Adv Eng Mater - 2023 - Almesmari

REVIEW
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Recent Advancements in Design Optimization of

Lattice-Structured Materials
Abdulla Almesmari,* Ali N. Alagha, Mohammed M. Naji, Jamal Sheikh-Ahmad,
and Firas Jarrar
inspired-materials (also known as metama-

Metamaterials, also known as lattice-structured materials, imitate the multifunc- terials, lattice structures/materials, or
tionality of natural architects as tailoring their physical properties is associated with lattice-structured materials), exhibiting
manipulating their microstructure. As the recent evolution of additive manufacturing physical properties that are mainly driven
by their geometrical parameters and the
enables the creation of intricate geometries with minimal material wastage,
base material. These synonyms will be
improving the design to manufacturing cycle of lattice structured materials has used interchangeably throughout the
become one of the trending research areas. Triply periodic minimal surface (TPMS) article. The smallest volume occupied in
and plate lattice materials are renowned for their exceptional mechanical behavior in a lattice material is defined as the represen-
lightweight applications. Apparently, several types of design optimization strategies tative volume element (RVE) which is pri-
are explored to maximize their performance for better biocompatibility and marily described by its size and relative
density. The latter is defined as the ratio
mechanical loading resistance. Some of these strategies include functional gradation
of an RVE density to the base material den-
and multimorphology hybridization that are comprehensively described in this sity. Generally, the mechanical properties
review. Their benefits and drawbacks are highlighted with a focus on TPMS and of lattice materials are highly dependent
plate lattice materials. The review anticipates the utilization of automated design on the relative density. Lattice materials
exploration methods (i.e., topology optimization and data-driven methods) to further are classified as 2D and 3D structures.
enhance the design optimization procedure of lattice structured materials. As an example, the former includes the bio-
inspired honeycomb structures that are
widely implemented as a lightweight core
in a sandwich construction.[1] 3D lattice
1. Introduction materials compose of stochastic foams and periodic structures,
as the former highly imitates the anisotropic nature of the
Designers and engineers have extensively indulged in a quest for human bone which makes it suitable for bone implants.[2]
robust structures capable of satisfying stringent requirements Unlike the stochastic foams, the isotropy of periodic lattice mate-
for engineering applications. One example is the nature rials is highly directional dependent. These consist of a set of
identical RVEs that are infinitely repeated in 3D, such as, truss
lattice materials, plate lattice materials, and triply periodic mini-
A. Almesmari, A. N. Alagha, M. M. Naji mal surface (TPMS). Truss lattice materials are composed of
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Advanced Digital and Additive Manufacturing Center
rods/trusses connected at junction nodes, such as, the octet truss
Khalifa University lattice material. One of the limitations of these lattice materials is
P.O. Box 127788, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates developing stress concentrations at the junction nodes which
E-mail: abdulla.almesmari@ku.ac.ae deteriorate the stiffness of the structure. Plate lattice materials
J. Sheikh-Ahmad consist of interconnected closed-cell walls, ensuring efficient
Department of Mechanical Engineering load transfer among the constituent plates. TPMS were mathe-
Western New England University
Springfield, MA 01119-2684, USA matically described by H. A. Schwarz as smooth surfaces that
F. Jarrar
have zero mean curvature at every point on a surface.[3] The
Department of Mechanical Engineering continuity and smoothness of TMPS minimize the stress
Al Hussein Technical University concentrations, enabling their utilization in tissue engineering
Amman P.O Box 783, Jordan application.[4]
The ORCID identification number(s) for the author(s) of this article The complex topologies of lattice materials require accurate
can be found under https://doi.org/10.1002/adem.202201780. and precise manufacturability. As the performance of these
© 2023 The Authors. Advanced Engineering Materials published by Wiley- structures is highly associated with their manufacturing fidelity,
VCH GmbH. This is an open access article under the terms of the Creative minimization of the process defects is necessary for attaining
Commons Attribution-NonCommercial License, which permits use, maximum performance. Additive manufacturing (AM) enables
distribution and reproduction in any medium, provided the original the fabrication of intricate lattice materials with minimal efforts
work is properly cited and is not used for commercial purposes.
and great accuracy. AM offers a large design space which enables
DOI: 10.1002/adem.202201780
Adv. Eng. Mater. 2023, 25, 2201780 2201780 (1 of 31) © 2023 The Authors. Advanced Engineering Materials published by Wiley-VCH GmbH
15272648, 2023, 17, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/adem.202201780 by Politecnico Di Bari, Wiley Online Library on [13/09/2023]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
www.advancedsciencenews.com www.aem-journal.com
exploring the multifunctionality of polymeric-, metallic-, and 2.1. Additive Manufacturing

ceramic-based lattice materials.
Improving the design and physical properties of lattice According to ISO/ASTM 52 900 standard,[12] AM is defined as
materials is an ongoing research area which focuses on “process of joining materials to make parts from 3D model data,
enhancing the implementation of currently available optimiza- usually layer upon layer, as opposed to subtractive manufacturing
tion tools. Consequently, the present review outlines the recent (SM) and formative manufacturing methodologies”. Table 1
advancements in design and performance optimization of provides a classification of the AM techniques based on process-
lattice-structured materials. The framework of the document ing principles, material feedstock, and energy source as follows:
is described as follows. Section 2 describes the manufacturabil- binder jetting, direct energy deposition, material extrusion
ity of lattice-structured materials via standard AM and hybrid (MEX), material jetting (MJ), powder bed fusion (PBF), sheet
manufacturing (HM) techniques. As a result of the efficient lamination (SL), and vat photopolymerization (VP).
structural continuity and material distribution in TPMS and
plate lattice materials, Section 3 highlights the application of 2.1.1. Binding Jetting
functional gradation and multimorphology hybridization as
performance optimization tools for these designs. Section 4 Binding jetting (BJ) technique is defined as “a process in which a
discusses the benefits and challenges involved in utilizing auto- liquid bonding agent is selectively deposited to join powder
mated design exploration methods (i.e., topology optimization materials”.[12] Thermal post-treatments are frequently required
and data-driven method [i.e., machine learning [ML] models]) to obtain dense structures, for example, sintering and/or infiltra-
as a performance optimization apparatus. Section 5 describes tion procedures are followed to densify the loosely bound parts
the application of lattice-structured materials in multidisciplin- with another material to attain a dense structure with desirable
ary fields. mechanical properties.[13] Furthermore, the quality of the printed
parts depends on multiple factors, such as, powder deposition,
printing technique, dynamic binder/powder interaction, and
2. Manufacturing of Lattice-Structured Materials postprocessing.[14] Besides prototyping, BJ technique is utilized
in pharmaceutical applications,[15] biomedical applications,[16]
Lattice-structured materials are produced by means of conven- food industry,[17] and thermal energy storage.[18] Besides, BJ tech-
tional and AM techniques. An example of the former includes nique is widely utilized in the area of lattice-structured materials,
the work of Dong et al.[5] in which an octet truss lattice made of for example, Sufiiarov et al.[19] fabricated gyroid and Schwarz lat-
Ti–6Al–4 V was fabricated in a three-step procedure composed tice materials (Figure 1a) made of lead-free piezoceramic mate-
of water jet cutting of metallic sheets, snap fitting, and vacuum rials to investigate their functional piezoelectric properties, that
brazing. Another example includes the manufacturing of metal- is, piezoelectric coefficient, dielectric permittivity, and electrome-
lic biomedical scaffolds through eutectic reaction in which chanical coupling coefficient. Sahu and Modi[20] performed mul-
wires or rods are stacked in a certain pattern to produce lattice tiobjective optimization to optimize the process parameters of BJ
structures with limited shapes.[6,7] Thus, the time-consuming technique to produce ceramic porous bone scaffold with optimal
and the multistep procedures involved in producing lattice-struc- response parameters (i.e., compressive strength, measured
tured materials limit the invention of intricate geometries through porosity, dimensional accuracy). It was found that the build
conventional manufacturing techniques.[8] On the contrary, AM orientation was the most significant parameter in affecting the
procedures are capable of producing complex shapes in a response parameters, followed by the layer thickness and
single print with minimum material wastage. Not to mention the delay time. Xu et al.[21] investigated the mechanical
its capability in producing lattice structures with a broad spectrum properties and microstructural characteristics of stainless steel
of materials, such as, polymers,[9] metals,[10] and ceramic (SS) 316 L lattice materials fabricated by PBF and BJ techniques
composites.[11] (Figure 1b). The results showed that the grain size of the former
Table 1. Classification of AM techniques based on processing principle, material feedstock, and energy source.
Technology Binder Direct energy MEX MJ PBF SL VP

jetting deposition
Processing principle[12] Reactive Selective Extrusion of Light reactive Selective deposition Fusion of Light reactive
curing deposition of melted material photopolymer curing of material in stacked sheets photopolymer
material to a a powder bed curing
substrate
Material Polymer, Metal[12] Polymer, ceramic,[216] Polymer[217] Polymer, metal, Polymer, metal, Polymeric
metal, ceramic[215] metal[38] ceramic[12] ceramic[12] composite[12]
Material feedstock[12] Powder Filament/wire Filament material Melted material Powder material Sheet material Liquid material
material material
Energy source Liquid Electron beam, Thermal heating[12] Ultra-violet curing[217] Electron Ultrasound[12] Ultra-violet curing[217]
binder[13] laser[12] beam, laser[12]
Figure 1. Demonstrations of additively manufactured lattice structured materials. a) BJ-fabricated gyroid and Schwarz lattice materials. Reproduced
under the terms of the CC BY license.[19] Copyright 2022, The Authors, Published by MDPI. b) Additively manufactured lattice materials by laser
PBF (LPBF) and BJ techniques. Reproduced under the terms of the CC-BY-NC-ND license.[21] Copyright 2023, Elsevier. c) DED-fabricated curved-genera-
trix-shell pyramid lattice structure. Reproduced with permission.[25] Copyright 2022, Elsevier. d) DED-fabricated Invar/MnCu FGM. Reproduced with
permission.[24] Copyright 2022, Elsevier. e) FDM-fabricated SC plate lattice material. Reproduced under the terms of the CC-BY license.[31]
Copyright 2021, Elsevier. f ) Reinforcement of a cementitious composite with a cubic lattice material fabricated by MJ technique. Reproduced under
the terms of the CC-BY-NC-ND license.[46] Copyright 2022, Elsevier. g) VP-fabricated graphene polymer octet truss lattice. Reproduced with permission.[70]
Copyright 2020, Elsevier.
was smaller than that of the latter. This difference explained lattice-structured materials, for example, Zheng et al.[25] utilized
the superiority of the PBF samples over the BJ samples in DED-arc (DED-Arc) technique which implements an arc as a
terms of microhardness, tensile strength, and compressive yield heat source to produce a curved-generatrix-shell pyramid lattice
strength. structure composing of truss lattices made of aluminum alloy
(Figure 1c). Baranowski et al.[26] exploited the laser-engineered
2.1.2. Directed Energy Deposition net shaping (LENS) system to produce honeycomb structures
and investigated their deformation in quasi-static compression
Directed energy deposition (DED) technique is defined as a pro- tests. LENS is laser-based DED system that uses a laser as the
cess in which a heating source is focused on a substrate, forming heating source.
a small melt pool and continuously melting the feedstock mate- Despite the value of DED in constructing multimaterial com-
rial into the melt pool.[12,22] The deposited material is solidified as posites with a broad range of feedstock materials, it suffers from
the heating source moves forward, forming a metal track. One of lower dimensional resolution and high surface roughness.[22]
the unique advantages of DED is site-specific deposition and Accordingly, the DED technique was combined with SM tech-
repair of metallic alloys.[22] One of the applications of DED is nique, such as, computer numerical control (CNC), to improve
the production of functionally graded material (FGM) with multi- the quality and accuracy of the produced parts in a process called
material composition that gradually changes the mixing ratio of additive/subtractive hybrid manufacturing (ASHM). In this sys-
materials in a continuous manner. Recently, Yang et al.[23] dem- tem, both 3D printing (i.e., DED) and machining (i.e., CNC)
onstrated that the hardness properties of a graded structure made operate simultaneously. For example, once the printing proce-
of Inconel 718 and SS 316 L were superior to that of a nongraded dure is completed, the machining section removes excessive
structure (a sample made of Inconel 718 and SS 316 L but with- material from the printed part to improve its surface finishing
out smooth material gradation) due to the smooth compositional and smoothness.[27] One of the examples include the
changes and lower thermal stresses in the former. Another manufacturing of Inconel 718/SS 316 L FGM with DED tech-
example includes the development of Invar/MnCu FGM nique and then utilizing a tungsten carbide milling cutter to
(Figure 1d) for thermal stability and vibration suppression appli- improve the surface roughness and dimensional accuracy of
cations.[24] Different types of DED were utilized to manufacture the sample.[28,29] Another example is the fabrication of a
functionally graded AlxCoCrFeNi high-entropy alloy with variant uniform[39] and hierarchical[40] truss-based lattices made of
aluminum concentration using a hybrid powder-bed wire-based Ti6Al4V and ceramic composites, respectively. Recently,
DED process.[30] Besides, Dezaki et al.[27] provided a comprehen- Biasetto et al.[41] combined DIW technique with a rotating man-
sive review discussing the advantages, challenges, and applica- drel operated by a robotic arm to produce cylindrical lattice mate-
tions of DED and ASHM procedures. Both techniques were rials made of Ti6Al4V, SiOC glass, and bioceramic composites.
compared in terms of surface quality, process parameters, cost,
and time. In both processes, the energy source (i.e., laser power) 2.1.4. Material Jetting
exhibited the greatest effect on material properties. The surface
quality was enhanced in DED due to the utilization of 3D print- MJ utilizes a jetting head which deposits photopolymers (base
ing and machining simultaneously. Furthermore, both proce- and support materials) droplets in a layer-by-layer manner.
dures suffer from residual stress and delamination. Concurrently, the deposited layers are cured, and thus hardened,
using a UV light source.[42] MJ technique allows the fabrication of
2.1.3. Material Extrusion soft and hard polymeric materials in a single process, thus,
enabling the fabrication of a plethora of components, such as,
MEX employs a heated extrusion nozzle to soften/melt a material biomimetic materials,[43] circuit board structures,[39] and fluidic
that is provided in a wire form and then extruding it in a layer-by- devices.[44] Currently, polyjet and multijet are the widely imple-
layer manner, allowing the filaments to fuse and solidify at room mented MJ techniques. Both follow the same processing princi-
temperature. Fused deposition modeling (FDM), also known as ple but differ in terms of postprocessing. The former utilizes
fused filament fabrication (FFF), is one type of MEX technique in soluble gel as support material which can be removed by water
which polymers and polymeric composites are utilized as pressure or soaking the printed part into sodium hydroxide-
feedstock material. FDM has the advantages of low cost and based solutions.[42] However, the latter uses bulk wax-based sup-
simplicity which make it broadly implemented in the area of lat- port materials that can be removed by heat sources and solvent
tice-structured materials.[31–36] For instance, Andrew et al.[36] baths.[42] One of the recent applications of polymeric lattice mate-
explored the energy absorption characteristics of PlasGRAY ther- rials is their inclusion in a cementitious composite to produce a
moplastic and polypropylene random copolymer multiwalled car- lattice-reinforced cementitious composite with improved ductil-
bon nanotube (PPR/MWCNTs) and high-density polyethylene ity[45] and compressive properties.[46] Hao et al. utilized the multi-
plate lattices[31] processed via FDM. Figure 1e depicts the SC jet technique to strengthen the compressive properties of a
plate lattice made of PPR/MWCNTs. Recently, Nam et al.[33] cementitious composite with six types of lattice materials (i.e.,
tuned the specific energy absorption (SEA) of octet plate lattices the circular, octagonal, strengthened octagonal, rhombicubocta-
made of tough nylon through implementing structural gradation hedron, cubic, and Kelvin) made of PA6 nylon. Figure 1f dem-
and multimaterial hybridization techniques. The SEA of the plate onstrates the reinforcement of a cementitious composite with a
thickness graded designs improved by 10% when compared to cubic lattice material. The strengthened octagonal lattice-
that of the baseline (ungraded) designs. Furthermore, enhancing reinforced cementitious composite exhibited the highest
the mechanical performance of lattice structured materials compressive bearing capacity, with an improvement of 71.36%
highly depends on optimizing the FDM process parameters compared to the pure cement sample.[46] The energy absorption
and print quality.[37] Dezaki et al.[34] demonstrated that material characteristics of the aforementioned lattice materials were
flow and nozzle temperature parameters had a great effect on the investigated by Habib et al.[47] It was concluded that the lattices
shore hardness of TPU-based soft pneumatic actuators (SPAs) with bending dominated deformation displayed a relatively stable
comprising variant types of lattice-structured materials (i.e., aux- plateau region resulting in higher energy absorption. On the con-
etic, honeycomb, plate, and truss lattices). The softest value of trary, those with stretching and buckling dominated deformation
hardness was achieved using a 220 °C extruder temperature exhibited better stiffness and strength but softened after yielding,
and 60% material flow. Recently, Cao et al.[32] utilized biodegrad- thus exhibited a lower energy absorption. In many AM
able polymer composites to produce Schwarz and Gyroid lattice techniques, the postprocessing of printed parts includes heat
materials with uniform and thickness graded designs. In terms treatments to alter the microstructure of a printed part, thus
of compressive properties, the Gyroid graded samples exhibited improving its mechanical strength. Ali et al.[48] explored the
better energy absorption when compared to that of the uniform effect of annealing heat treatment on the mechanical strength
designs, whereas the graded Schwarz designs were inferior to of seven types of polymeric lattice materials fabricated using
their uniform counterparts. Under tension load, it was reported the multijet technique. It turned out that the heat-treated samples
that the uniform designs were both stronger than the graded demonstrated higher mechanical strength due to an improve-
ones. ment in surface roughness. For example, diamond and
Direct ink writing (DIW) is another extrusion-based AM tech- octet structures’ strength was increased by 22% and 20%
nique in which a viscoelastic ink is extruded through a deposition whereas flexibility was decreased by 12% and 8%, respectively.
nozzle in a layer by layer manner. DIW supports versatile types of
materials (i.e., polymers, ceramics, glass, cement, metals) as long 2.1.5. Powder Bed Fusion
they are supported as ink and exhibit proper rheological behav-
ior, such as, apparent viscosity, yield stress under shear and In PBF, a powdered material is selectively fused using laser or
compression, and viscoelastic properties.[38] In the area of electron beam, layer by layer, on a powder bed. Different types
lattice-structured materials, DIW was utilized to fabricate of PBF techniques are utilized to process a wide range of
materials, for example, selective laser sintering (SLS) is a laser- machine configuration to enable the fabrication of ceramic-based
based PBF technology which partially melts and fuses the powder composites that require the incorporation of multilayer fibers.
particles, such as, plastic, ceramic, or metal particles.[49] Direct The emergence of graphene (a 2D nanomaterial) has attracted
metal laser sintering (DMLS), selective laser melting (SLM), a plethora of researchers due to its outstanding physical proper-
and electron beam melting (EBM) technologies completely melt ties, ideally, its Young’s modulus and tensile strength can reach
and fuse metal particles, thus, producing metallic parts with 1 TPa and 130 GPa, respectively.[61] Along the same lines, Luonge
higher mechanical resistance.[49] 3D printing (3DP) is a PBF et al.[62] developed a 3D laser-induced graphene foam printing
technique in which a liquid binding agent is selectively deposited process based on LOM technique. The authors demonstrated
to join polymeric powder particles.[50] Generally, the porosity of the great potential of 3D-printed graphene macrostructures
components printed by 3DP is greater than that of the aforemen- foams in energy storage and electrical devices applications.
tioned PBF techniques.[51] PBF technique is extensively utilized
to produce metallic and polymeric lattice materials, for example, 2.1.7. Vat Photopolymerization
Lin et al.[52] evaluated the mechanical properties of Ti6Al4V truss
lattice material with different density gradient variations pre- VPP utilizes different types of light sources to cure photocurable
pared by SLM technology. The results showed that the elastic resin (or photoresist).[63] VPP is widely implemented in diverse
modulus, yield strength, and compressive strength of the lattice applications, such as, bone tissue engineering,[64] dentistry,[65]
structure with a density varying as a logarithmic function perpen- and soft sensors and actuators.[66] Different types of VPP technol-
dicular to the loading direction were 39.91%, 51.85%, and ogies exist, for example, stereolithography (SLA), microstereoli-
51.72% higher than that of the uniform design, respectively. thography (μSL), and two-photon polymerization (TPP). SLA
Furthermore, the geometric deviation between the as-built and technology utilizes UV light to initiate a chain reaction on a layer
the as-manufactured lattice materials significantly affects their of UV-active resin, converting it to a polymeric chain.[50] The
mechanical performance. Alghamdi et al.[53] introduced a meth- printed parts might be heat treated or photocured to attain
odology to address the buckling failure mode of as-manufactured desired mechanical properties. μSL technology operates similarly
titanium strut elements prepared by SLM technology. Relative to to SLA but with improved resolution (down to micrometers)
the as-built struts, the structural efficacy of the as-manufactured where thin layers of photocurable liquid (in order of micro-
struts was quantified using the effective eccentricity ratio which meters) are crosslinked to produce 3D microstructures.[67]
is known as a classical measure of column efficiency. Besides, TPP technology, also known as direct laser writing (DLW), uses
nanomechanical characterization of lattice materials allows near infrared femtosecond lasers as the light sources that operate
determining mechanical properties of small volumes inside intri- at a longer wavelength than UV light. TPP is extensively utilized
cate geometries that cannot be evaluated by macroscopic charac- for micro- to nanoscale fabrication of polymeric devices and drug
terization techniques. Cobian et al.[52] characterized the delivery systems. The readers are encouraged to refer to the fol-
microscale behavior of PA12-SLS-fabricated octet-like lattice lowing review articles that describe the fundamentals and appli-
material using nanoindentation and nanoimpact tests. Both cations of TPP.[68,69] Furthermore, VPP technologies are widely
micro- and macroscale (i.e., quasistatic tensile and compression implemented to produce polymeric lattice materials, for example,
experiments) tests concluded the strain rate sensitivity of the Markandan and Lai[70] fabricated graphene–polymer octet-truss
PA12 material. Along the same lines, Abou-Ali et al.[54] addressed lattices (Figure 1g) using SLA technology. The authors investi-
the effect of manufacturing defects of additively manufactured gated the process parameters influencing the mechanical prop-
lattice materials on their deformation mode. It was concluded erties of the fabricated composites, such as, filler concentration,
that the sheet-based TPMS polymer lattices fabricated by SLS solvent addition, and postfabrication baking temperature. It was
technology exhibited a bending-dominated plastic behavior reported that heat treatment in the form of postprint baking
which was mainly driven by manufacturing defects. enhanced the modulus and strength of the printed samples.
Qi et al.[71] performed in situ synchrotron X-ray tomography
2.1.6. Sheet Lamination investigation of 3D pyramid and hourglass microlattices manu-
factured with μSL technology. It was found that poor surface
In SL, also known as laminated object manufacturing (LOM) roughness and internal defects within the lattices changed the
technique, an ultrasonic or laser-based energy source is utilized deformation behavior and failure modes of the as-manufactured
to bond a stack of metallic, ceramic, or polymeric sheets by dif- sampled when compared to that of as-built designs. Crook
fusion in a layer-by-layer manner to build an object.[55] A few of et al.[72] fabricated carbon plate nanolattices via TPP technology
SL technique applications include the utilization of austenitic and demonstrated their capability in surpassing the stiffness and
stainless steel sheets for bone tissue applications,[56] friction stir strength (on average) of pyrolytic carbon octet truss and isotropic
AM,[57] and inclusion of prefabricated components between mul- truss by 522% and 639% at the same relative density,
timaterial layers.[58] Furthermore, the utilization of LOM tech- respectively.
nique overcomes the limitation of traditional manufacturing
procedures in machining ceramic-based porous structures. 2.2. Hybrid Manufacturing Technique
Zhang et al.[59] employed organic mesh sheets as sacrificial
template to fabricate ceramics with regular and uniform As highlighted previously, the integration of AM technique with
micrometer-scaled pore structures. Dermeik and Travitzky[60] a SM technique (i.e., HM) minimizes the disadvantages of each
highlighted the necessity of upgrading/extending the LOM procedure, such as, minimizing the requirements of support
material and surface roughness in some of AM techniques and from the perspective of industry 4.0. The comprehensive review
mitigating the human error when fabricating intricate shapes via concluded that the hybridization of SM and AM techniques in a
SM techniques. HM techniques increase the productivity and single equipment increases the complexity of process operation
quality of manufacturing procedure,[73] increase the build rate which requires sophisticated sensing and control technologies
and volumes of products,[74] enable postprocessing of unreach- for safe and efficient operations.
able areas by AM or SM alone,[27] and eliminate the need of sup- Furthermore, the utilization of HM technology is gaining
port structure/material from AM technique utilizing a multiaxis momentum in the area of lattice-structured materials. Marzi
system or jointed-arm robots.[75] The combination of metal depo- et al.[80] introduced a hybrid extrusion–photopolymerization pro-
sition and machining is commonly utilized in HM cess (i.e., UV–DIW) coupled with a six-axis robotic arm to fabri-
techniques.[76–78] Initially, the additive process should deposit cate octet truss lattices made of a reactive resin (ink) loaded with
excessive material to provide more freedom in the machining silica particles. It was found that the strength and the energy
steps. However, overdepositing of material should be mini- absorption of the HM-fabricated samples surpassed that of the
mized/optimized; otherwise, the manufacturing cost would ones fabricated with traditionally AM (i.e., VPP technique) pro-
increase due to the high cost of feedstock.[27] Iqbal et al.[79] dis- cedures. This is because the latter fabricated the samples in a
cussed the readiness of subtractive, additive, and HM techniques layer-wise approach, introducing interlayer interfaces inside of
Figure 2. Demonstrating the procedures of HM techniques utilized in the area of lattice-structured materials. a) Robot hybrid UV-DIW manufacturing
technology. Reproduced with permission.[80] Copyright 2023, Elsevier. b) Freeform injection molding HM technology. Reproduced under the terms of the
CC-BY-NC license.[81] Copyright 2022, Elsevier. c) Vacuum casting and HM technique of liquid metal lattice materials. Reproduced with permission.[82]
Copyright 2020, Elsevier. d) Manufacturing of pyramidal lattice trusses via HM technique consisting of VPP technology and molten metal infiltration.
Reproduced with permission.[83] Copyright 2017, Elsevier. e) Experimental setup of μSL AM technology coupled with robotic arm. Reproduced under the
terms of the CC-BY license.[84]
the trusses, thus, deteriorating the surface quality and the

mechanical performance of the samples. Although the HM tech-
nique fabricated the samples with layerless approach and
enhanced performance, it demonstrated poorer printing accu-
racy. Figure 2a demonstrates the overall procedure of designing
the graphical user interface for the HM system, the processing
principle of HM system, and the fabricated octet truss lattice.
Another common technique in HM of lattice materials is the
combination of VPP technique with injection[81] and invest-
ment[82] molding. In both techniques, a sacrificial 3D-printed
polymeric lattice material is utilized to construct a mold which
is then infiltrated with the desired molten material (e.g., metal or
ceramic composite). Figure 2b,c shows the processing principles
of fabricating ceramic-based and metallic lattice materials
through ceramic injection molding[81] and vacuum casting,[82]
respectively. Along the same lines, Huang et al.[83] combined
VPP technique with molten metal infiltration technology to fab-
ricate aluminum-based pyramidal lattice trusses. The complete
manufacturing procedure is annotated in Figure 2d.
Moreover, Chen and Zheng[84] addressed the challenges of multi- Figure 3. Computer-aided design (CAD) representation of the most com-
material AM, such as, contamination between material systems monly studied TPMS structures.
and poor segregation of printed parts. The authors introduced a
μSL AM system capable of printing multiple materials incorpo-
rated with a robotic resin delivery system and cleaning system Schwarz primitive
that uses mixed resin and cleanse residue resin without cross
ϕP ¼ cos x þ cos y þ cos z ¼ c (3)
contamination. The multimaterial lattice structures exhibited
tunable stiffness (i.e., spatially varied from soft to rigid) and
Schwarz diamond
Poisson’s ratio (negative to zero). Figure 2e depicts the process-
ing principle of the HM system and the 3D-printed multimaterial ϕD ¼ cos x cos y cos z sin x sin y sin z ¼ c (4)
re-entrant lattice structure.
Neovius
3. Design and Performance Optimization ϕN ¼ 3ðcos x þ cos y þ cos zÞ þ 4ðcos x cos y cos zÞ ¼ c (5)
3.1. Triply Periodic Minimal Surfaces (TPMS) Structures The mechanical response of uniform TPMS structures (i.e., a
structure consisting of one kind of TPMS structure) was
Minimal surfaces are surfaces that have an average curvature of extensively investigated by many researchers. One of the inves-
zero at all domain’s points. When these surfaces are developed tigations involves differentiating the deformation modes of solid-
periodically and in a 3D space, they are described as TPMS.[3] and sheet-based TPMS networks. Kadkhodapour et al.[87] demon-
These structures are divided into ligament/solid-based and strated that a solid-based primitive structure exhibited a global
sheet/shell-based structures, with the latter being stiffer and buckling failure mode with local shearing of horizontal layers.
stronger.[85] The most commonly utilized TPMS structures are These observations were repeatedly reported by many studies
the primitive, gyroid, diamond, I-WP, and neovius, as illustrated as well.[78–82] Unlike the solid-based primitive structures,
in Figure 3. Sajadi et al.[88] demonstrated that a sheet-based primitive struc-
TPMS are described using a number of level-set approxima- ture deformed progressively layer by layer as cracks propagated
tion equations in the form of ϕðx, y, zÞ ¼ c. x, y, z are spatial coor- from the central openings (i.e., voids) of the structure.
dinates, and c represents the level-set constant which controls the Furthermore, Lee et al.[89] reported that the sheet-based
offsetting (i.e., thickening) of the considered TPMS structure. Primitive structure outperformed its solid-based counterpart
The following level-set approximation equations[86] describe in terms of shear modulus. As TPMS structures are extensively
the TPMS structures depicted in Figure 3: employed as bone implants, investigating their cyclical behavior
Schoen-I-WP would enhance the design procedure of a long-lasting implant.
Keshavarzan et al.[90] demonstrated that the primitive structure
ϕIWP ¼ 2ðcos x cos y þ cos y cos z þ cos z cos xÞ
(1) outperformed the Gyroid structure in terms of withstanding
cos 2x cos 2y cos 2z ¼ c cyclic loading. It was found that the formation of two shear bands
in the Gyroid structure reduced its stress-bearing capacity.
Schoen gyroid However, the primitive structure failed in a layer-by-layer defor-
mation mode at all considered relative densities. Kladovasilakis
ϕG ¼ sin x cos y þ sin y cos z þ sin z cos x ¼ c (2)
et al.[91] confirmed that the progressive layer-by-layer failure of
the primitive structure promoted its superiority in terms of SEA size of 1 mm (i.e., setting α ¼ β ¼ γ ¼ 1 in the level-set expres-
as compared to the diamond and gyroid structures. However, the sion), and that the 10% starts at z ¼ 0, then the 50% will be at
diamond structure exhibited the highest strength which is pos- z ¼ 5, the overall function used to express the sheet-networks
sibly attributed to the efficient material distribution within the gyroid is
design domain along the loading direction. Shen et al.[92] inves-
tigated the compressive behavior of ceramic-based TPMS struc- ð0.1236z þ 0.1548Þ < ϕG < ð0.1236z þ 0.1548Þ (7)
tures for high strength and heat resistant applications.
Regardless of the brittleness of ceramics, the gyroid structure Liu et al.[96] reported that grading the unit cell size of diamond
exhibited a moderate-to-high compressive strength (5.6 MPa) and gyroid structures made of titanium alloy displayed promis-
at a relative density of 6.7%, allowing it for practical lightweight ing cytocompatibility for osteoblast growth. Moreover, varying
application. The design of TPMS structures is highly flexible as the surface area and pore size of a lattice material at a fixed
altering the level-set constant value c results in unique surface relative density is attained by controlling its unit cell size in
geometries. Yin et al.[93] demonstrated that the SEA, the mean the level-set equation along the x, y, and z directions. Liu
crushing force, and the peak crushing force of primitive, et al.[99] described in detail the mathematical framework for
FRD, I-WP, and gyroid structures, increased with the increase spatially grading the unit cell size of TPMS-based FGLS. At first,
of shell thickness. However, these did not change monotonously the parameters controlling the unit cell size (i.e., α, β, and γ) are
with an increase in the level-set constant. The study defined as specific functions about x, y, and z
demonstrated the superiority of the considered sheet-based 8
TPMS structures in terms of crashworthiness over other natural <uðxÞ ¼ αðx,y,zÞ :x
>
and engineering energy-absorbed structures. vðyÞ ¼ βðx,y,zÞ :y (8)
>
:
wðzÞ ¼ γ ðx,y,zÞ :z
3.1.1. Functionally Graded TPMS Structures
Furthermore, the following condition must be satisfied to
The preceding discussion highlighted the efficacy of uniform avoid shape distortion and sustain structural consistency
TPMS structures in crashworthiness and deformation resistance u̇x ¼ v̇y ¼ ẇz (9)
capabilities. In reality, uniform structures cannot satisfy the bio-
logical and mechanical requirements when considering a practi- As an example, the linear change of cell size gradient along the
cal implementation in bone implants. This is because native Z-axis from Zmin to Zmax makes variables in α, β, and γ depen-
tissues comprise inhomogeneous structures in which pore size dent on z. So the differential equations of Y can be expressed as:
varies spatially, for example, the human bone converges from
8
<u̇x ¼ αðzÞ
cancellous bone (sponge-like) to compact bone (solid-like) in a >
step-wise/graded manner. This graded structure contributes to v̇y ¼ βðzÞ (10a–c)
the hardness and light weighting of the human bone.[94] The nat- >
:
ẇz ¼ γ̇ ðzÞ :z þ γ ðzÞ
ural materials with graded structures laid the foundations of
FGMs in which their material properties change gradually as
a result of continuous gradation in relative density, unit cell size, Note that
and material. Initially, FGMs were designed as an ordinary com- When z ¼ Z min , αðx,y,zÞ ¼ βðx,y,zÞ ¼ γ ðx,y,zÞ ¼ 1
posite materials in which their thermal expansion coefficient var- When z ¼ Z max , αðx,y,zÞ ¼ βðx,y,zÞ ¼ γ ðx,y,zÞ ¼ m
ied gradually between two ends as a result of changing their Equation (10a) and (10b) are achieved by two points, that is,
composition from metallic to ceramic.[95] Currently, the research ðZmin , 1Þ and ðZ max , mÞ, thus:
on functionally graded lattice structures (FGLS) is gaining
αðzÞ ¼ βðzÞ ¼ k1 :z þ C1 (11)
momentum as combining the mechanical and biological proper-
ties promotes the formation of multiple tissues with a robust
where k1 ¼ Zmaxm1Zmin , C 1 ¼ Z min kq þ 1
tissue–material interfacial bonding.[96]
Limmahakhun et al.[97] demonstrated that grading the relative According to Equation (9) and (10c), a differential equation in
γ
density of FGLS made of CoCr provided a greater stress transfer the form of γ̇ ðzÞ þ ðzzÞ ¼ k1 þ Cz1 can be solved to yield the follow-
to the proximal peri-implant area compared to uniform ing solution
(ungraded) designs. Furthermore, one way to grade the relative
k1 C
density of lattice structures is by varying their porosity in the γ ðzÞ ¼ :z þ C1 þ 0 (12)
Cartesian space based on a certain function. For example, the 2 z
relative density of the sheet-networks gyroid can be graded where C0 ¼ 12 k1 Z 2min
linearly by varying the value of the level-set constant c spatially
Al-Ketan et al.[98] investigated the compressive mechanical
in the Cartesian space based on a certain function such that
properties and deformation behavior of functionally graded
cðx, y, zÞ < ϕG < þcðx, y, zÞ (6) TPMS-based sheet network lattices at different grading direc-
tions (i.e., parallel or perpendicular to loading direction). For rel-
As depicted in Figure 5a, the relative density of the sheet- ative density grading, testing parallel to grading direction
networks gyroid can vary linearly from 10% to 50% in z-direction displayed a layer-by-layer deformation mechanism with an infe-
by varying c from 0.1548 to 0.773.[98] Assuming a unit cell rior Young’s modulus as compared to samples tested
perpendicular to grading direction that demonstrated a shear Figure 4a demonstrates the cell size graded samples (CSG#)
band deformation. Figure 4a demonstrates the relative density where the arrows represent the spatial gradation values (e.g.,
graded (RDG#) samples where the arrows represent the spatial grading the unit cells from 3 3 to 4.5 4.5 in the case of
gradation values (e.g., grading the relative density from 10% to CSG1). Along the same lines, Zhang et al.[100] investigated the
16% in the case of RDG1 sample). Furthermore, testing the unit deformation modes of uniform and graded stainless steel
cell size graded samples did not indicate a significant effect of sheet-based gyroid structures. Results demonstrated that a spa-
grading/testing direction on the considered mechanical proper- tial gradation of relative density from 10% to 20% shifted the
ties. However, the samples exhibited distinct deformation modes deformation mode from simultaneous layer collapse to a
as changing the unit cell size altered the stress distribution. layer-by-layer failure mode.
Figure 4. Demonstration of functionally graded TPMS structures. a) RDG# samples represet the RDG samples while CSG# samples represent the unit
cell size graded samples. Reproduced with permission.[98] Copyright 2020, Elsevier. b) Vertical thickness gradation of primitive structure and radial
gradation of gyroid structure. Reproduced with permission.[102] Copyright 2021, Elsevier. c) The subscripts g and u represent the graded and uniform
versions of the considered samples, respectively. Reproduced under the terms of the CC-BY license.[10] Copyright 2022, Elsevier. d) Multimorphology
radially graded scaffolds hybridized by primitive and gyroid structures at variant porosities (50%, 60%, 70%). Reproduced with permission.[108] Copyright
2023, Elsevier. e) Functionally graded and functionally graded hybrid samples composed of primitive, gyroid, and diamond structures. Reproduced with
permission.[119] Copyright 2021, Elsevier.
Understanding the deformation modes of FGLS is essential to strength of the graded samples and to enhance their ability in
mitigate the abrupt failure of these materials. Al-Ketan[101] intro- withstanding higher stresses before the occurrence of permanent
duced a mathematically-based design approach to program the deformation. Along the same lines, Liao et al.[103] investigated the
plastic deformation behavior of functional graded primitive efficacy of radially grading the relative density of titanium gyroid
structures. A series of grayscale images representing the distri- scaffolds for repairing nonheavy bone defects. The samples were
bution of the unit cells relative density was converted into a generated with three different pore periods of T = 1.5, T = 2.0,
graded structure. As depicted in Figure 4f, rhombic-like and dou- T = 2.5 using the following expressions.
ble arrow-like shapes were programmed as the desired deforma-
tion patterns. In both cases, the programmed samples attained ϕG,T1.5 ðr Þ ¼ cosð4.2xÞ sinð4.2yÞ þ cosð4.2yÞ sinð4.2zÞ
the desired deformation patterns. Quasistatic compression þ cosð4.2zÞ sinð4.2x Þ (14)
experiments indicated that structures with programmed defor-
mation patterns demonstrated greater plateau strength and ¼ 0.05ðx þ y
2 2Þ
þ 1.25
toughness as compared to the uniform structures.
ϕG,T2.0 ðr Þ ¼ cosð3.1xÞ sinð3.1yÞ þ cosð3.1yÞ sinð3.1zÞ
Ejeh et al.[10] explored the influence of relative density grada-
tion on the flexural properties of sheet-based TPMS latticed þ cosð3.1zÞ sinð3.1x Þ (15)
beams. As depicted in Figure 4c, a linear symmetric relative den- ¼ 0.05ðx þ y Þ þ 1.25
2 2
sity gradation scheme was proposed in which minimum material
was distributed along the neutral plane to enhance the flexural ϕG,T2.5 ðr Þ ¼ cosð2.5xÞ sinð2.5yÞ þ cosð2.5yÞ sinð2.5zÞ
stiffness of the latticed beam at the cost of deteriorating the flex-
þ cosð2.5zÞ sinð2.5x Þ (16)
ural strength and toughness. The study suggests the need of
exploring new types of gradation techniques to enhance the flex- ¼ 0.05ðx þ y Þ þ 1.25
2 2
ural strength and toughness of the latticed beams.

Fan et al.[102] proposed a pre-set-thickness function to spatially The proposed samples demonstrated the required cell viability
grade the relative density of gyroid, Neovius, and primitive struc- and sufficient mechanical performance (i.e., Young’s modulus
tures. Figure 4b describes the procedure of grading the thickness and yield strength in the range of 2.7–7.4 GPa and 233–520 MPa,
(i.e., the relative density) of the considered designs in the radial respectively) to satisfy the requirements of bone implant.
and vertical (i.e., along z-axis) directions. Initially, the surface
equation of the TPMS structures F ðx, y, zÞ ¼ 0 is offset (thick-
ened) along F ðx 1 , y1 , z1 ) and F ðx 2 , y2 , z2 Þ directions. Then, the 3.1.2. Multimaterial TPMS Structures
gradient of F ðx, y, zÞ, the local curvature of initial surface K,
and the pore size Dp are computed Besides the utilization of gradation and hybridization strategies,
multimaterial AM enables regulating the physical properties of
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
2 2ffi uniform lattice-structured materials. For example, Zhang
∂F 2 ∂F ∂F
jgrad F ðx, y, zÞj ¼ þ þ et al.[104] graded the composition of diamond structures in a
∂x ∂y ∂z
bimetal (i.e., samples composed of 18Ni300 and CuSn compo-
1 sites) and a quadmetal (i.e., samples composed of 18Ni300,
K¼
jgradF ðx,y,zÞj CuSn, CoCrMo, and SS 316L composites) configurations. It
L was reported that samples compressing perpendicular to their
Dp ¼ T ðx, y, zÞ
2 material arrangement (MC-B and MCSC-B) exhibited multiple
2 3
∂F local densifications as compared to the ones compressed paral-
2 3 6 ∂x 7 2 3 2 3 2 3 lelly to that (MC-A and MCSC-A). Although the quadmetal and
sinφcosθ 6 7 x1 x sinφcosθ
6 7 6 ∂ F 7 bimetal configurations exhibited very similar stiffness, the tough-
4sinφsinθ 5¼ K:6 7 6 7 6 7 1 6 7
6 ∂y 7 ⇒ 4y1 5¼ 4y 5þ 2 T ðx, y, zÞ4sinφsinθ 5 ness of MCSC-B was 28% greater than that of MC-B sample. The
6 7
cosφ 4 5 z1 z cosφ results suggest the need of performing further investigations to
∂F
∂z understand the effect of loading direction on the mechanical
(13) response of multimaterial diamond structures. Furthermore,
partitioning a structure into two phases is a recent technique
where φ and θ are the vertical angle and the angle between the to produce multimaterial lattice structures. Callens et al.[105]
projection of the normal line along z-axis and x-axis, respectively. applied the hyperbolic tiling theory to generate the primitive
At a relative density of 30%, the Young’s moduli of the graded and gyroid structures partitioned into hard and soft regions.
gyroid (GA30) and Neovius (NA30) samples were 2.6% greater A triangular tiling on the hyperbolic plane was radially repeated
than the uniform gyroid (G) and Neovius (N) samples. with different angles (i.e., π=2, π=4, π=6) to generate the struc-
Furthermore, the cumulative energy absorption of GA30 and tures. A skeleton-like shape was formed through controlling the
NA30 was 15.4% and 24% greater than G and N, respectively. width of the embedded networks that created the partitioned soft
However, the uniform samples outperformed the graded ones and hard regions. MJ technique was utilized to fabricate the
in terms of yield strength and peak stress. For example, the yield considered structures using hard (VeroMagenta polymer)
strengths of G, N, and uniform primitive were 12.9%, 0.87%, and and soft (rubber-like Agilus30 polymer) polymeric resins.
41.1% greater than that of their graded counterparts. The results Computational fluid dynamics simulations and quasistatic com-
suggest the need of exploring strategies to enhance the yield pression experiments demonstrate the efficacy of the proposed
strategy in enhancing the permeability and stiffness of biphasic utilizes a sigmoid function (SF) to impose smooth and continu-
gyroid and diamond structures. The study suggests exploring the ous transition at the intersection between two morphologies.
impact absorption and dynamic compression behavior of the Thus, the hybrid structure can be defined by Equation (17)
biphasic structures. Besides, Diamantopoulou et al.[106] synthe-
sized a biphasic (i.e., bimaterial) primitive structure composed ϕhyb ðx, y, zÞ ¼ αðx, y, zÞϕ1 ðx, y, zÞ þ ð1 αðx, y, zÞÞϕ2 ðx, y, zÞ
of a polymeric core and ceramic (alumina) skins, where the (17)
weight fraction of the latter was varied from 0% (pure polymer)
to 100% (pure ceramic). It turned out that the Young’s moduli of
ϕhyb , ϕ1 , ϕ2 represent the functions for the final hybrid mor-
the proposed sandwich constructions increased monotonically
with increasing alumina weight fraction, while the highest phology and the parent morphologies 1 and 2, respectively.
SEA (i.e., 3.36 J g1) was attained with the 40%wt alumina con- αðx, y, zÞ is a spatial weighting function describing the mono-
struction. The utilization of multimaterial graded structures as tonic change from 0 to 1 using SF
bone tissue scaffolds seems to be a promising area of research,
1
especially as they have been applied as drug delivery devices com- αðx, y, zÞ ¼ kGðx,y,zÞ
(18)
posed of organic and inorganic biomaterials. 1þe
Theoretically, a sudden change in material composition
creates internal stresses at the interface of two compositions, Gðx, y, zÞ is a continuous function describing the transition
leading to the deterioration or failure of the host structure.[95] boundary between two parent morphologies and k defines the
Instead, a continuous gradation of the materials would improve transition width (interphase). However, SF method cannot han-
the homogeneity at the interface and mitigate the internal dle intricate and compound transition boundaries; this challenge
stresses. Apparently, the abovementioned studies did not con- is overcome by applying the Gaussian radial basis function, the
sider the continuous material gradation in biphasic/multimate- volumetric distance field, or the beta growth function. The read-
rial lattice structures; therefore, enhancing the fabrication ers are encouraged to refer to Yeng et al.[111] and Yoo and Kim[112]
procedures to adopt a continuous material gradation instead for the detailed mathematical application of these methods.
of a discrete one seems to be a promising area of research. Al-Ketan et al.[98] utilized the SF method to hybridize the
gyroid and the diamond morphologies in a longitudinal direc-
3.1.3. Hybridization of TPMS Structures tion. Figure 5a demonstrates that a SF with different k values
controlled the width of transition of the hybrid structures. It
Tissue engineering triggered the design of multimorphology was highlighted that hybrid TPMS morphologies based on solid
porous scaffolds that are utilized as degradable materials inte- networks exhibited very weak transition intersections and discon-
grated within human bodies to regenerate damaged tissues.[107] tinuity between two morphologies, specially at low relative den-
Multimorphology scaffolds are generated via hybridizing differ- sities. However, the sheet-network morphologies displayed
ent types of lattice materials in the same assembly for biomimetic greater deformation resistance and stronger transition intersec-
design purposes. The inclusion of TPMS scaffolds in biomimetic tion. Figure 5b demonstrates that the solid-network hybrid mor-
designs received a plethora of attention as a result of their phologies exhibited greater stress concentrations at the
topological smoothness, geometrical continuity, and a balance intersection regions when compared to that of the sheet-based
between mechanical functionality and mass transport properties hybrid morphologies. Novak et al.[113] introduced mathematical
that are in synergy with human bone.[108–110] Yang et al.[111] pro- expressions (Equation (19)) to hybridize the design of gyroid and
posed mathematical models to hybridize the design of TPMS Diamond morphologies in longitudinal and radial directions
scaffolds for biomimetic design purposes. The simplest model (Figure 5c)
2
1 þ eð5þzÞ ðcos ½2πx=5 cos ½2πy=5 cos ½2πz=5 þ sin ½2πx=5 sin ½2πy=5 sin ½2πz=5
ϕG D ¼
2 þ eð5þzÞ þ eð5þzÞ
2 2
2
(19)
1 þ eð5þzÞ ðcos ½2πy=5 sin ½2πx=5 þ cos ½2πz=5 sin ½2πy=5 þ cos ½2πx=5 sin ½2πz=5
þ
2 þ eð5þzÞ þ eð5þzÞ
2 2
where x, y, and z are the spatial coordinates. Quasistatic com- structure and 5% and 8% lower than in uniform diamond struc-
pression experiments revealed that the majority of deformation ture. Although hybridizing the diamond morphology in a radial
in longitudinal hybrid samples occurred in the gyroid structure. direction increased the plateaus stress by 1% it deteriorated the
Whereas in the case of radial hybrid samples, the stiffer diamond SEA by 7.7%. This suggests the need of optimizing the impact
geometry was placed at the center of lattice surrounded radially absorption of the proposed radial hybrid morphologies. Along
with the less stiff Gyroid structure, resulting in a uniformly dis- the same lines, AlQaydi et al.[114] hybridized the design of primi-
tributed deformation. Computational simulation and infrared tive and I-WP structures with variant geometrical parameters
thermography revealed that the interface between the two hybrid (i.e., different unit cell size, shell thickness). At different relative
samples exhibited stress localization as a result of the structure’s densities (i.e., fixed geometrical parameters), the primitive struc-
abrupt stiffness change. The SEA of longitudinal and radial ture exhibited greater yield strength than the I-WP. At a fixed
hybrid lattices was 10% and 7% higher than in uniform gyroid relative density, both topologies displayed very similar yield
Figure 5. Hybridization strategies for TPMS morphologies. a) The effect of k values on the continuous transition region between diamond–gyroid lattices
(longitudinal hybridization). Reproduced with permission.[98] Copyright 2020, Elsevier. b) Von mises stress distribution and deduced Young’s modulus for
solid- and sheet-network hybrid lattices. c) Longitudinal and radial hybridization techniques of diamond and gyroid lattices. Reproduced under the terms
of the CC-BY-NC-ND license.[113] Copyright 2021, Elsevier. (d) The design process of generating stochastic sheet-based hybrid TPMS using randomly
generated nucleation sites. Reproduced under the terms of the CC-BY-NC-ND license.[117] Copyright 2023, Elsevier. e) Design concept of generating
honeycomb–gyroid hybrid structure with four different types of hybrid samples. Reproduced under the terms of the CC-BY license.[118] Copyright 2023,
Elsevier. f ) The design process of generating stochastic sheet-based hybrid TPMS using randomly generated nucleation sites. Reproduced under the
terms of the CC-BY-NC-ND license.[117] Copyright 2023, Elsevier. g) Deformation modes of uniform (P and FRD) and hybrid lattices under four-point
bending experiment. Reproduced under the terms of the CC-BY license.[10] Copyright 2022, Elsevier.
strength, but higher SEA was observed by the I-WP structure. and populating the subdomains with oriented TPMS lattice
When compared to the uniform lattices with the same relative topologies. Al-Ketan et al.[116] extended the work of Yang
density, the hybrid designs demonstrated improved ductility et al.[115] to create partially closed-cell stochastic sheet-based iso-
and SEA at the cost of compressive strength. tropic TPMS morphologies. Figure 5d describes the design pro-
Yang et al.[115] presented a mathematical framework to gener- cess flow for generating the proposed stochastic gyroid
ate heterogeneous lattice structures from level-set equations by structures. Quasistatic compression experiments revealed that
dividing the volume into subdomains through control points at lower relative density, the uniform gyroid structure surpassed
the stochastic ones in terms of Young’s modulus, plateau stress, strength and toughness. The results suggest the need for explor-
and SEA. The randomized nature of the stochastic gyroid deteri- ing novel types of hybridization strategies that yield enhanced
orated its manufacturing fidelity, thus increasing defects and stiffness, strength, and toughness properties
stress concentration within the constituent walls. However, at Yu et al.[108] introduced multimorphology radially graded scaf-
larger relative densities (i.e., >30%), the performance of both folds hybridized by primitive and gyroid structures at variant
structures converged as the manufacturing fidelity improved. porosities (50%, 60%, 70%) denoted as PG50, PG60, and
Inspired by the microstructure of polycrystalline materials, PG70, respectively (Figure 4d). Note that porosity is defined as
Novak et al.[117] utilized the mathematical framework of Yang p ¼ 1 ρr , where ρr is the relative density. Tested permeability
et al.[115] to propose a sheet-based stochastic material composed of PG50 and PG60 (3.27 109 and 4.35 109 m2, respec-
of four kinds of TPMS morphologies (Figure 5f ). The samples tively) was within the range of human bone’s permeability
exhibited SEA capacity ranging between 5 and 9.2 J g1 in the (0.01–12.1 109 m2). Mechanical and biological experiments
quasistatic deformation mode while achieving up to 35 J g1 indicated that the PG50 sample imitated the elastic modulus
in the shock deformation mode. This suggests that the proposed of a human cortical bone (10.1 GPa) and displayed better cyto-
design approach has great potential for impact and blast mitiga- compatibility than the uniform scaffolds at the same porosity.
tion applications. The recent literature emphasizes on the growing interest in
Zhou et al.[118] hybridized the design of gyroid and 2D honey- developing metallic FGLS for biomedical implants. Besides,
comb lattice structures using a piecewise-defined implicit func- development of polymeric FGLS would broaden their utilization
tion. Figure 5e demonstrates that the region of the honeycomb in different fields. For example, Zhang et al.[119] demonstrated
structure was controlled by adjusting the parameter l using the the potential of polymeric FGLS composed of hybrid TPMS
implicit expression f 23D ðx, y, zÞ. For example, the sample 6-6 structures for dental and orthopedic implants. Three types of
refers to a hybrid sample composed of a gyroid core sandwiched TPMS structures were fabricated using SLA technique, including
between honeycomb panels with a length l = 6 mm. a graded structure with spatially varying relative density, a hybrid
structure consisting of multimorphology, and an FGLS compos-
f 23D ðx, y, zÞ ¼ f 2D ðx, yÞðz ≤ l & z ≥ lÞ ing of multimorphology (Figure 4e). The compressive experi-
(20) ments indicated that hybridizing the primitive topology with
þ f 3D ðx, y, zÞðl ≤ z ≤ lÞ ≤ t
gyroid and diamond structures resulted in a shear-band failure.
However, the inclusion of I-WP structure in a hybrid design con-
where f 2D ðx, yÞ and f 3D ðx, y, zÞ are the implicit expressions of the
sisting of gyroid and diamond hindered the dislocation slips and
honeycomb and the gyroid lattice structures, respectively, and t
controlled the propagation of shear bands. The I-WP40 sample
controls the relative density of the lattice structure.
exhibited the highest Young’s moduli (325.31 MPa) while the
functionally graded hybrid samples (P60-G50-D40, P60-G50-I-
1 1 1 1
f 2D ðx, yÞ ¼ cos x sin y þ cos y sin WP40, and G60-D50-I-WP40) exhibited inferior moduli of
2 2 2 2
(21) 173.03, 184.19, and 207.85 MPa, respectively. As highlighted
1 1
þ cos sin x ≤t by Lin et al,[120] investigating the fracture failure and fatigue
2 2 of restored teeth is significant to sustain its longevity; thus, it
would be interesting to analyze the stress–life curve of dental
It turned out that increasing the honeycomb proportion in the implants.
hybrid samples enhanced the stiffness but introduced brittle fail- The present section introduced three types of performance
ure mode, whereas vice versa is true (i.e., decreasing the propor- optimization strategies implemented in the current state of
tion of the honeycomb increased the energy absorption and art, namely, 1) functional gradation which includes gradation
enhanced the ductility of the hybrid sample). by relative density or unit cell size, 2) multimaterial AM of
Besides investigating the compressive properties of hybrid lat- TPMS structures, and 3) hybridization of multimorphologies
tice materials, Ejeh et al.[10] explored the effect of hybridization in the same structure, which also includes combining functional
on the specific flexural properties of sheet-based TPMS morphol- gradation and hybridization in a single structure to maximize the
ogies. Primitive (P), diamond (D), and FRD morphologies were benefits of the technique. According to the preceding studies,
hybridized longitudinally in a four-point bending latticed beam. exploring the full potential of a graded hybrid design appears
The hybrid samples were prepared with a unique tessellation of to be an interesting area of research, specially, investigating
the parent morphologies, for example, in P-FRD-P sample, the its benefits/drawbacks for crashworthiness and impact absorp-
FRD morphology was placed at the center of the lattice beam. tion applications.
Figure 5g depicts a few of the hybrid samples proposed in the Figure 6, 7 and 8 demonstrate the compressive modulus (Ec),
study, where Pu and FRDu refer to uniform P and FRD lattices. plateaus stress (σP), and SEA of the metallic TPMS structures
It turned out that hybridizing the uniform lattices shifted their reviewed in the current section, respectively. The square (□), cir-
deformation mode from shear-band failure to an abrupt failure cular (O), triangular (Δ), and cross () symbols represent the
occurring at the beam’s midspan. Furthermore, the P-FRD-P lat- functionally graded, hybrid, multimaterial, and uniform TPMS
ticed beam exhibited better flexural stiffness and strength than its structures, respectively. Figure 6 demonstrates that at a relative
counterpart (i.e., FRD-P-FRD) as P and FRD lattices were tessel- density (ρ) of 0.3, the unit cell size’s graded diamond structure[99]
lated within the shear and normal stressed regions in the beam, made of Ti6Al4V outperformed the uniform gyroid and the
respectively. The hybrid latticed beams enhanced the flexural hybrid gyroid–diamond structures from the same study. The
stiffness of the uniform latticed beams at the cost of deteriorating considered graded diamond structure exhibited greater surface
4000
3000
Ec [MPa]
2000
1000
0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35
ρ[-]
MML1T [98] Unifrom G [117] Stochastic G [117] RDG2 [98] RDG3 [98] CSG1 [98]
CSG2 [98] CSG2T [98] CSG3 [98] Uniform Sheet G [100] Graded G [100] Graded Rhombic [101]
Unifrom P [101] Graded Arrows [101] Unifrom P [101] MC-A [104] MC-B [104] MCSC-A [104]
MCSC-B [104] G (size gradation) [99] D (size gradation) [99] Hybrid [99] Gyroid [99]
Figure 6. The compressive modulus of the metallic TPMS structures at a range of relative density. The square symbol (□): functionally graded structures.
The triangular symbol (Δ): multimaterial structures. The circular symbol (O): hybrid structures. Cross symbol (): uniform structures.
120
90
σp [MPa]
60
30
0
0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3
ρ[-]
MML1T [98] Unifrom D [114] Uniform G [114] Longitudinal hybrid [114] Radial hybrid [120]
Unifrom G [117] Stochastic G [117] Stochastic sheet-based [118] RDG1T [98] RDG1T [98]
RDG2 [98] RDG3 [98] CSG1 [98] CSG2 [98] CSG2T [98]
CSG3 [98] Uniform Sheet G [100] Graded G [100] Graded Rhombic [101] Unifrom P [101]
Graded Arrows [101] Unifrom P [101]
Figure 7. The plateau stress of the metallic TPMS structures at a range of relative density. The square symbol (□): functionally graded structures.
The circular symbol (O): hybrid structures. Cross symbol (): uniform structures.
area and smaller pore size, thus, resulting in a more uniform multimorphology MMLT1 sample.[98] The performance of the
stress distribution under loading.[99] Moreover, at a relative den- uniform Gyroid[116] made of SS 316 L outperformed the hybrid
sity of 0.13, the RDG sheet-based gyroid (RDG3)[98] made of SS TPMS structures for the same range of relative density (and
316 L outperformed the remaining graded samples from the 0.15–0.23).
same study, as well as the multimorphology MMLT1 sample[98] Figure 8 demonstrates the superiority of the uniform
made of the same material. Although the presented dataset is diamond[113] structure made of SS 316 L over the hybrid samples
very confined, according to the preceding studies, functional gra- from the same study as well the stochastic sheet-based sam-
dation strategy seems promising in optimizing the compressive ple[117] made of the same material, at the same relative density.
modulus of the considered TPMS structures. To conclude, although the dataset is very restricted and confined,
Figure 7 demonstrates that at a relative density of 0.13, the functional gradation strategy seems very promising in terms of
RDG sheet-based gyroid (RDG3)[98] outperformed the remaining enhancing the compressive stiffness and strength of TPMS
graded samples from the same study, as well as the structures.
12
9
SEA[Jg− 1 ]
0
0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25
ρ[-]
MML1T [98] Unifrom D [114] Uniform G [114] Longitudinal hybrid [114] Radial hybrid [120]
Unifrom G [117] Stochastic G [117] Stochastic sheet-based [118] RDG1T [98] RDG2 [98]
RDG3 [98] CSG1 [98] CSG2 [98] CSG2T [98] CSG3 [98]
Uniform Sheet G [100] Graded G [100] Graded Rhombic [101] Unifrom P [101] Graded Arrows [101]
Unifrom P [101] MC-A [104] MC-B [104] MCSC-A [104] MCSC-B [104]
Figure 8. The SEA of the metallic TPMS structures at a range of relative density. The square symbol (□): functionally graded structures. The circular
symbol (O): hybrid structures. Cross symbol (): uniform structures.
3.2. Plate Lattice Materials The closed-cell nature of plate lattices imposes manufacturing
challenges when considering PBF or VPP AM techniques, as the
For the first time in 2017, Berger et al.[121] introduced a set of trapped unfused (in the case of PBF) or uncured (in the case of
cubic geometries “closed-cell materials” that achieved the VPP) material needs to be extracted by creating circular holes on
Hashin–Shtrikman (HS) upper bounds on isotropic elastic stiff- the plates which deteriorate the stiffness of the printed
ness. HS upper bound is defined as the maximum attainable structure.[72,125] Duan et al.[126] introduced a new class of plate
elastic limit for lattice-structured materials. The interconnectivity lattices comprising half-open topologies convenient for PBF tech-
of material in these geometries greatly reduced configurational nique as compared to full closed-cell plate lattices (Figure 9b).
entropy, increasing the storage of strain energy when compared The proposed geometries exhibited a near-two-fold higher elastic
to truss lattice materials. Cubic foam and octet foam, also known modulus than that of isotropic truss lattice at relative density of
as SC plate lattice and octet plate lattice, respectively, stored a 1% and their bulk modulus attained the HS upper bound for a
maximum amount of strain energy with highly anisotropic range of relative densities (1–50%). Heidenreich et al.[127] sug-
behavior. Furthermore, hybridizing the design of the same plate gested a hierarchical SC-BCC plate lattice design composed of
lattices produced an isotropic geometry achieving the HS upper perforated constituent plates suitable for PBF and VPP AM tech-
bound and exhibiting the highest strain energy storage. niques (Figure 9c). At the cost of greater manufacturing fidelity,
Tancogne–Dejean et al.[122] extended the work of Berger the proposed hierarchical designs did not attain the HS upper
et al.[121] and introduced a design map which provided the bound on isotropic elastic stiffness, that is, bounded between
required solid volume fractions (i.e., relative densities) of the performance of the conventional fully dense plate lattices
anisotropic elementary plate lattices (i.e., BC, SC, face centered and the optimal truss lattices.
cubic (FCC)) for synthesizing a group of hybrid plate lattices (SC- As filaments are deposited layer by layer in material extrusion
body centered cubic (BCC), SC-FCC, and SC-BCC-FCC) exhibit- technique, the very nature of the processing principle does not
ing isotropic behavior while attaining the HS upper bound. require the extraction of unprocessed material thus, enabling the
Among these, the SC-BCC–FCC lattice (with a BCC solid volume fabrication of the closed-cell plate lattices with greater
fraction of 40%) exhibited nearly isotropic plastic behavior manufacturing fidelity. Kumar and colleagues explored the
(Figure 9a). In another work, the same group of authors investi- impact behavior and self-sensing functionality of uniform and
gated the high strain rate response of SC-BCC plate lattice made hybrid plate lattices made of thermoplastic materials reinforced
of SS 316 L and Ti6Al4V metallic alloys. It was found that the with MWCNTs.[31,35,36] Unlike the printing accuracy of PBF tech-
samples made of SS 316 L exhibited a ductile behavior and a nique, material extrusion technique suffers from poor printing
layer-by-layer deformation mode, while the ones made of accuracy and rough surface finishing as both factors impact the
Ti6Al4V demonstrated lower SEA and fractured at small com- physical performance of printed parts. Almesmari et al.[128]
pressive strains.[123] Chen et al.[124] improved the effective elastic reported that for mesoscale structures, the geometrical deviation
properties of primitive structure through hybridizing it with SC between the as-built and as-designed lattices increased as their
plate lattice. The hybrid design outperformed the standalone aspect ratio (i.e., ratio of cell wall thickness to unit cell size)
primitive structure and nearly attained the HS upper bound approached the minimum resolution of an FDM printer.
on isotropic elastic stiffness. Jiang and Ning[129] utilized the printing–debinding–sintering
Figure 9. Plate lattice materials. a) CAD model representaions of BCC, SC, FCC, and hybrid platel lattice materials. Reproduced with permission.[36]
Copyright 2021, Elsevier. b) Isotropic (ISO-#) and anisotropic (ANI-#) half-open plate lattice materials. Reproduced with permission.[126] Copyright 2020,
Elsevier. c) CAD model representation of hierarchical BCC plate lattice material. Reproduced under the terms of the CC-BY license.[127] Copyright 2021,
Elsevier. d) CAD model representation of FCC and BCC plate lattice materials for bone scaffolds. Reproduced with permission.[132] Copyright 2022,
Elsevier. e) Compressive stress–strain diagrams of the baseline, cell graded, half-cell graded, scaled height, and biphasic (bi-material) octet plate lattice.
Reproduced under the terms of the CC-BY license.[33] Copyright 2021, Elsevier. f ) Additively manufactured ceramic-based plate lattice materials.
Reproduced with permission.[130] Copyright 2023, Elsevier.
(PDS) process to fabricate BCC, FCC, and BCC–FCC plate latti- 27.5% enhanced the energy absorption of the biphasic design by
ces made of 17-4 stainless steel in a multistep procedure consist- 250% (in average). Along the same lines, Nam et al.[33] proposed
ing of FDM printing of metal–polymer composites, debinding biphasic and structurally graded octet plate lattice designs fabri-
the printed pats (i.e., green parts) to remove polymeric wax cated using FDM technique. The biphasic structure composed of
and then sintering the components in a furnace to improve one layer of Onyx filament (nylon reinforced with short carbon
the layers binding strength. Utilization of the PDS process seems fibers) and two layers of tough nylon, while the graded structure
very promising to enhance the printing accuracy of the conven- incorporated thickness (i.e., relative density) and unit cell
tional FDM technology. size gradation techniques (Figure 9e). Quasistatic compression
Lately, the search for lattice materials with heat-resistant capa- experiments indicated a 10% increase of SEA in the thickness
bilities motivated the VPP AM of ceramic-based lattice materials. graded designs as compared to the uniform one.
Zhang et al.[130] fabricated three types of truncated-octahedron Furthermore, incorporating biphasic design and thickness grada-
(TO) plate lattices made of Al2O3 ceramic slurry, debound and tion at a time altered the local strain hardening as compared to
sintered at 600 and 1650 °C, respectively (Figure 9f ). As an the top nylon and middle nylon samples. The abovementioned
improvement to the quasistatic response of the TO plate lattice, studies motivate the exploration of multimaterial and structural
the truncated-octahedral plates with plates added only in the load- gradation in plate lattices as their utilization seems very promis-
ing direction (TOH) and truncated octahedral plates with plates ing in enhancing the energy absorption of the same lattices.
added in all direction (TOA) were proposed and examined The application of plate lattice materials in bone tissue engi-
accordingly. The TOH plate lattice exhibited the greatest stiffness neering is one of the overlooked research areas. Wang et al.[132]
and compressive strength, followed by the TOA and the TO plate investigated the mass-transport (i.e., permeability) and load-
lattices. The results suggest the need of optimizing the distribu- bearing capabilities of BCC and FCC plate lattices as potent scaf-
tion/allocation of the constituent walls of plate lattices along the folds for human bones (Figure 9 (4)). The findings suggested the
loading direction for maximum performance. utilization of the BCC plate lattice scaffolds for bones requiring
Recently, the utilization of biphasic/multimaterial composi- anisotropic mechanical properties and relatively low permeabil-
tion was exploited to enhance the energy absorption of plate lat- ity, while the FCC plate lattice scaffolds were recommended for
tice materials. Meng-Ting Hsieh et al.[131] designed a biphasic bones demanding isotropic mechanical properties and relatively
SC-FCC plate lattice composed of an elastomeric soft core sand- high permeability.
wiched between two carbon fiber-reinforced polymer (CFRP) Currently, plate lattice materials are receiving a lot of attention
plies, where the weight fraction of the soft core (Vsoft) was varied by virtue of their outstanding performance under quasistatic and
from 0% to 50%. Numerical analysis demonstrated that increas- dynamic loadings. However, at lower relative densities, their con-
ing the Vsoft from 0% (i.e., a sample completely made of CFRP) to stituent plates become thin and prone to buckling. Andersen
et al.[133] analyzed the effective stiffness and yield strength prop- At a relative density of 0.2, the half-open plate lattice materials[126]
erties of eight kinds of lattice structures from the literature and made of SS 316 L outperformed the remaining ones in terms of
concluded that truss and plate lattices take turns in being optimal compressive modulus. Moreover, the uniform and hybrid 17-4
in terms of stiffness and strength, in fact, at low relative densi- PH stainless steel-based plate lattice materials[129] exhibited very
ties, thicker and more stable truss lattice materials outperformed similar compressive modulus. In terms of SEA, at a relative den-
the thin and unstable plate lattice materials. The findings encour- sity of 0.2, the BCC plate lattice material made of PPR
age the quest for innovative techniques and optimization tools to reinforced with 6 w.t.% CNT[35] outperformed the remaining
search for optimum lattice materials for a variety of applications samples from the same study as well the half-open plate lattice
and loading scenarios. materials. Unlike the TPMS structures, functional gradation and
Figure 10 and 11 demonstrate the compressive moduli and multimorphology hybridization strategies are not popular in
SEA of the plate lattice materials reviewed in the present section, plate lattice materials. Further investigations are required to
respectively. The circular (O) and cross () symbols represent the determine the efficacy of the same strategies in enhancing the
hybrid and the uniform plate lattice materials, respectively. mechanical performance of plate lattice materials.
100000
SS 316L
10000
Ti6Al4V
Ec [MPa]
17-4 PH stainless steel

1000 Al2O3 ceramic
100
10 PPR/MWCNT
1
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
ρ[-]
ISO-1 [126] ISO-2 [126] ISO-3 [126] ANI-1 [126] ANI-2 [126]
ANI-3 [126] BCC PPR/CNT 0wt% [35] BCC PPR/CNT 0wt% [35] BCC PPR/CNT 4wt% [35] BCC PPR/CNT 4wt% [35]
BCC PPR/CNT 6wt% [35] BCC PPR/CNT 6wt% [35] BCC 0.8 [129] FCC 0.8 [129] BCC-FCC 0.4 [129]
BCC 1.0 [129] FCC 1.0 [129] BCC-FCC 0.5 [129] TO [130] TOA [130]
TOH [130] BCC <001> [132] BCC <110> [132] BCC <111> [132] FCC <001> [132]
FCC <110> [132] FCC <111> [132]
Figure 10. Compressive modulus of plate lattice materials. The circular symbol (O): hybrid structures. Cross symbol (): uniform structures.
25
20
SEA[Jg− 1 ]
15
10
0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4
ρ[-]
SC-BCC plate [123] SC-BCC plate [123] ISO-1 [126] ISO-2 [126]
ISO-3 [126] ANI-1 [126] ANI-2 [126] ANI-3 [126]
SC-BCC-FCC plate lattice [31] SC-BCC-FCC plate lattice [31] BCC PPR/CNT 0wt% [35] BCC PPR/CNT 0wt% [35]
BCC PPR/CNT 4wt% [35] BCC PPR/CNT 4wt% [35] BCC PPR/CNT 6wt% [35] BCC PPR/CNT 6wt% [35]
Figure 11. SEA of plate lattice materials. The circular symbol (O): hybrid structures. Cross symbol (): uniform structures.
4. Optimization of Lattice Materials Using represents the design variable vector which indicates that the
Automated Design Exploration Methods material can either exist on a structure (x e ¼ 1) or become a void
(xe ¼ 0), and N is the total number of design variables. Note that
As highlighted in the preceding sections, functional gradation the design variable in the above formulation is described in a
and multimorphology hybridization appear to be the trending discrete fashion (value of the design variable is either 0 or
topics addressing the design and performance optimization of 1).[115,120,121] Later on, Bendsoe and Kikuchi[136] introducedthe
lattice materials. One of the challenges involved in the design homogenization theory which updated the formulation
of graded/hybrid lattice materials is ensuring a smooth transition (Equation (22)) and replaced the discrete representation into a
region between dissimilar topologies to avoid an abrupt failure at continuous one. The readers are encouraged to refer to the fol-
the interface. The recent literature also suggests the need for lowing references which provide a detailed description and math-
developing design strategies to optimize the spatial distribution ematical background of topology optimization.[115,120,123–126]
of lattice materials in a design domain based on performance One of the recent applications of topology optimization is
criteria. For example, constructing the P-FRD-P hybrid latticed ensuring geometrical continuity and optimizing the spatial dis-
beam involved performing an extensive number of numerical tribution of lattice materials in functionally graded and hybrid
homogenization studies to compute the effective mechanical arrangements. Currently, the homogenization-based topology
properties of primitive, diamond, gyroid, diamond, Neovius, optimization procedure is widely implemented to maximize
I-WP, Fischer Koch, FRD lattice structures. Once the Young’s, the stiffness of a considered design domain. Initially, the equiva-
bulk, and shear moduli were computed, the authors suggested lent (i.e., effective) elastic properties of lattice materials are
placing the FRD lattice structure at the center of the beam as obtained and then incorporated into an optimization problem
it exhibited greater stiffness under uniaxial loading compared to generate material/density distribution maps that are recon-
to the primitive lattice structure.[10] Hence, utilization of auto- structed accordingly as the optimized graded design domain with
mated design exploration methods, such as, topology optimiza- spatially varying relative densities.
tion and date-driven (i.e., ML models) approaches, would Ren et al.[137] proposed a design procedure to improve the
improve the decision-making process during the design phase structural stiffness and transition boundaries of functionally
of functionally graded/hybrid lattice materials as a result of per- graded hybrid TPMS lattice beam composed of IW-P and primi-
forming iterative calculations constrained with user-defined per- tive structures. Initially, the stiffness of a cantilever beam was
formance criteria. The following sections will describe the optimized using the SIMP method; subsequently, the optimal
implementation of automated design exploration methods as a density distribution map was obtained; then, a mapping between
principle stress directions and lattice types was established to
supportive apparatus for enhancing the design procedure of lat-
evaluate the best performing lattices in terms of bending- and
tice materials.
stretching-dominated behavior; accordingly, the design domain
(i.e., the lattice-beam) was founded on that. Figure 12a depicts
4.1. Topology Optimization the proposed design procedure. Three-point bending experi-
ments demonstrated that the flexural stiffness and strength of
Topology optimization converts a continuum solid structure into the optimized samples increased by 31% and 21%, respectively,
a lattice-based structure through solving an optimization prob- as compared with the density-graded lattice materials. Along the
lem, which requires user-defined constraints and inputs, to sat- same lines, Wang et al.[138] proposed a mathematical framework
isfy certain objective function(s).[134] An objective function is for optimizing the relative density and lattice material topology
defined as a design parameter which can be maximized or mini- (i.e., aspect ratio) distributions in various design domains (i.e.,
mized to enhance the performance of a structure. For instance, three-point bending beam and crashworthy structure subject
compliance minimization (stiffness maximization) is an objec- to axial loading). The optimization approach consisted of estimat-
tive function for static problems, and frequency gap maximiza- ing the effective elastic properties of the considered lattice mate-
tion is an objective function for dynamic problems.[135] The rials, establishing a material interpolation model, performing a
foundations of topology optimization were established in 1904 compliance minimization topology optimization, generating
by Michell,[135] where an analytical approach was established optimal distribution maps for relative density and aspect ratio,
to obtain the least volume distribution of trusses. After that, and reconstruction of optimized graded lattice structures. It
Rozvany[117,118] extended Michell’s work to a beam-based prob- turned out that the optimized beam outperformed the uniform
lem and established the theoretical background of topology opti- ones in terms of flexural stiffness and strength by 41% and
mization. The following equation illustrates the general form of a 35.8%, respectively. The results suggest the need of optimizing
topology optimization problem based on a finite-element formu- the deformation patterns of the considered design domains as
lation (discretized model) mitigation of crack propagation and brittle failure would improve
the structures’ load-bearing capabilities.
Minimize∶ HðuðxÞ, xÞ Ren et al.[137] utilized the solid isotropic material with
Subject to∶ Gj ðuðxÞ, xÞ ≥ 0 for j ¼ 1, 2, : : : :, P (22) penalization (SIMP) optimization method which updates the
x e ¼ 0 or 1 for e ¼ 1, 2, : : : :, N relative density of each element throughout the optimization
procedure. This method is a density-based topology optimization
where H is an objective function, u is a state field that satisfies approach, in which the material density is considered as the
linear or nonlinear state equation, x is a design variable vector, Gj design variable, and it can take any value between 0 and 1.[136]
is a jth constraint, P is the total number of constraints, x e A penalization factor is applied in this method to obtain
Figure 12. a) Schematic of the proposed topology optimization procedure consisting of mapping the stretching- and bending-dominated lattice materials
with the design domain. Reproduced under the terms of the CC-BY-NC-ND license.[137] Copyright 2021, Elsevier. b) CAD model representations of the
pyramidal SC-FCC uniform and graded plate lattice materials. Reproduced with permission.[144] Copyright 2021, Elsevier. c) The unit cell topology opti-
mization procedure. Reproduced with permission.[145] Copyright 2018, Elsevier. d) Schematic of the proposed GA-HMTO optimization procedure.
Reproduced with permission.[140] Copyright 2023, Elsevier. e) The unit cell topology optimization module in LS-Dyna. Reproduced with permission.[149]
Copyright 2020, Elsevier. f ) Reconstruction of 2D topologically optimized structure. Reproduced with permission.[150] Copyright 2021, Elsevier.
a manufacturable structure which only consists of either solid or displacement vector of an eth element, and ½K e is the stiffness
void regions. Equation (23) demonstrates the compliance matrix of an eth element. Typically, three major steps are fol-
minimization problem formulation based on a continuous lowed to solve Equation (23). At first, the displacement of each
(density-based) scheme: element fug in the design domain is obtained. Then, a sensitivity
P analysis is conducted to determine the sensitivity of an objective
Minimize∶ C ðρÞ ¼ N e¼1 ðρe Þ ½ue ½K e ½ue
T
function (in this example the compliance of elements) with
Subject to∶ ½Kfρgfug ¼ fFg respect to a change in the material density at a particular element
PN T
(23) in the design space. Basically, this step confirms that each ele-
e¼1 fve g ρe ≤ M target ment in the design domain has a different effect on the objective
0 ≤ ρe ≤ 1 for e ¼ 1, 2, : : : :, N function. For example, if the value of the objective function was
drastically altered while increasing the density of a certain ele-
where C is the global compliance, ρ is the total density distribu- ment at a specific region in the design domain, this indicates that
tion of material within a design space (in this example, the cubic the objective function is very sensitive to that certain element.
structure), ρe is the density of an eth element, ½ue is the nodal Mathematically, the sensitivity analysis for a compliance
minimization problem is performed via deriving an objective As depicted in Figure 12c, compressive loads were applied at dif-
function (compliance) with respect to a design variable (element ferent cubic faces to generate three types of optimal unit cells
density) (FCC, VC, and ECC). Quasistatic compression experiments
revealed the superiority of the proposed designs over the gyroid
dC
¼ pðρe Þp1 ½ue ½K e ½ue (24) and BCC truss lattice materials. Due to the nature of topology
dρe optimization, structural defects and discontinuity were observed
on the VC lattice structure, suggesting the need of postprocess-
At the end, the density distribution in the design domain is
ing or reconstruction of the raw output geometries. The study
updated via penalizing elements with intermediate densities
demonstrated the feasibility of a commercially available software
(gray elements). The penalization is conducted using a penaliza-
in generating lattice structures based on a single-objective opti-
tion factor p which ensures that the optimization solution con-
mization problem; however, exploring the outcomes of a multi-
sists of either solid (ρe ¼ 1) or void (ρe ¼ 0) elements. The
objective optimization scheme would be a worthwhile research
aforementioned steps are performed iteratively until the value
direction, for example, generating lattice metamaterials with
of the objective function is converged.[139]
maximum stiffness and minimal mass. Along the same lines,
Ozdemir et al.[140] proposed a hybrid optimization procedure
Duan et al.[146] optimized the effective bulk and shear moduli
using genetic algorithm (GA) and anisotropic homogenization-
of a cubic symmetry unit cell, generating 21 types of lattice mate-
based topology optimization (HMTO) to obtain a graded hybrid
rials at variant relative densities using the bidirectional evolution-
TPMS latticed beam design. The procedure consisted of homog-
ary structural optimization (BESO) algorithm. Quasistatic
enizing (i.e., computing the effective elastic properties) of the
compression experiments revealed that at the same relative den-
considered TPMS structures and then solving a compliance min-
sity, the K–A configuration outperformed the convectional octet
imization problem using the hybrid GA-HMTO procedure to
truss lattices material in terms of elastic modulus and compres-
produce optimal lattice beam with graded configuration
sive strength by 40% and 35%, respectively. Furthermore, Duan
(Figure 12d). The experiments demonstrated that the flexural
et al.[146] implemented the BESO algorithm which is a gradient-
stiffness of the functionally graded hybrid latticed beam was
based topology optimization approach, in which material is
4.5% and 13.0% greater than that of the graded diamond and
added in a design space when certain elements experience high
primitive latticed beams, respectively. The study demonstrated
stresses, while material is removed when unnecessary amount of
the efficiency of GA in selecting the required lattice morphology
mass is accumulated in a stress-free region.[147] Furthermore,
and relative density at each generation for the considered design
The BESO algorithm follows the “soft-kill” scheme, in which
domain. GA imitates nature’s evolutionary approach to produce
the absence of an element is described with a minimal threshold
offsprings (new designs) from a parent model (initial design)
(i.e., a value of 0.001) instead of complete void (as it is done in the
through performing crossover and mutation operations.[141,142]
SIMP method).[148]
In the crossover phase, two parent designs are selected to breed
As highlighted previously, sensitivity-based topology optimiza-
new offsprings (models).[143] In this procedure the design fea-
tion algorithms, such as, SIMP and BESO, require the calcula-
tures of parent models are swapped (crossed over) to generate
tion of elemental sensitivity relative to an objective function.
offspring that are similar (but not identical) to their parent genes
However, sensitivities cannot be obtained (derived) easily when
(design features). Mutation is performed after crossover; it intro-
the optimization problem involves geometrical and material non-
duces randomness in the algorithm to mutate (change) the off-
linearity, as is the case with crashworthiness and energy absorp-
springs traits randomly with an objective to produce models with
tion problems. Consequently, optimizing the energy absorption
new traits that differ from their parent genes.
of lattice materials by means of topology optimization is rarely
Zhang and Yanagimoto[144] implemented the homogeniza-
investigated. Yang and Li[149] optimized the energy absorption
tion-based topology optimization procedure to enhance the com-
of a cubic unit cell (Figure 12e) using the commercially available
pressive modulus and energy absorption of hierarchical
topology optimization module in LS-TaSc (LS-Dyna). The results
pyramidal structures. The effective elastic properties of SC-
FCC plate lattices were incorporated into an optimization prob- indicated that the proposed lattice design outperformed the octet
lem to generate an optimal material/density distribution map truss lattice in terms of energy absorption by 174.06%. Taking
that was reconstructed as a graded hierarchical pyramidal struc- the internal energy (IE) as the objective function, the optimiza-
ture. Quasistatic compression experiments indicated that the tion problem was expressed as following.
optimized graded hierarchical pyramidal structure outperformed 8
>
> max F ðx Þ ¼ IE ðx, t ¼ td Þ
the unoptimized one (Figure 12b) in terms of compressive >
>
< subject to M ðx Þ=M ≤ M
strength and energy absorption by 28.2% and 63.4%, 0 f
respectively. >
> PCF ≤ PCF
>
> c
Besides optimizing the macroscale design domain of a func- :
0 < x min ≤ x i ≤ 1, i ¼ 1 : : : nx
tionally graded latticed beam, a uniform cubic unit cell can be nj
optimized based on a static stress analysis using a number of X (25)
IE ðx, t ¼ td Þ ¼ vj :IEDðx, t ¼ td Þ
commercially available finite-element analysis packages. For j¼1
example, Xiao et al.[145] proposed the lattice structure unit den-
sity-based topology optimization design process and generated Zεf
three types of unit cells with minimal compliance using the IEDðx, t ¼ td Þ ¼ σ∶dε
topology optimization module integrated in Abaqus (Tosca). 0
where the internal energy density (IED) is calculated by integrat- the defect classification of additively manufactured lattice struc-
ing the stress ðσ Þ over the total strain increment ðεf Þ of the structures based on their resonant frequency spectrum was a problem
ture at the final time step ðtd Þ. M 0 and M ðx Þ are the initial and solved by a classification-based ML algorithm.[154] Besides, the
final mass of the design domain, respectively. PCF represents the failure pattern for hexagonal honeycomb lattices was predicted
peak crushing force and PCFc is a constraint derived from the using a regression-based ML algorithm with reference to input
impact of the original cubic unit cell prior to optimization. data obtained from FEA simulations.[155] Furthermore, artificial
x is the vector of elemental relative density x i and x min is the neural network (ANN), support vector machine (SVM), and con-
minimum relative density assigned to prevent numerical prob- volutional neural network (CNN) are a few examples for super-
lems. Furthermore, the topology optimization module in LS- vised ML algorithms.[156] On the other hand, the unsupervised
TaSc utilizes the hybrid cellular automata (HCA) algorithm ML algorithms are capable of discovering the hidden patterns
which is a heuristic optimization approach independent of ele- in an unlabeled date set which makes them efficient for explor-
mental sensitivity calculations. atory purposes.[157] For example, C. Gurbuz et al.[158] utilized the
Along the same lines, Bohara et al.[150] utilized the LS-TaSc generative adversarial networks (GANs) (an unsupervised ML
module to generate 2D auxetic topologies based on optimizing algorithm) to generate unit cell designs for sound insulation pur-
the internal energy of a 2D design domain. As depicted in poses. The reinforced learning is an environment-driven
Figure 12f, the raw topologies obtained from the optimizer were approach in which self-improving algorithms enable an agent
completely reconstructed as the optimized geometries were to learn by trial and error in an interactive environment.[157]
severely distorted. This highlights the importance of including To give an example, T. Shah et al.[159] discussed the suppressing
a filter in the optimization algorithm to prevent the checkboard of acoustic scattering using an acoustic metamaterial based on
and mesh dependency phenomenon. Jia et al.[151] addressed the the double deep Q-learning network and the deep deterministic
resolution challenge of the HCA algorithm, suggesting an aver- policy gradient algorithms (reinforced ML algorithms). In their
age filtering strategy for 2D latticed beams; yet, the checkboard work, the reinforced learning agent tuned the design parameters
appearance was present in the proposed 2D latticed beam. (i.e., position and radius of scatterers) continuously according to
The present section highlighted two kinds of topology optimi- an incident acoustic wave in water. Discussing the mathematical
zation procedures that are commonly utilized to maximize the background and methodologies of ML is out of scope of the pres-
performance of lattice-structured materials, specifically, the ent review; the interested readers are referred to the following
homogenization-based topology optimization and the cubic unit studies for detailed descriptions.[160–163]
cell procedure. Furthermore, compliance minimization domi- Challapalli and Li[164] proposed an optimization process com-
nated the optimization in the preceding studies. Although posed of data generation, training and testing an ML model to
improving the impact absorption of lattice materials in the predict the compressive properties of newly generated dataset
framework of topology optimization is still at its infancy stage, outperforming the conventional octet truss lattice material
future directions for research seem to be promising, especially (Figure 13a). Initially, an RVE made of several points was con-
in the area of protective engineering. structed in MATLAB, in which various types of unit cells were
generated by connecting different points using permutations and
combinations commands. A group of training dataset composed
4.2. Machine Learning of 2000 random unit cells were extracted, then simulated in
ANASYS. Uniaxial compression simulations were performed
A classical topology optimization problem is based on material to compute the compression properties of the training dataset.
removal from a reference geometry, resulting in a single solution Once the ML model was built and trained based on the input
after an iterative design process. Furthermore, formulation of the (unit cell fingerprints representing their unique identity) and
sensitivity equations for nonlinear objective functions (e.g., max- output (mass and compressive stress) interaction, the mechani-
imization of energy absorption) requires intricate mathematical cal properties of a new group of unit cells (untrained dataset)
frameworks and a complex solver-optimizer interaction. As an were predicted based on the regression relationships. A total
alternative optimization apparatus, utilization of ML models ena- of 20 optimal designs were fetched and filtered based on bench-
bles exploring a large design space based on training data gen- marking their compressive and tensile load resistance with an
erated from numerical/analytical analyses with minimal manual octet truss lattice, as the former outperformed the latter by
effort. The present section highlights the benefits of utilizing ML 51–57%. Furthermore, sandwich structures made of these opti-
models as an optimization tool for enhancing the performance of mal designs exhibited 13–35% greater flexural strength as com-
lattice materials. ML is a subsidiary of artificial intelligence in pared to that of octet truss design. Along the same lines,
which an intelligent system (algorithm) imitates the human abil- Hassanin et al.[165] introduced a deep learning neural network
ity in performing tasks with an adaptive behavior based on (DLNN) to predict the mechanical properties of a strut-based lat-
data.[152,153] ML techniques are categorized into three major tice structure, given three geometrical inputs (i.e., the strut diam-
groups: supervised learning, unsupervised learning, and rein- eter, strut length, and strut orientation). With reference to
forcement learning. The supervised ML algorithms construct measured values, the trained DLNN model predicted the ulti-
predictive models that are capable of predicting unknown mate strength, elastic modulus, and specific strength of a tested
responses (outputs) for known inputs. These algorithms are sample with a mean percentage error of 5.26%, 14.6%, and
based on classification and regression techniques, in which, 9.39% respectively. A DLNN is a subsidiary of ML that can be
the former predicts the categories of unseen (new) input data trained to learn the relation between inputs and outputs through
while the latter predicts their continuous response. For instance, interaction of hidden layers.[166–168]
Figure 13. a) The forward ML procedure consisting of generation RVE, generation a large dataset through connecting random data points, training the
ML model, and additively manufacturing the optimized structures. Reproduced under the terms of the CC-BY license.[164] Copyright 2021, Springer
Nature. b) CAD representation of the spinodoid stochastic materials. Reproduced under the terms of the CC-BY license.[170] Copyright 2020,
Springer Nature. c) Two-scale topology optimization framework consisting of macro- and microscales. Reproduced under the terms of the CC-BY
license.[171] Copyright 2021, Elsevier. d) Multi-objective-ML optimization procedure composed of a CNN model and a GA capable of producing 2D
unit cells with Pareto optimality. Reproduced under the terms of the CC-BY license.[152] Copyright 2021, Elsevier. e) The capability of the CNN model
in predicting the topologically optimized designs. Reproduced with permission.[153] Copyright 2020, Elsevier.
A forward ML model is only capable of predicting output data In contrast to periodic lattice materials, Kumar et al.[170] proposed
based on a training dataset, it is not capable of proposing optimal an inverse design procedure to generate uniform and graded spi-
designs that are within a set of structural boundary conditions. nodoid (Figure 13b) stochastic materials exhibiting anisotropic
For this purpose, an inverse ML framework using GANs was stiffness using deep neural networks. Initially, the spinodoid
introduced in another study to predict an optimal periodic struc- stochastic materials were mathematically generated using a
ture based on the desired properties.[169] The proposed inverse Gaussian random field (GRF), followed by numerical homogeni-
ML framework composed of training the GAN network based zation for effective properties extraction. Subsequently, a forward
on a training dataset generated from the forward ML framework. ML model was trained to predict the stiffness of the spinodoid
After training the network, a set of periodic optimal lattice struc- material based on geometrical design parameters. After training
tures were generated based on user-defined inputs (i.e., low mass the model, the inverse deep neural networks were utilized to gen-
and high compression strength). The GAN network allows con- erate optimal spinodoid materials given a set of geometrical
tinuous optimization of the lattice structures by iteratively utiliz- parameters. The study highlights the efficacy of developing a
ing the newly generated designs as training dataset for next- well-trained model capable of generating spinodoid stochastic
generation predictions. Lattice structures generated from the materials imitating the porosity and the spatial anisotropy of
proposed framework outperformed the conventional truss latti- human bone. In another study, a two-scale topology optimization
ces in terms of load bearing capability by 40–120%. The study framework was combined with deep neural networks to optimize
suggests to improve the prediction and generative accuracy of the compliance of several design domains at a macro- and micro-
the ML models by enhancing the data generation procedure. scale levels.[171] The procedure composed of maximizing the
stiffness of a series of design domains (i.e., cantilever beam and highlighted in the preceding studies, extensive finite-element
L-shaped structure), concurrently, optimizing the spatial distri- simulations are conducted to generate training dataset for train-
bution and orientation of the spinodoid stochastic materials ing different types of ML models/networks. Once the models are
(Figure 13c). trained, these are used for: 1) predicting the performance of new
The evolutionary approach of GA in producing off springs set of data in a forward design approach, 2) generating new types
(new designs) from a parent model (initial design) through of output (i.e., novel designs) in an inverse design approach, and
performing crossover and mutation operations is in accordance 3) optimizing the performance of initial designs in a multiobjec-
with the inverse design procedure. Garland et al.[152] proposed a tive ML approach as GA is utilized to mutate and generate new
multiobjective-ML optimization procedure (Figure 13d) com- offspring.
posed of a CNN model and a GA capable of producing 2D unit Table 2 describes the correlation and differences between
cells with Pareto optimality (i.e., optimizing two competing topology optimization and ML-based procedures in terms of
objectives, such as, maximal elastic stiffness during a static load inputs, processing principle, and outputs. As highlighted in
and minimal wave speed propagation during and impact event). the preceding studies, both techniques operate concurrently in
The procedure consisted of manually generating random unit terms of processing principle as topology optimization outputs
cell designs, computing their stiffness and wave speed properties could be utilized as an input for the multiobjective[152] and
via finite-element analysis, training a CNN model to predict the two-scale[171] ML optimization procedures. In fact, the concur-
same properties for a given topology, generating new topologies rent utilization of both techniques paves the path to engineer
(i.e., offspring), and exhibiting Pareto optimality through muta- the next generation of lattice-structured materials.
tion of parent topologies using GA. One of the limitations of the Figure 14 demonstrates the normalized compressive moduli
proposed methodology is the discretized modeling approach of TPMS structures, plate lattices, and lattice materials generated
which hinders the generation of 3D unit cells exhibiting smooth by automated design exploration methods, where E ¼ E=E b , E
surfaces and intersections. Kollmann et al.[153] developed a CNN is the normalized modulus, E is the experimental compressive
model capable of reproducing/predicting 2D lattice materials modulus of a lattice-structured material, and E b is modulus of
generated from a compliance minimization topology optimiza- the base material. The asterisk (*), circular (O), and diamond
tion problem. The procedure consisted of generating a training (◊) symbols represent the TPMS structures, plate lattice materi-
dataset from the homogenization-based topology optimization
als, and TO-ML lattices (i.e., lattice materials generated by topol-
method, training the CNN model based on the inputs (i.e., geo-
ogy optimization and/or ML models). The following discussion
metrical parameters of the optimized structures and types of the
considers the lattice materials at relative densities of 0.2 and 0.3
objective function) and outputs (i.e., images of the topologically
as more data are available at the same. At relative density of 0.2,
optimized structures) and then generating the CNN predictions
the titanium-based FCC plate lattices[132] fabricated by PBF tech-
as pixelated images. Figure 13e demonstrates the capability of the
nique outperformed the TPMS and TO-ML lattice materials.
CNN model in predicting the topologically optimized designs
Furthermore, the titanium-based uniform Gyroid and cell size-
(i.e., ground-truth) for the case of maximizing the bulk modulus,
graded diamond structures[99] exhibited the largest compressive
where V f and r min represent the relative density and filter radius,
moduli at relative density of 0.3. Besides the topology of lattice
respectively. Although the study highlights the superiority of
materials, the processing parameters and accuracy of the
CNN models in predicting optimized designs faster than a clas-
sical topology optimization procedure, the technique is limited to manufacturing procedure highly impact the performance of the
generate 2D lattice materials.
Recently, the data-driven nature of the inverse design Table 2. Differences and correlations between topology optimization and
approach paved the path to optimize the energy absorption of ML methods in terms of processing principles, inputs, and outputs.
lattice materials without the need of computing the elemental
Topology optimization [ML]
sensitivity of a design domain exhibiting geometric and material
nonlinearities. Zeng et al.[172] proposed an inverse design proce- Input User defined, such as, Dataset acquired from forward ML
dure to generate 2D lattice materials from a target curve which volume constraint Output from topology optimization
represents the stress–strain diagram of an ideal material (i.e., and structural loading
composed of linear elastic region, straight plateau stress, densi- Processing Material removal/ Concurrently operating with GAs and
fication at a strain greater than 50%). The procedure consisted of principle addition topology optimization for
generating initial population (i.e., optimal lattice materials) using multiobjective[152] and two-scale[171]
optimization procedures
the compliance minimization topology optimization, computing
their stress–strain diagrams, fitness evaluation and mutation of Element Yes (gradient based) No
the best performing designs, reiterating, and optimizing the pro- sensitivity No (nongradient base)
calculation
cedure using the nondominated sorting GA II (NSGAII). The
results suggest the utilization of the proposed procedure to Output Single solution A huge number of dataset
develop impact protection systems. One of the limitations of Postprocessing Geometry smoothening Filtering and fetching the best
the proposed methodology is constraining the performance of and reconstruction performing
the optimized designs by the predefined target curve which outputs based on the fitness
may result in suboptimal solutions. function value
(in case of multiobjective and two-scale
Currently, different types of data-driven procedures are uti-
optimization procedures)
lized to enhance the design procedure of lattice materials. As
0.1
E* [-]
0.01
0.001
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
ρ[-]
MML1T [98] Stochastic G [117] RDG2 [98] RDG3 [98] CSG1 [98]
CSG2 [98] CSG2T [98] CSG3 [98] Graded G [100] Graded Rhombic [101]
Graded Arrows [101] G (size gradation) [99] D (size gradation) [99] Hybrid [99] Gyroid [99]
Lattice A [169] Lattice B [169] K-D [146] K-E [146] K-C [146]
FCC [145] VC [145] ECC [145] BCC <110> [132] BCC <111> [132]
FCC <001> [132] FCC <110> [132] FCC <111> [132] TO [130] TOA [130]
TOH [130] BCC PPR/CNT 0wt% [35] BCC PPR/CNT 0wt% [35] BCC PPR/CNT 4wt% [35] BCC PPR/CNT 4wt% [35]
BCC PPR/CNT 6wt% [35] BCC PPR/CNT 6wt% [35]
Figure 14. The normalized compressive modulus of TPMS structures, plate lattice materials, and TO-ML-based structures. The asterisk (*), circular (O),
and diamond (◊) symbols represent the TPMS structures, plate lattice materials, and TO-ML lattices, respectively.
structures. As many of the depicted samples were fabricated by suggested as an alternative, as they offer low elastic modulus
FDM (such as the BCC plate lattice materials made of PPR/ and high permeability.[90,177] The choice of the type of lattice
CNT[35]), it is anticipated that these exhibited greater manufactur- material depends mainly on the desired purpose of the designed
ing defects as compared to structures fabricated by PBF technique. structure (bone tissues, femoral stems, etc.).[178] TPMS scaffolds,
The utilization of automated design exploration methods as an for instance, form cubically symmetrical structures,[177] which
apparatus to modulate the physical properties of lattice materials provide a periodic repetition of interconnected pores. Such a
is still at its infancy stage as a result, only a few samples are structure is found in the natural form of trabecular bones.[179]
depicted in Figure 14. However, the potential of these methods As such, many studies have shown that TPMS structures can
in solving complex nonlinear optimization problems seems a be utilized in optimizing bone regeneration, as they possess
promising research direction, especially in the area of crashwor- strong mechanical properties in addition to the ability to mimic
thiness and impact mitigation devices. bone tissues and resulting in better cell adhesion, proliferation,
and migration.[98] In this regard, Vijayavenkataraman et al.[177]
developed an optimization approach to design functionally
5. Applications
graded primitive TPMS sheet scaffolds, taking into consideration
Lattice-structured materials are employed in a wide variety of different design parameters. In their work, they were able to
engineering applications, such as marine applications,[28–30,32,33] design zonal cartilage architecture scaffolds that mimic bone
automotive applications,[34–37,39] vibration isolation implants with stiffness gradient, mitigating the effect of stress
systems, [40–43]
biomedical implants,[44,45,47–50] and dental shielding. Another challenge with conventional implants in
applications.[51–54] In this section, an overview of their applica- the hip joint is the extensive stress in different directions.[180,181]
tion in different fields will be discussed. In biomedical engineer- To ensure flexible movement of the implant, structural isotropy
ing, lattice materials provide solutions to many challenges in is favored. For that, Feng et al.[182] developed an optimization
tissue engineering applications. The main challenge in using strategy to control the anisotropy of lattice structures. In their
metallic bone implants (such as the biocompatible titanium) is work, the optimized isotropic structure (octet truss) provided
the issue of stress shielding effect[173] which results in a huge similar stress distribution in different directions, which
mismatch in the elastic modulus between the implant and the provides a solution to anisotropy of Acetabular Cup implants
bone tissue, causing implant failure.[174] To avoid such phenom- (Figure 15a). Additionally, Oladapo et al.[183] designed and tested
ena, the usage of additively manufactured metallic implants is polymer composite-based gyroid and BCCO scaffolds as
advantageous to create complex structures with enhanced prop- dental implants (Figure 15d). The results revealed that these
erties.[175,176] As such, the porous lattice structures are widely structures possess similar elastic and shear moduli as compared
Figure 15. Applications of lattice-structured materials in different engineering fields. a) Acetabular cup implant based on Octet isotropic lattice.
Reproduced under the terms of the CC-BY license.[182] Copyright 2021, Elsevier. b) HIC values at four different impact positions of the baseline hood
and lattice-filled sandwich hood. Reproduced with permission.[186] Copyright 2018, Elsevier. c) Gas turbine blade with lattice-structured duct to improve
heat transfer. Reproduced with permission.[214] Copyright 2019, Elsevier. d) Dental implant composed of gyroid structure and BCCO structures fabricated
via FDM AM. Reproduced under the terms of the CC-BY license.[183] Copyright 2022, Elsevier. e) Primitive scaffolds with four regions that represent zonal
architecture of articular cartilage. Reproduced with permission.[177] Copyright 2018, American Chemical Society. f ) Force–displacement curve of reference
steel crash tube and FCC carbon-nylon truss lattice-filled crash tube. Reproduced under the terms of the CC BY license.[162] Copyright 2022, The Authors,
Published by MDPI.
to human teeth. This suggests their usage as biomimetic dental lightweight requirements of a spacecraft. To achieve this, space-
repair. craft structures typically contain sandwich panels which com-
Moreover, due to their high strength-to-weight ratio and high prise two thin face sheets separated by a thick lightweight core
energy absorption, lattice-structured materials are also utilized in structure.[191] Therefore, a sandwich panel core should exhibit
aerospace,[184,185] automotive,[162,186,187] and marine applica- high compressive strengths and excellent impact resistance. In
tions.[160,161,188,189] Particularly, in aerospace missions, the main addition to that, porous lattice structures provide a large surface
function of a satellite frame is to support all other subsystems area, which results in improved heat transfer
and protect them from the launching loads and the space envi- characteristics.[192–195] For this reason, lattice materials are
ronment.[190] This however is constrained by the strict widely utilized in aircraft systems, including heat exchangers,
turbine blade cooling, and regenerative rocket/scramjet cooling recovering its original shape after experiencing large deforma-
(Figure 15c). tions and temperature gradients.[210] Furthermore, an increasing
To increase weight reduction, improve fuel efficiency, and interest is observed in investigating the mechanical behavior and
enhance structural safety, the utilization of lattice structures is shape memory effect of 4D-printed lattice materials. Wan
suggested in various automotive and marine applications.[196,197] et al.[211] investigated the mechanical properties of auxetic lattice
In particular, Niutta et al.[162] designed and tested FCC carbon- materials made of shape memory PLA filament. The study
nylon truss lattice-filled crash absorber for a C-segment vehicle highlighted the shape memory effects of the considered struc-
and compared its mechanical behavior with a standard compo- tures as their Poisson’s ratios and elastic moduli were pro-
nent. The results show improved crushing performance with a grammed by tuning topological parameters. Zeng et al.[212]
smooth force–displacement curve (Figure 15f ), in addition to explored the temperature-dependent mechanical response of
25% reduction in the mass of the component. In a related study, composite lattice materials made of continuous fibers and
Yin et al.[186] investigated the advantages of replacing automotive SMP. Isothermal compression experiments and thermomechan-
engine hood with a lightweight composite sandwich hood, com- ical cycle experiments revealed the shape recovery capability and
posed of a pyramidal lattice core (Figure 15b). They further tested relaxation phenomenon of the considered lattice materials.
the impact loading at 43 different locations. Not only a reduction Moreover, 4D printing enables the fabrication of soft robots
in weight was achieved for the lattice-filled hood, but also a huge and actuators that are emerging devices capable of enhancing
reduction in the head injury criterion (HIC) value, which proves the design and conception of robots. Zolfagharian et al.[207] uti-
the enhancement in driver’s safety. Besides that, Papetti lized the gradient-based topology optimization to enhance the
et al.[35,55] reported that the heat and mass transfer properties bending deflection of a polyelectrolyte actuator with uniform
of polyhedral open cell lattices are promising to improve the per- porosity. A bioprinter was utilized to fabricate the initial (i.e.,
formance of automotive catalytic converters. In marine applica- unoptimized) and the topologically optimized porous actuators
tions, the use of conventional sandwich composite structures made of shape memory hydrogel. The results demonstrated
proved to be beneficial.[197,198] However, further research on the superiority of the latter in terms of bending deformation
the choice of core lattice structures is conducted to provide ligh- and actuation rate. Later on, ML and finite-element models were
ter structures with better mechanical behavior using incorporated to enhance the design procedure of a SPA robot.[213]
AM.[160,161,188,189] Taking into consideration different loading The procedure consisted of generating more than a thousand
conditions, additively manufactured lattice-filled structures pro- datasets for training a ML model capable of predicting the geo-
vide a more favorable tool to enhance the durability of civil and metrical parameters of the 4D-printed SPA with superior bend-
military ships. In this regard, Jia et al.[196] investigated the poten- ing angle. As the examples have demonstrated, the
tial of using a designed central symmetric lattice structure in multifunctionality of lattice-structured materials enabled their
compressor impeller or as shells of underwater vehicles. It utilization in diversified engineering fields.
was concluded that such lattice structures provide a reduction
in both weight and structural stress as compared to the conven-
tionally used parallel pattern structure. Lattice materials with 6. Conclusion
engineered properties (piezoelectric and electromagnetic) are
further used in microelectromechanical systems and sensors The present review discussed the design and synthesis of peri-
due to their tunable mechanical performance and odic lattice materials as the physical properties of these struc-
flexibility.[199–201] As such, the piezoelectric properties allow tures are tailored efficiently through manipulating their
the conversion of energy between mechanical and electrical topology and base material. In particular, the design modulation
domain, which opens the doors for applications in actuators, sen- of TPMS and plate lattice materials was outlined and the recent
sors, and ultrasound imaging.[202] Several designs were proposed advancements in leveraging their mechanical performance were
to enhance the piezoelectric and electromagnetic properties of reviewed. Furthermore, the benefits and challenges related to
such lattice materials.[199,200,203,204] For instance, Khan additively manufacture these structures were highlighted and
et al.[205] designed a piezoelectric honeycomb lattice material the role of HM techniques in improving their production cycle
with zero and negative Poisson ratios. The results revealed that was discussed. Finally, the applicability of lattice-structured
such structures could be further developed with adjustable elec- materials in variant engineering applications was discussed as
tromechanical properties, yielding lightweight devices for next- a motivation to continue enhancing their design to manufactur-
generation sensors and actuators. ing process. The review discussed some of the recent design opti-
The technological development in AM enabled the creation of mization strategies involved in enhancing the multifunctionality
smart structures exhibiting reconfigurable, self-expandable, and of TPMS and plate lattice materials. Functional gradation and
adjustable mechanical behavior. One of the pioneering advance- multimorphology hybridization strategies were extensively
ments is the 4D printing which utilizes 3D printing technologies employed in TPMS structures as an apparatus to enhance their
to create objects made of stimuli–responsive materials (SRMs) biocompatibility, flexural, and compressive mechanical
capable of altering their shape or properties over time when responses. Many studies confirmed the benefits of relative
exposed to air, light, heat, or load.[206] Lattice materials made density and cell size gradation of TPMS structures in enhancing
of SRM exhibit configurable and tunable physical properties the deformation resistance and load-bearing capabilities as com-
allowing their utilization in soft robots,[207] recoverable energy pared to their uniform (nongraded) counterparts. Furthermore,
dissipation devices,[208] and tissue engineering.[209] Shape mem- multimorphology hybridization employs the benefits of combin-
ory polymer (SMP) is an intelligent material capable of ing the performance advantages of distinct topologies at a time
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Abdulla Almesmari received his M.Sc. in mechanical engineering at Khalifa University, UAE. Currently, he
is completing a Ph.D. in mechanical engineering at the same university. The main focus of his Ph.D. is
in designing, fabrication, and testing novel types of lattice-structured materials with optimal mechanical
behavior. He is experienced in performing flight-qualification testing for nanosatellites. He worked on
multiple nanosatellite missions, such as, MYSAT-1, Dhabi-Sat, and Light-1.
Ali Nizam Alagha obtained his M.Sc. in mechanical engineering from Khalifa University. He is currently a
research engineer in the advanced digital and additive manufacturing center at Khalifa University. His
research interests focus on the development and optimization of additively manufactured architected
materials for energy absorption applications.
Mohamed Marwan Naji obtained his B.Sc. in mechanical engineering from the University of Sharjah,
UAE. He is currently an M.Sc. student at Khalifa University, UAE, and performs his research in the
Advanced Digital and Additive Manufacturing Center (ADAM). His research interests focus on the
additive manufacturing of cellular materials and their mechanical properties.
Jamal Sheikh-Ahmad received a Ph.D. in mechanical engineering from NC State University in 1993. His
research focus is in the areas of machining polymer composites, friction stir welding, and energy
efficiency. He has worked for the past 25 years with government, academic, and industry organizations
on applied research (experimental and analytical) in secondary manufacturing of composites, composites
machining and tooling, composites applications in the petroleum industry, and metal machining by both
traditional and nontraditional techniques. His work in the area of traditional machining of fiber-reinforced
polymer composites is internationally recognized.
Firas Jarrar received his Ph.D. with honors in mechanical engineering from the University of Kentucky in
2009. His research experience is in the areas of solid mechanics, engineering dynamics, and finite-
element analysis. The practical applications of his research include advanced techniques for fabricating
lightweight components and analysis of nanosatellites. He has been supervising the design and
construction of CubeSats at Yahsat Space Lab, Khalifa University, UAE. He is the lead developer of the
CubeSat Wizard software application.

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REVIEW

Recent Advancements in Design Optimization of

inspired-materials (also known as metama-

exploring the multifunctionality of polymeric-, metallic-, and 2.1. Additive Manufacturing

Technology Binder Direct energy MEX MJ PBF SL VP

the trusses, thus, deteriorating the surface quality and the

ural strength and toughness of the latticed beams.

17-4 PH stainless steel

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