ANCIENT GRAINS FROM INDIA

Author(s): M. D. Kajale
Source: Bulletin of the Deccan College Post-Graduate and Research Institute , 1974, Vol.
34, No. 1/4 (1974), pp. 55-74
Published by: Vice Chancellor, Deccan College Post-Graduate and Research Institute
(Deemed University), Pune

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 ANCIENT GRAINS FROM INDIA

M. D. Kaj ale

Introduction

Excavations of sites belonging to Neolithic and later periods have often

yielded remains of vegetable material consumed by their inhabitants.
These remains are noticed in the form of carbonised and semicarbonised
grains, imprints of grains, spikelets and husks on clays and potsherds. In
South America, coprolites are also found to be an important source of grains
consumed by the inhabitants. (Callen, 1969; Heizer, 1969).

The study of ancient grains and other plant material is of manifold

importance. Such studies provide information on past agriculture and
consequently the palaeoenvironmental conditions prevailing during the period
of occupation. They throw light on the food habits of the people and help
tracing the history of crop plants and the weeds associated with them. The food
habits of the people are likely to change due to either environmental changes
or changes in the order of preference given to the cultivation of certain crops.
Such studies provide historical background to the origin and spread of agriculture
in various countries. According to Vavilov ( 1951 ), all crop plants can be
grouped into certain phytogeographical agro-climatic zones called by him as
centres of origin. From these centres, there was a diffusion of crops into
other regions mainly through human agency. The archaeobotanical findings
also sometimes help in elucidating the movement of people from one cultural
zone into another.

The crop- plants are intimately associated with the life of people and
their migration is often associated with the movements of the makers
of cultures, characteristic-to. a particular region. Grains found in archaeological
context may also indicate the introduction of crops from their centres of origin,
if the sites are situated far away from the centres of origin and when wild
forms do not occur. Cytogenetical researches also contribute towards the
understanding of evolution of crops from their wild relatives. Grains of wild
and cultivated species occurring in stratified contexts further help in marking
out the stages of evolution from wild to domesticated forms.

Amongst the grains, cereals are the chief source of carbohydrates,

legumes provide proteins while the fat requirements are satisfied by oil seeds.
Along with these cultivated crops certain wild seeds get mixed during the
process of harvesting. While collecting the grains from archaeological soils,

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 56 M. D. KAJALE

the conspicuous grains of cultivated

seeds of weeds are likely to be missed. Whenever archaeological soils
are subjected to floataion technique, the seeds of weeds are also collected along
with the seeds of cultivated plants. Most of the Indian archaeologists had
picked up the grains without floation technique as a result of which the seeds
of wild plants are poorly represented.

Such an important subject as grain study had been generally neglected

in India although in pre-independence days, fruitful attempts to report the Indus
valley material were made by Luthra ( 1936 ), Kohli ( 1936 ), Shaw ( 1943 ),
Sahni ( 1936; 38). Chowdhury and Ghosh ( 1951 : 1954-55 ) and Ghosh and
Lai ( 1962 ) studied materials from Harappa, Hastinapur and Rangpur
respectively. Vishnu Mittre's work in the field, laid the firm foundation for
researches in the history of Indian agriculture.

The author studied materials from some of the sites such as Kayatha
(Madhya Pradesh); Bhokardan, Songaon, Inamgaon and Nevasa (Maharashtra);
Prabhas-Patan ( Gujarat), and Tripuri ( Madhya Pradesh ) of which reports of
only the first two sites have been completed.

The present paper reviews the discoveries of grains in archaeological

deposits in sequential manner for tracing the history of crop-plants in India.
In presenting the data the information of past agriculture from ancient
literature is not considered in details. Only those materials, which have
been scientifically studied in the laboratory are included. The author has tried
to clarify the phytogeographical distribution of ancient grains through
archaeological periods. This distribution may not perhaps correspond with
the present day distribution because the crops are being improved to suit
various ecological conditions and have been found to be introduced to various
regions which were previously unsuitable for their cultivation. Discovery of
ancient grains is more or less a matter of chance and hence their absence
from a particular site does not necessarily mean their real absence from the
region under consideration. As more and more attention is being paid to
the discovery of ancient grains, geographical distribution of grains in archaeo-
logical periods will be more clear. Palaeoenvironment prevailing in a particular
region may or may not have changed. On the other hand, the peoples' preference
for cultivating particular crops might have changed.

The information on the ancient grains has been presented in the form
of a general catalogue. The details of some of the individual grains such as
'Wheat', 'Barley', 'Rice', 'Oil-Seeds', 'Fibre Plants' and 4 Wild Plants' have
been summarised in the form of tables, providing their history at a glance.
The tables are followed by comments on their present day distribution and
affinities.

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 ANCIENT GRAINS FROM INDIA 57

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58 M. D. KAJALE

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 ANCIENT GRAINS FROM INDIA 59

Table No. 1 Archaeobotantcal Record oí Wheat

Botanical Details Site Period wherever

wherever( with available
available ) Cédate ) R

Trtiicum sphaer- Harappa Chalcolithic

ococcum Pers. 2250 B. C. - 1750 B. C. Earliest record
( Indian Short in India.
Wheat )
Ter Early Historic
200 B. C. - 400 A. D.

Upper levels of mound II

Chanhudaro Early Muhammedan period
Triticum vulgare ( 900 A. D. -1000 A. D. )
Vili, ( Bread
Wheat ) Mohenjodaro Chalcolithic
2250 B. C. - 1750 B. C.

Navdatoli Chalcolthic These grains

1500 B. C. - 1000 B. C. were reported as
Triticum vulgare
Chanhudaro Upper levels of mound II compactum.
Early Muhammedan period
( 900 A. D. - 1000 A. D. )

Triticum Mundigak Pre-Harappan period II Late

compactum 4th millenium B. C.
Host- (Clu o
Wheat ) Harappa Chalcolithic
2250 B. C. - 1750 B. C.
Triticum compa-
ctum Host. Mohenjodaro Chalcolithic
2250 B. C. - 1800 B. C.

Navdatoli Chalcolithic
Triticum Sp. 1500 B. C. - 1000 B. C.

Atranjikhera 1200 -600 B. C.

Painted Grey
Ware( Period HI)

Kayatha Chalcolithic
2000 B. C. - 1800 B. C.

Inamgaon Chalcolithic
1300 B. C. - 700 B. C.

Navdatoli Chalcolithic
15u0 B. C. - 1000 B. C.

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 60 M. D. KAJALE

Table No. 1 ( Contd. )

„ A ~ 0.. Period ( with C14 date wherever

Botanxcal „ A ~ Details Site 0.. available )

Triticum Sp. Songaon Ch alcol ithic

Contd. 1290 B. C.
Khokra- Khot Early Historic, 200 B. C.
[ Rohtak ]

Nevasa Early- Historic to Indo Roman

150 B. C. - 200 A. D.

Bhokardan Satavahana
200 B. C. - 200 A. D.

WHEAT Triticum Linn.

Archaeobotanical record of wheat suggests occurrence of three species in

archaeological periods i. e. Triticum sphaerococcum Pers ; Triticum vulgare
Vili ; Triticum compactum Host. At present four species of wheat are
cultivated, in India hexaploid species being Triticum vulgare Vili, Triticum
sphaerococcum Pers; and telraploids being Triticum durum Desf and Triticum
dicoccum Schübl. The latter two species are predominantly seen in Southern
India while Triticum vulgare Vili; is intensively cultivated throughout India.
Basically Triticum vulgare Vili, is a Northern Indian species, but it has been
improved to suit the southern Indian climate also. Triticum sphacrococcum Pers
occupies only the north-west corners of India. It would be interesting to
know the time of introduction of two tetraploid species of wheat to India j. e.
Triticum durum Desf and Triticum dicoccum Schiibl.
Early wheat species are einkorn ( Triticum monococcum Linn, a
diploid form) and emmer ( Triticum dicocum Schiibi. a tetraploid form ) as is
evidenced by their occurrence at Ali-Kosh ( Iran ) in Bus Mordeh phase which
dates to 75G0 B.C. to 6750 B.C. At Neo Nikomedia ( Greece ) they date back to
6200 B. C. There is a report of Triticum durum Desf. from Egypt in Greco-
Roman period.

BARLEY Hor deum Linn.

It is also amongst one of the earliest cultivated plants along with

wheat. It's origin and evolution -is clearly noted in Early West Asian
cultures. At Catal Hüyük (Anatolia ), Hordeum spontaneum Koch (a two row
barley) has been found at 5850 B. C. - 5600 B. C.; while at Ali-Kosh ( Iran)
Hordeum distichum Linn occurs in the period 6750 B. C. -6000 B. C. The
domesticated two row barley seems to have emerged first at Jarmo and
possibly at Beidha and in Ali-Kosh phase at Ali Kosh. The hulled form was
widely cultivated from about 6000 B. C. in the Near East and Southern Europe.
The earliest six rowed barley [ naked form ] appears in Anatolia around 7500

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 ANCIENT GRAINS FROM INDIA 61

B. C. and was established in Thessaly after 6000 B. C. Hu

occurs by 6000 B. C. at Ali-Kosh ( Ali-Kosh phase ) and A
The archaeobotanical record of barley in India show
adistinctly extrapeninsular crop with southernmost exte
and NevaSa. Today also, barley is predominantly cultiva
provinces of India.

Table No. 2 Archaeobotanical Record of Barley

Botanical | c.. Period ( with C14 date D ,

details j | c.. 1 wherever available) Remarks, D
Hordeum Mohenjodaro Chalcolithic Earliest evidence
vulgare Linn. 2250 B. C. 1800 B. C. of barley in
var. nudum x India.
Harappa Chalcolithic
Hordeum 2¿50 B. C. - 1780 B. C.
vulgare Linn. Mohenjodaro
var .hexastichum Chalcolithic
2250 B. C. - 1800 B. C.
Hordeum
vulgare Linn, Kalibangan Pre-Harappan
2300 B. C - 1750 B.C.

Chirand Neolithic
2000 B. C. - 1300 B. C.

Hordeum sp. Inamgaon 1 Chalcolthic

1600 B. C. - 700 B. C.

Navdatoli Chalcolthic
lbOO B. C. - 1000 B. C.

Hordeum vulgare Atranjikhera Painted Grey Ware period

Linn 1000 B. C.

Ter Early Historic

100 B. C. -200 A.D.

Nevasa Indo-Roman
50 B. C. - 100 A. D.

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 62 M. D. KAJ ALE

Table No. 3 Archaeobotanical Record of Rice

Botanical Site Period ( with CM date Remark8,

details wherever available )

Oryza sp. Lothal Harappan Impressions of

2300 B. C. rice husk &
spikelets on
potsherds.

Kalibangan Harappan Rice husks in

terra-cotta
cakes.

Rangpur Harappan Period IIA Impressions of

2000 B. C. - 1500 B. C. spikelets on
potsherds

Has tinapur Early Historic Rice husk

1100 B. C. - 800 B. C. impressions on
potsherds
Mahisdal Chalcolithic, prior to
700 B. C.

Sonepur 800 B. C. - 600 B. C.

Khokra - khot Early Historic lOO B. C.

t Rohtak ]

Oryza sativa Chirand Neolithic

Linn. 2000 B. C. - 1300 B. C.

Ahar Chalcolithic
1750 B. C. - 1300 B. C.

Pandu Rajar 2nd millenium B. C.

Dhibi

Hallur Iron Age

. 1100 B. C. - 800 B. C.

Nagara Early Historic

500 B. C. - 800 A. D.

Kaundinyapur Early Historic to Medieval

500 B. C. - 800 A. D.

Paunar Early Historic

100 B. C. - 300 A. D.

Ahar Early Historic

100 B. C.

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 ANCIENT GRAINS FROM INDIA 63

Botanical
details g..g..
1 1 Period (with
wherever CM date
available)
Bhokardan Satavahana
200 B. C. - 200 A. D.

Nevasa Early Historic to Indo-Roman

150 B. C. - 200 A. D

Atranjikhera Phase III

( 1200-600 B.C. )

Tripuri Early Historic

(200 B. C.- 200 A. D.)

Oryza sp. Ujjain 500 B. C. or Earlier

Rupar 600 B. C. 200 B. C.
Nagda 500 B. C. - 200 B. C.
Patliputra 405 B. C. - 115 B. C.
Kunnatur 300 B. C.

Kolhapar 100 A. D.

Rangmahal 100 A. D» - 400 A. D.

Kangra Fort Late Historic

RICE Oryza sativa Linn.

Rice is one of the oldest crops in India though its earlier record comes
from Non Nok Tha ( Thailand ) where it dates to the period not later than
3500 B. C. At the abovementioned site, impressions of rice grains have been
found on potsherds. There have been several records of rice Oryza sativa Linn
from China e. g. Neolithic of Yang-Shao Ts'uan and Liu Tzuchen. Its Late
Neolithic lecord comes from Anhui, Kionsi, Chekiang. Hupei which date to
circa 1650 B. C.
Phytogeographical distribution of rice in archaeological period suggests
its occurrence in all the corners of India
RAGÌ Eleusine Gaertn

It has been distinctly a south Indian crop since its archaeobotanical

record as well as modern cultivation comes mainly from the same region.
Earliest records of Ragi in India comes from Neolithic site of Hallur ( 1800 B.
C. -1500B. C. ) where the charred grains of both the wild and cultivated
species occur together. The wild species has been referred to as Eleusine indica
Gaertn and the cultivated one as Eleusine coracana Gaertn . Its subsequent record
comes from Neolithic Paiyampalli (1400 B. C. ) in Tamilnadu, Songaon

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 64 M. D. KAJALE

( 1290 B. C. ) Bhokardan ( 200 B. C

D. ). in Maharashtra. It is essent
Songaon and Bhokardan while rest of
Ragi ( Eleusine coracana Gaertn . )
Vavilov ( 1951 ) proposed that E
Abyssinia while De Candolle has e
originated in India and Africa. Fur
India and Africa have several feat
Eleusine, especially the presence of
extent of diversity of species and las
the materials so far investigated. T
cal findings from Africa. In Egypt
cultivation in early times ānd Gre
not speak of it. It is mentioned by S
Ragi, the word coracana comes fro
ally in wild state is Eleusine aegypt
species, lùxuriant stage of which
the cultivated Eleusine coracana Gaertn.

These facts considered together would, thus complicate the problem of

origin of Eleusine coracana Gaertn from India to Africa and vice-versa. It does
not directly bear on the subject of the paper.

BAJRA Pennisetum typhoides Stapf and Hubbard

Present day cultivation of Bajra is mainly restricted to the semi- arid

regions of India. The archaeological siles from which it is reported also fall
under semi-arid type of climate. At Hallur, it occurs from the transitional phase
between Neolithic and Megalithic periods where it dates to 1100 B. C.-800 B. C.
It makes its appearance at Rangapur in period III ( 1100 B. C. - 800 B. C. )
and at Nevasa it is found from Indo-Roman levels which date back to 100 B. C,-
200 A. D.
In Africa* its archaeobotanical record is noted at Nāghez phase of
Naghez which dates to 1255± 105 B. C. It is a Neolithic site It is not
however decided whether they belong to wild or cultivated species. At Le
Baidla I site, 60% grain impression are those of Pennisetum , Pers ,out of which
1/3 exhibit characters of cultivated grain. The site dates to 80± 105 B. C.

KODON Paspalum scrobiculatum Linn.

The archaeological record of Kodon has been very meagre and it

occurs in a charred form in Satavahana levels of Nevasa which go back
to 150 B. C. - 200 A. D. From the Iron Age stratum of Hallur, Vishnu Mittre
( 197 1 b ) reported charred grains which according to him may be either
Kodon, Paspalum scrobiculatum Linn, or Pennisetum typhoides Stapf and
Hubbard. At Nagra (500 B. C. 800 A. D.) the cereal grains called
as kodon occur but its botanical details have not been mentioned.

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 ANCIENT GRAINS FROM INDIA 65

The auothor is not- aware of any archaeological record of Kodon,

from outside India. It is a cereal crop indigenous to India which is its centre
of origin (Vavilov, 1951 ).
JOWAR Sorghum Hack
It is a typical dry farming crop and its archaeological record comes
from the semi -arid tracts of Maharashtra and Rajasthan. Vishnu Mittre
(1970) reported lumps of disintegrated Jowar from Malwa phase of Chalcolithic
Inamgaon. Incidentally, this is the earliest discovery of Jowar in Maharashtra
and for that matter in India. It dated to 1600 B. C. - 1300 B. C. [Charred
grains of Sorghum vulgare Pers. are detected at Early Historic Paunar ( 500 B.
C.- 100 B. C. ) From Early Historic Bhatkuli Vishnu Mittre ( 1968 a) reported
grains of Sorghum resembling the modern grains of Sorghum bicolor wild.
They go back to circa 100 B. C. Grains of Androgon sorghum Brot, have been
reported from Indo- Roman levels of Nevasa which are dated to 50 B. C.-
200 A. D.
The only record, outside Maharashtra comes from Aharin Rajasthan,
where impressions of this grain on the potsherds are reported. These have
been referred to as Sorghum vulgare Pers.
PEA Pisum arvense Linn.
In India earliest record of Pea is noted from Neolithic Chirand, which
dates back to 2000 B. C. - 1300 B. C. The species of Pisum has not been
mentioned. Subsequent records of Field Pea are seen from Chalcolithic Navdatoli
( 1500 - 1000 B. C. ) in Madhya Pradesh, and Inamgaon ( 1600 - 700 B. C. ) In
Maharashtra, Field Pea was dominantly represented at sites such as Kaundiny-
apur where it occurs in Early Historic to Medieval period. At Bhokardan
charred grains of Pisum arvense Linn, are found from Satavahana levels ( 200
B. C. - 200 A. D. ) while at Nevasa both Field Pea ' Pt arvense Linn ) and
Garden Pea.'(P, sativum Linn.) occur from Satavahana of Indo-Roman levels.
Field Pea has been reported from a number of West Asiatic sites such
as Pre-Pottery B of Jericho, Jarmo. Catal Hüyük, Can Hasan. Garden Pea is
found from Neolithic Nea Nikomedia where it dates to 62S0- 5330 B. C. The
field peas were certainly cultivated in the Late Neolithic of Europe.
GRASS PEA Lathyrus Linn.
The archaeobotanical record of Grass Pea is very meagre and it is
represented by Lathyrus sativus Linn. Lathyrus sphaericus Retz. in the
Chalcolithic habitations of Navdatoli-Maheshwar. In Maharashtra the Lathyrus
sativus Linn is represented at Chalcolithic Inamgaon (1600 B. C.-700 B. C. ) and
Kaundinyapur where it is represented in Early Historic to Medieval period. It is
also represented from Bhokardan in the Satavahana period which dates to 200
B.C. -200 A.D.
Lathyrus sativus Linn, has been represented from a number of West Asian
sites such as Choga-Mami in Iraq, Tepe Sabz in Iranian Khuzistan and Jarmo
iri Iraqi Kuvdistan )
D.B. 74-6

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 66 M. D. KAJALE

At present, the cultivation of Lath

since it contains a poisonous substa
paralysis.

LENTIL Lens esculenta Moench.

The Lentil represented by Lens esculenta Moench ( Lens culinaris

Medjcus), : Thî earliest archaeological record in India comes from Chirand
( Bihar ) dating back to 1800 B. C. - 1300 B. C. Subsequent record of
Lentil comes from sites such as Navdatoli- IVI ad hy a Pradesh ( 1600-700 B. C.)
Inamgaon ( 1600 B. C. ~ 700 B. C. ), Indo-Roman Nevasa [ 50 B. C. 200 A. D. ]
and Satavahana Bhokardan ( 200 B. C. - 200 A. D. ) in Maharashtra.
Outside India, Lentil comes along with Wheat and Barley from several
early farming villages of West Asia and Europe. It occurs at Jarmo and Tepe
Sabz in the Near East, also at Aceramic and later Hacilar in Anatolia, at
Ghediki, Argissa and Nea Nikomedia in Greece, and at Karanovo I and Tell
Azmak in Bulgaria. The wild form of lens esculenta Moench Lens nigricans
Moench and it is distinguished from the former by the smaller size of its seeds.

HYACINTH BEAN AND HORSE GRAM : Dolickos lablab of Linn. And

DoUchos biflor us Linn.

Both Hyacinth Bean ( DoUchos lablab Linn. ) and Horse Gram ( Dolichos
biflorus Linn. ) are exclusively Indian crops and the author is not aware of
their occurence elsewhere. Both the legumes are found in wild state especially
in south India and Bengal. Several Sanskrit names also point to their antiquity.
It was suggested by De-Candolle that both Dolichos lablab Linn, and Dolichos
biflorus Linn, may be anterior to the Aryan invasion. This is being supported
by some of their earlier archaeobotanical occurances summarised below.
The archaeobotanical record of Dolichos lablab Linn, comes only from
Maharashtra and Gujarat. In the latter state, Early Historic levels of Prabha8-
Patan (400 B. C.-100 A. D.) show its presense. Earliest record of Dolichos lablab
Linn, comas from Chalcolithic Inamgaon which dates to 1300 B. C. - 700 B. C.
Bhokardan exibits the Dolichos lablab Linn, in Satavahana levels in between the
period 200 B. C.-200 A. D. At Nevasa, they are picked up from Indo- Roman
levels ( 50 B. C. - 200 A. D. )

The earliest record of Horse Gram ( Dolichos biflorus Linn. ) comes from
Neolithic Tekkalkota, Mysore State where it dates back to 1800 B.C.-1600 B C.
The author has personally noted the charred grains of Dolichos biflorus Linn,
from Chalcolithic Navdatoli ( 1500 B. C. - 100 B. C. ) in Madhya Pradesh.
Chalcolithic Inamgaon ( 1600 B. C.-700 B. C. ) from Maharashtra also indicates
its presense. The grains are also recovered from Neolithic Paiyampalli ( 1400
B. C. ) in Tamilnadu.

It is important to note that Horse Gram is cultivated throughout the

semi-arid parts of South India.

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 ANCIENT GRAINS FROM IŅDIA 67

Gram Cicer arietinum Linn.

The archaeobotonical record of Gram comes exclusively from Mahara-

shtra. The earliest date being 200 B C. - 200 A. D. of Satavahana
Bhokardan. It occurs also at Early Historic Nevasa (15 0 B, C. - 100 A. D. ),
Early Historic Bhatkuli ( circa 100 B. C. ), and Early Historic Ter ( 100 B. C.
-200 A. D. )
Gram has been cultivated for centuries in India, the Near East and
Southern Europe. The archaeological evidence for the cultivation of this species
in ancient Egypt seems to be extremely meagre. Examination of the linguistic
evidence however, shows that Cicer arietinum Linn, was cultivated, in the Nile
valley at least as far back as the New Kingdom. Amongst a number of plants
listed in the school of this time is one called in Egyptian hrw-bik. lit Falcon
faces and a comparison of the chick-pea, with its " hook ,f or beak, with
Egyptian representatives of hawk's heads puts the identification beyond doubt.

The chick Pea was known to the Greeks in Homer's time under the name
Erbinthus and to the Romans as Cicer. The known existence of other widely
different names show that it was early known and perhaps indigenous to S. E.
Europe. It is supposed that the chick Pea has been cultivated in Egypt from
earliest times of the Christian era, and was perhaps considered common and
unclean, like the beans or the lentils. But it is most likely that it was introduced
into Egypt as well as amongst the Jews from Greece and Italy. Iťs introduction
into India is of a more early date, for there is a Sanskrit name and several
other nemes for it in modern Indian languages. It is considered to have originated
in the tract lying between the Caucasus and the Himalayas, whence it has
spread into South Europe, Persia, Egypt and India. It has long been introduced
into parts of central and southern America. Australia and parts of Africa. The
species is not met with in a wild state.

BLACK GRAM Phaseolus mungo Linn

The author is not aware of its archaeological record anywhere outside

India. In India, it is reported from Navdatoli which dates to 1500 - 1000 B. C.
the only other record available comes from Satavahana Bhokardan ( 200
B. C. - 200 A. D ). According to Vavilov ( 1951 ) centre of origin of Black
Gram is India excluding N. W. India, Punjab, Northwest frontier but including
Assam and Burma.

GREEN GRAM Phaseolus aureus Linn.

According to Vavilov ( 1951). India is the centre of origin of Green

Gram. The author is not aware of its archaeological record from outside India.
In India, the charred grains of Phaseolus aureus Linn have been reported from
Chalcolithic Navdatoli (1500 B. C. - 1000 B. C.). in Madhya Pradesh, Neolithic
Paiyampalli ( 1400 B.C. ) Tamilnadu, Neolithic Chirand ( 1800 B. C.-1300 B.C.)
Bihar, and Indo Roman Nevasa ( 50 B C. -200 A. D. ) Maharashtra.

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 68 M. D. KAJ ALE

VETCH Vicia Linn.

In india Vetches are represented by 2 species, namely Vicia sativa Linn,

Vicia tetrasperma Moench. from Chalcolithic Navdatoli which dates to 1500
B. C.-10J0 B. C. There have been several records of Vetches from early
Western Asian and European cutures. It is reported from Choga Mami
in Iraq.
Common vetch- Vicia sativa ssp obovata comes from Neolithic bog
settlement of Niedermill. It is essential to note that early finds of vetch belong
chiefly to wild species. Vicia ervilia was known from Catal Hüyük. It became an
important crop later in Anatolia and neighbouring region. Vicia f aba Linn, has
also been reported from Chien Shan Yang in Chekiang province of China.

PIGEON PEA Cajanus Cajan Millsp

Accordng to Vavilov ( 1951 ), the Pigeon Vea, Cajanus cajan Millsp.
originated in India and its first archaeobotanical record in India comes frem
Satavahana Bhokardan which dates to 200 B. C.- 20o A. D.
Eventhough there is a single evidence of this pulse from Indian archaeo-
logical sites, Cajanus-cajan Millsp is widespread in India. It is believed that it
may have been introduced intö India from S. Africa, where many wild forms
are available m the natural state Maximum avrage of Pigeon Pea is found in
Uttar Pradesh

It is essential to note that Flax ( Linum usitatissimum Linn ) was of great

importance in the Near East until its fibres were replaced by cotton and its oil
( Linseed Oil ) by sesame. It was cultivated in the 5 th millenium B. C. ( Halaf
Period) at Tell Arpachiyah and Tell Brak in the Kurdish Foothills, where the
wild Linunm bienne Mill, which may be considered as wild progenitor of
cultivated flax is naturally distributed.

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 ANCIENT GRAINS FROM INDIA 69

Table No. 4 Archaeobotanical Record of Oil Seeds

Botanical details | Site | ^herever^vaUabloT | Remarks, if any

Sesamum Linn 'Harappa "Chalcolithic 200 B. C.- It is the only evidence
1750 B. C. £ mailable so far in
India.

Linum Navdatoli Chalcolithic 1500 B. C. It is the only evidence

usitatissimum L Maheshwar 1000 B. C. available so far in
India.

Carthamus Nevasa Indo-Roman 50 B. C.- I* is the only evidence

tinctoriuê Linn 200 A D. available so far in
India.

Brassica juneca Chanhudaro Upper levels of mound It

Czern. II ( B. C. ) 9th century available so far in
A. D. India.

Seed resembling Ter Early Historic 200 It is the only evidence

the Castor Seed B. C - 400 A. D. available so far in
( Ricinus India.
communis Linn

Table No 5 Archaeobotanical Record of Fibers

Site J Material
Harappa Cotton Chalcolithic 2*250 The impressions have
Impression B. C. - 1750 B. C. been referred to as
Gossypium arboreum
Linn.
Chandoli Thread Chalcolithic 1500 The thread found in
B. C. - 1000 B. C. the coppeT bead has
been identified as that
of cotton.

j «. , Chalcolithic 1500 The thread found in

Chandoli j «. Thread , B. C. - 1000 B. C. one of the cop
beads has been
identified as that of

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 70 M. D. KAJALE

Table No. 6 Archaeobotanical Record oí Frīdis

T* otanical . . , details • , I Site c., Period ( with C14 date I

otanical . . , details • , ļ c., Site wherever available ) I
Phoenix sp . Harappa Chalcolithic
( Date Palm ) 2250 B. C. - 1750 B.C.

Phoenix sylvestris Inamgaon Chalcolithic

Roxb, ( wild date ) 1600 B. C. - 700 B. C.

Cucumis melo Linn. Harappa Chalcolithic

( Water melon ) 2250 B. C. - 1750 B. C.

Phyllanthes emblica Navdatoli Chalcolithic

Linn ( Myrabolan ) Maheshwar 1500 B. C. - 1000 B. C.

Tectona grandis Linn

(Teak fruit ) Hallur Neolithic 1800 B. C.

Uni dentifiable fruit Bhokardan Satavahana

200 B. C. - 200 A. D
Zizyphus vulgaris Linn.
X Kodekal Neolithic 2300 B. C,

Kayatha Chalcolithic
Zizyphus jujuba Linn. 2000 B. C.-1800 B. C.

Inamgaon Chalcolithic
1600 B. C.- 700 B. C.

Navda toli Chalcolithic

1500 B. C.- 1000 BC.

Bhokardan Satavahana
200 B. C. - 200 A D.

Nevasa Satavahana to Indo-

Roman 260 B. C. -
200 A. D.

Mündig ak Period II Late 4th

millenium B. C.
Zizyphus nummularia
W & A Kaundinyapur Early Historic to
Cocos nuáj era Linn medieval 500 B. C -
1400 A. D.
Borassus f label lifer
Murr. Arikamedu Cndo-Roman
Fruit shells

X K« Paddayya : Personal Communication.

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 ANCIENT GRAINS FROM INDIA 71

The Date Plam [phoenix dactylifora Linn.] is one of the oldest

back at least 5000 years. It probably is native to India or Ar
long been domesticated throughout southwestern Asia and No
was present in Arabia before the dawn of history, and was of gre
Babylonia, and had reached Egypt long beiore the Christian
has indicated the presence of seeds, comparable to genus
Bronze Age of Jericho.

WATERMELON Cucumis melo Linn.

It has been reported from one of the Chinese sites Chi'en Shan Yong in
Chekiang which dates to 2750 1 100 B.C. [ K. C. Chang 1973 ] while still older
record comes from Spirt Caves North Thailand dating back to c. 10,000 BC,
5500 B.C. [C. F. Gornjon, 1970] . The Melon ( Cucumis melo Linn ] probably
originated as a wild plant in Southwes tern Asia. It is very old and was known to
the Egyptians and Romans. The melon reached Europe in seventeenth century
It is now cultivated in warm temperate countries.

Table No. 7 Archaeibotanical Record of Wild Seeds and Wilds Fruits

0.. Period with Cw dat „ .

whereaver availabele „ Botanical . details

Burzahom Neolithic 2300 B. C, 1. Lithospermum arvense Linn.

2. Ipomea sp.

3. Euphorbia sp.

4. Medicago denticulata,
Wild

5. Medicago falcata Linn.

6. Lotus corniculata Linn.

Bhakardan Satavahana 200 B. C.~ 1. Seed of leguminous tree

200 A. D.
2. Unidentifiable seed

Among the wild seeds and fruits Medicago Linn is found in several
Western Asian contexts. It is reported from Bus Mordeh phase of Ali-Kosh
in Iranian Khuzistan and also from Beidha ( Southern Jordan ).

Discussion

From the abovementioned record it is evident that almost all the major
the crops were already in existence at least at the beginning of the Christian era.

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 72 KAJALE M. D.

except perhaps the maize which was i

D. The earliest written record of cul
time. A table of revenue derived from d
shows that tax from maize ( makka ) fo
1689. From then on the collection w
increase in the produce. It is essential to
impressions of seeds of maize on the
dates not later than 1435. A. D. Maiz
America^ sites such as Tehucan ( 5
caves ( 1500 B. C. )
Amongst the crops considered ther
come totally extinct. Some local disa
deterioration or changes, in the prefere
in India are Wheat, Barley, Rice whic
Bajra and Jowar. Maize has the short
to note the archaeobotanical absence of some minor cereals such as Foxtail
Millet Linn. (Seteria italica , Beauv and) Broom and corn Millet ( Panicům millia -
ceum Linn ). Oat and Rye have been very recently introduced cereals in India.
Amongst Legumes Peas and Lentils have the earliest history. They are
followed by Grass Pea, Hyacinth Bean, Horse Gram, Black Gram, Green Gram.
Vetch Pigeon Pea and Bengal Gram : As far as the archaeological record is
concerned pulses such as Hyacinth Bean ( Dolichos lablab Linn. ) Horse Gram
(Dolichos bifforus Linn), Black Gram (Phaseolus) mungo Linn,) Green Gram
( Phaseolus aureus Linn), Pigeon Pea ( Ca j anus Cajan Millsp) seem to be
indigenous. Vavilov ( 1951 ) has placed them in Hinduthan center of origin. We
must take note of archaeobotanical absense of Cow Pea Vigna catjang Endl
the cultivaion of which is ancient. It forms one of the components of Nava
Dhanya, generally used during auspicious ceremonies by Hindus in India.
Accordig to Watt, the name Lobiya is probably of Greek origin, derived from
the word lobos, meaning a pod. However Watt is inclined to trace the naiue
to the Sanskrit word Lobhiva, meaning alluring Cow Pea is said to be listed
amongst the Kharif crops in the Ain-i-Akbari.
As compared to the cereals and legumes, ojl seeds are scarcely seen in
the archaeological periods, though seeds of Sesame, Linum, Sarsu, Castor and
Safflower have been reported from India. It is worthy to note that all the
abovementioned seeds are retained in cultivation with the addition of oil seeds
such as Groundnut, Sunflower, Soya Bean.
Acknowledgaments : The author is grateful to Prof. H. D. Sankalia for
suggesting the topic and for taking keen interest. He is thankful to Dr. S. N.
Rajaguru for constant encouragement. Thanks are also due to Drs. M.
K. Dhavalikai, R.V. Joshi and G. L. Badam for kindly going through the manu-
script and to Mr. A. R. Marathe for handing over to the author the material of
Prabhas-Patan. The author is thankful to Dr. S. H. Tulpule, Botany
department, University of Poonas 7, with whom he had valuable discussions.

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 ANCIENT GRAINS FROM INDIA 73

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