogenic belts in Singhbhum
and adjacent areas, India. Geol. Mag. Lond.,
V, 100, pp. 69-92.
1964 The Precambrian palaeogeography of
Singhbhum region, eastern India t A
preliminary reconstruction. Rept. 22nd
Int. Geol. Cong., Sec. 10, p. 22.
1967 R-Ar ages £r#s the oldes metamorphic belt
Miller, J.A.
in India. Hature, v. 215, pp. 946-948.

1969 Geochronology of the Precambrian rocJcs of

Singhl^ttira and adjacent regions,Eastern Ind,
Geol.Mag.Lond.,V. 106, p. 13-45.
 1 1 r?

Sharma# R*K. 1968 Geology and Iron ore occnirrences in the

Ce
Satyanarayana, area bordering Drug and Bastar districts
G*C«
of Madhya Pradesh* Indian Minerals, v» 22,
pp* 225<»226*
Sikka, D.B. 19638 Banded hematite quartzites of Bihar,Orissa
and Madhya Pradesh, India* Vishtfakamm,
Engg* I.T. and S*R*R. Annual, pp* 19-28*
Spencer* E. 1952 The structure and origin of the banded
&
Perclval* P.G. hematite jaspers of Singhbhum, India, Econ.
Geol*, V* 47, pp* 365-383«
Spirofff K« 1938 Magnetite crystals from iMteoric solutions*
Econ* Geol*, V* 33, pp* 8ie*828*
Van Hlse,C.R, 1911 The geology of the Lake Superior region*
&
Leith, C,K« U.S. Geol* Surv*, Mon* 52, p* 641*
Wagner, P«A. 1928 The irxin deposits of the Union of South
Africa* Mem* South Africa Geol* Surv*,
V* 26, p. 72.
weld, C M . 1915 The ancient sedin^ntary Iron Ores of
British India* Econ* Geol., v* 10,
p. 435-452.
Zappfe, C. 1931 The deposition of manganese* Econ* Geol*,
V* 26, p. 799«832.
1933 Catalysis and its bearing on the origin of

the Lake Superior iron - bearing formations,

Econ* Geol*, V, 28, pp, 751-772•
 Plate I

FIG. 1

FIG.2

c\n. '^
 Plate II

FIG. 1

FIG. 2

Fir, 7
 Plate III

FIG. 1

FIG.2

r:\r, i