Mechanical Power Engineering Department

Advanced Control Engineering Course

Chapter Three
TIME DOMAIN ANALYSIS

Prepared by
Eng. Eslam Salah
2020/2021
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Advanced Control Engineering Course Syllabus:

Chapter 1: Introduction to Control Engineering

Chapter 2: System Modeling
Chapter 3: Time Domain Analysis
Chapter 4: Reduction of Multiple Subsystems
Chapter 5: Stability

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Time Domain Analysis

Time Response: The manner in which a dynamic system responds to an input,

expressed as a function of time.
.‫ لذلك يسمي النظام الذي يتم التعبير عنه بمعادلة دالة في الزمن‬.‫الدخل والخرج يكون دالة في الزمن‬
To compute the time response the following things must be known
• The nature of the input(s), expressed as a function of time
• The mathematical model of the system.
‫لحل المعادلة يجب معرفة نوع دالة الدخل في الزمن والمعادلة التي تم استنتاجها في الباب السابق‬
The time response of any system has two components:
(a) Transient response: This component of the response will (for a stable
system) decay, usually exponentially, to zero as time increases. It is a function
only of the system dynamics, and is independent of the input quantity.
(b) Steady-state response: This is the response of the system after the transient
component has decayed and is a function of both the system dynamics and the
input quantity.

The total response of the system is always the sum of the transient and steady-
state components.
Any system can be expressed as:

The target is to find the output as a function of time

y = f(t)
For example

How to solve Differential Eq.?

There are a number of analytical and numerical techniques available to do this,
but the one favored by control engineers is the use of the Laplace transform.

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Laplace transforms
It is used to solve the differential equations; it is defined as:

Eq.1
Where: S is complex variable and is called the Laplace operator.
S = σ ± jω
This technique transforms the problem from the time (or t) domain to the Laplace
(or s) domain. The advantage in doing this is that complex time domain
differential equations become relatively simple s domain algebraic equations.
When a suitable solution is arrived at, it is inverse transformed back to the time
domain.
S domain ‫ الي‬Time domain ‫ عن طريق تحويل الـ‬Differential eqn. ‫تستخدم هذه الطريقة لحل‬
.‫ إليجاد المعادلة‬Time domain ‫وبعد تبسيطها نحولها مره اخري الي‬

The following table illustrates the conversion between common functions from
time domain into S domain. By using equation 1, the values in the table are
determined

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Example 3.1
Find Laplace transform of f (t)=1 (called a unit step function).
Solution:
From equation 1

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Properties of the Laplace transform

a) Derivatives: The Laplace transform of a time derivative is

Eq. 2

b) Linearity

c) Constant multiplication

d) Initial value theorem

e) Final value theorem

Transfer function
A transfer function is the Laplace transform of a differential equation with zero
initial conditions.

Example 3.2
Find the Laplace transform of the following differential equation given

Solution:
(a) Including initial conditions: Take Laplace transforms (equation (2), Table)

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(b) Zero initial conditions, Take Laplace transforms

The following figure shows the general transfer function approach

The solution is therefore given by

Xo = G(s) Xi(s) Eq. 3
Thus, for second order general transfer function
𝑑2 Xo 𝑑𝑋𝑜
a +b +c xo =K xi(t) in time domain
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡

(a s2 + bs + c) Xo(s) = K Xi(s) in S domain

Hence
𝑘
Xo(s) = ( ) Xi(s) Eq.4
𝑎𝑠2 +𝑏𝑠+𝑐
Comparing between equation 3 and 4, the transfer function G(s) is
𝑘
G(s) = ( )
𝑎𝑠2 +𝑏𝑠+𝑐
The following figure shows the general second order transfer function

Returning to our example

so

Which gives the same as solution (b).

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Inverse transformation
To go back to the time domain, the inverse Laplace should be used, which is
defined as:

‫ وذلك‬Time domain ‫ يتم تحويلها مرة اخري الي ال‬S domain ‫بعد استنتاج معادلة الخرج في ال‬
‫ لفصل المعادلة الي عناصر تشبه عناصر الجدول‬partial fractions ‫عن طريق استخدام طريقة‬
input ‫الخاص بالتحويالت ولكن يجب أوال معرفة نوع الدخل‬
In practice, inverse transformation is most easily achieved by using partial
fractions to break down solutions into standard components, and then use tables
of Laplace transform pairs

Common partial fraction expansions

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Common time domain input functions

1-Impulse function: is a pulse with a width ∆t →0 as shown in the following
figure, The strength of an impulse is its area A, where
A= height h x ∆t.
‫ مثال علي ذلك قمت بتوصيل‬.‫∆ ولكن صغير جدا‬t ‫ وعرض‬h ‫ لها ارتفاع‬pulse ‫يكون الدخل علي شكل‬
‫تيار كهربي لحظيا لمحرك كهربي ثم قمت بفصل التيار لحظيا‬

2- Step function: is described as xi(t) = B (in time domain) ; Xi(s) = B/s (in S
domain) for t > 0. For a unit step function x i (t) = 1, X i (s) = 1/s. Referred as
constant position input

‫مثل توصيل تيار لمحرك كهربي او انارة المصباح‬

3- Ramp function: is described as xi (t) = Qt; Xi(s) = Q/s 2 for t > 0. For a unit
ramp function xi (t) = t; Xi (s) = 1/s 2. Referred as constant velocity input

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4- Parabolic function is described as xi (t) = Kt2; Xi(s) = 2K/s3 for t > 0 For a
unit parabolic function xi (t) = t2; Xi(s) = 2/s3. Referred as constant acceleration
input

Time domain response of first-order systems

Standard form
Consider a first-order differential equation
𝑑𝑋𝑜
a +b xo = c xi(t)
𝑑𝑡
Take Laplace transform, zero initial conditions
as Xo(s)+ b Xo(s) = c Xi(s)
(as + b) Xo(s) = c Xi(s)

The transfer function is

𝑋𝑜 𝑐
G(s) = =( )
𝑋𝑖 𝑎𝑠+𝑏

To obtain the standard form, divide by b

𝑐
𝑏
G(s) = ( 𝑎 )
𝑏
𝑠+1
Which is written as
𝑘
G(s) = ( )
𝑇𝑠+1
Where: k is a steady state gain constant, T :system time constant.

Impulse response of first-order systems

Example 3.3
Find an expression for the response of a first- order system to an impulse
function of area A.

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Solution

𝐴𝐾 𝐴𝐾/𝑇
Xo(s) = =
𝑇𝑠+1 𝑠+1/𝑇
or
𝐴𝐾 1
Xo(s) = ( ) Eq.5
𝑇 𝑠+1/𝑇

Equation 5 is in the form given in Laplace transform pair 5, so the inverse

transform becomes
𝐴𝐾 𝐴𝐾
x(t) = 𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 = 𝑒 −𝑡/𝑇 Eq.6
𝑇 𝑇
The impulse response function, equation 6 is shown in the following figure

Step response of first-order systems

Example 3.4
Find an expression for the response of a first-order system to a step function of
height B.

Solution

𝐵𝐾 1/𝑇
Xo(s) = = 𝐵𝐾 Eq.7
𝑠(1+𝑇𝑠) 𝑠(𝑠+1/𝑇)
Equation 7 is in the form given in Laplace transform pair 6 (in Table), so the
inverse transform becomes
xo(t) = 𝐵𝐾(1 − 𝑒 −𝑡/𝑇 )

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Ramp response of first-order systems

Example 3.5
Find an expression for the response of a first-order system to a ramp function of
slope Q.
Solution

𝑄𝐾 𝑄𝐾/𝑇 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
Xo(s) = = = + + Eq.8
𝑠2 (1+𝑇𝑠) 𝑠2 (𝑠+1/𝑇) 𝑠 𝑠2 (𝑠+1/𝑇)

Multiplying both sides by s2(s + l/T), we get

𝑄𝐾 1 1
= 𝐴𝑠 (𝑠 + ) + 𝐵 (𝑠 + ) + 𝐶𝑠 2
𝑇 𝑇 𝑇
Equating coefficients on both sides of equation

(s2): 0 = A + C
(s1): 0=A/T+B
𝑄𝐾
(s0): =B/T
𝑇
So
B = QK
and A= -BT
A= -QKT
C= QKT
Inserting values of A, B and C into equation 8
−𝑄𝐾𝑇 𝑄𝐾 𝑄𝐾𝑇
Xo(s) = + +
𝑠 𝑠2 (𝑠+1/𝑇)

Inverse transform, and factor out KQ

xo(t) = 𝐾𝑄(𝑡 - 𝑇 + 𝑇𝑒 −𝑡/𝑇 )

If Q = 1 (unit ramp) and K = 1 (unity gain) then
xo(t) = (𝑡 - 𝑇 + 𝑇𝑒 −𝑡/𝑇 )

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Example 3.6
A Ship has a mass m and a resistance C times the forward velocity u(t). If the
thrust from the propeller is K times the angular velocity ω (t), determine:
a) The first-order differential equation and hence the transfer function relating
U(s) and ω(s). when the vessel has the parameters: m = 18,000 x 103 kg, C =
150,000 Ns/m, and K = 96,000 Ns/rad, find,
b) The time constant.
c) An expression for the time response of the ship when there is a step change
ω(t) from 0 to 12.5
rad/s. Assume that the vessel is initially at rest.
d) What is the forward velocity after
- one minute
- ten minutes

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Solution
a) F.B.D

Then applying Newton’s law

𝑑𝑢
K ω(t) – C u(t) = m
𝑑𝑡
Rearranging the equation
𝑑𝑢
m + C u(t) = K ω(t)
𝑑𝑡
the previous equation as we did in chapter two. Differential equation describing
the system. The variables are function of time (Time domain)
Take Laplace transforms, zero initial conditions
m s U(s) + C U(s) = k ω(s)
U(s)( m s + C ) = k ω(s)
The transfer function is
U(s) 𝐾
TF = G(s) = =( )
ω(s) 𝑚 𝑠+𝐶
b) Comparing out TF with the standard form
𝑘
The standard form G(s)= ( )
𝑇𝑠+1
Dividing our TF by C to make it similar to the standard form
U(s) 𝐾/𝐶
TF = G(s) = =( 𝑚 )
ω(s) ( 𝑐 ) 𝑠+1
Comparing coefficients
K = K/C
T = m/C
T = 18,000 x 103 /150,000
T= 120 sec.
c) As we know that; XO = Xi * TF
𝐾
U(s) = ω(s) *
𝑚 𝑠+𝐶
Giving ω(t) = 12.5 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠 as a step input. but this in time domain. So, we
need to convert it into S-domain. Looking at the table case 2
12.5
ω(s) =
𝑠
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12.5𝐾
U(s) =
𝑠(𝑚 𝑠+𝐶)
Looking back at Laplace transform pair 6 (in Table)
Dividing by m
12.5𝐾/𝑚
U(s) = 𝐶
𝑠( 𝑠+𝑚)

𝐶
12.5𝑘 𝑚
U(s) = .( 𝐶 )
𝐶 𝑠( 𝑠+ )
𝑚
Inverse transform
12.5𝑘
u(t) = (1 − 𝑒 −𝑡𝐶/𝑚 )
𝐶
u(t) = 8 (1 − 𝑒 −0.00833𝑡 )
d)
u(60) = 8 (1 − 𝑒 −0.00833∗60 )
u(60) = 3.148 m/s
u(600) = 8 (1 − 𝑒 −0.00833∗600 )
u(600) = 7.946 m/s

Example 3.7
For the passive electrical network shown in the following figure
a) Determine the transfer function relating the V2(s) and V1(s).
b) When C= 2μF and R1 = R2 = 1 MΩ, determine the steady-state gain K and
time constant T.
c) Find an expression for the unit step response.

s
Solution

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Time domain response of second-order systems

Standard form
Consider a second-order differential equation

𝑑2 Xo 𝑑𝑋𝑜
a +b +c xo =e xi(t)
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡

Take Laplace transforms, zero initial conditions

as2 Xo(s)+ bs Xo(s)+c Xo(s) = e Xi(s)
(as2 + bs+c) Xo(s) = e Xi(s) E q.9
The transfer function is
𝑋𝑜 𝑒
G(s) = =( )
𝑋𝑖 𝑎𝑠2 +𝑏𝑠+𝑐
To obtain the standard form, divide by c
𝑒
𝑐
G(s) = ( 𝑎 2 𝑏 )
𝑐
𝑠 + 𝑐 𝑠 +1
Which is written as
𝐾
G(s) = ( 1 2 2𝜁 )
𝑠 + 𝜔𝑛𝑠 +1
𝜔𝑛2

This can also be normalized to make the s2 coefficient unity

𝐾𝜔𝑛2
G(s) = ( )
𝑠2 + 2𝜁𝜔𝑛.𝑠 +𝜔𝑛2
where K= steady-state gain constant, ωn = undamped natural frequency (rad/s) and 𝜁 damping
ratio.
Steady state gain constant, K: determine the size of steady state response when
the input settles and at a constant value.
Undamped natural frequency, ωn: System frequency in case there is no
damping.

Roots of characteristic equation and their relationship to damping in second

order systems
the transient response of a system is independent of the input. Thus for transient
response analysis, the system input can be considered to be zero, and equation 8
can be written as
(as2 + bs+c) Xo(s) =0
If Xo(s) ≠ 0
(as2 + bs+c) = 0 (Characteristic Equation)
This equation is called the “Characteristic Equation” and its roots will
determine the system transient response.

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Their values are

−𝑏±√𝑏2 −4𝑎𝑐
s 1, s 2 =
2𝑎
2
The term (b - 4ac), called the discriminant, may be positive, zero or negative
which will make the roots real and unequal, real and equal or complex. This gives
rise to the three different types of transient response.

The transient response of a second-order system is given by the general solution

xo(t) = ( 𝐴𝑒 𝑠1𝑡 + 𝐵𝑒 𝑠2𝑡 ) Eq.10
This gives a step response function of the form shown in the following figure

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Critical damping and damping ratio

Critical damping
When the damping coefficient C of a second-order system has its critical value
Cc, the system, when disturbed, will reach its steady-state value in the minimum
time without overshoot.
Damping ratio 𝜁
The ratio of the damping coefficient C in a second-order system compared with
the value of the damping coefficient Cc required for critical damping. Hence,
𝐶
𝜁=
𝐶𝑐

Example 3.8
Find the value of the critical damping coefficient Cc in terms of K and m for the
spring-mass-damper system

Solution
From Newton’s second law

From the free body diagram

Taking Laplace transforms, zero initial conditions

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or

Characteristic Equation is

ms2 + Cs + k = 0
𝐶 𝑘
s2 + s+ = 0
𝑚 𝑚

and the roots are

For critical damping, the discriminant is zero, hence the roots become

Also, for critical damping

giving

Generalized second-order system response to a unit step input

Consider a second-order system whose steady-state gain is K, undamped natural

frequency is ωn and whose damping ratio is 𝜁 where 𝜁 < 1. For a unit step input,
the block diagram is as shown in the following figure

𝐾𝜔𝑛2
Xo(s) = Eq.11
𝑠(𝑠2 + 2𝜁𝜔𝑛.𝑠 +𝜔𝑛2 )

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Expanding the equation using partial fractions

Eq.12

Equating equation 11 &equation 12 and multiply by 𝑠(𝑠 2 + 2𝜁𝜔𝑛. 𝑠 + 𝜔𝑛2 )

Equating coefficients

Giving; A=K, B= -K, and C= -2𝜁 ωn K

Substituting back into equation 12

Completing the square

The terms in the brackets { } can be written in the standard forms 10 and 9 in
Table

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Inverse transform

It can be simplified to give

Eq.13

When 𝜁 =0

It can be seen that when there is no damping, a step input will cause the system
to oscillate continuously at ωn

Damped natural frequency ωd

From equation 13, when 0 < 𝜁 > 1, the frequency of transient oscillation is given
by

where ωd is called the damped natural frequency, hence equation 13 can be

written as

Where:

When 𝜁 =1, the unit step response is

and when 𝜁 > 1, the unit step response from equation 10 is given by

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The generalized second-order system response to a unit step input is shown in

the following figure for the condition K=1

Step response analysis and performance specification

Step response analysis
It is possible to identify the mathematical model of an underdamped second-
order system from its step response function. Consider a unity-gain (K = 1)
second-order underdamped system responding to an input of the form
xi (t) = B
The resulting output xo(t) would be as shown in the following figure. There are
two methods for calculating the damping ratio.

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Method (a): Percentage Overshoot of first peak

Now

Thus,

Since the frequency of transient oscillation is ωd, then,

Substituting Ʈ equation into %Overshoot equation

Eq. 14
Method (b): Logarithmic decrement. Consider the ratio of successive peaks al
and a2

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Hence

This equation can only be used if the damping is light and there is more than
one overshoot.
Step response performance specification
The three parameters shown in the following figure are used to specify
performance in the time domain.

(a) Rise time tr: The shortest time to achieve the final or steady-state value,
for the first time. This can be 100% rise time as shown, or the time taken
for example from 10% to 90% of the final value, thus allowing for non-
overshoot response.

(b) Overshoot: The relationship between the percentage overshoot and

damping ratio is given in equation 14. For a control system an overshoot
of between 0 and 10% (1 < 𝜁 > 0.6) is generally acceptable.

(c) Settling time ts: This is the time for the system output to settle down to
within a tolerance band of the final value, normally between +2 or 5%.
Using 2% value, from the previous figure

Invert

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Take natural logs

giving

The term (1/𝜁 ωn) is sometimes called the equivalent time constant Tc for a
second-order system.
Note that In50 (2% tolerance) is 3.9, and ln20 (5% tolerance) is 3.0.
Response of higher-order systems
Transfer function techniques can be used to calculate the time response of
higher-order systems.

Example 3.9
The following figure shows, in block diagram form, the transfer functions for a
resistance thermometer and a valve connected together. The input xi(t) is
temperature and the output Xo(t) is valve position. Find an expression for the unit
step response function when there are zero initial conditions.

Solution

Note that the second-order term in equation (3.76) has had the 'square' completed
since its roots are complex (b 2 < 4ac). Equate equations (3.75) and (3.76) and
multiply both sides by s(s + 0.5)(s 2 + s + 25).

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Equating coefficients

Solving the four simultaneous equations

A= l , B = -1.01 , C = 0.01, D= -0.5
Substituting back into equation (3.76) gives

Inverse transform

Equation (3.79) shows that the third-order transient response contains both first-
order and second-order elements whose time constants and equivalent time
constants are 2 seconds, i.e. a transient period of about 8 seconds. The second-
order element has a predominate negative sine term, and a damped natural
frequency of 4.97 rad/s. The time response is shown in the following figure.

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Example 3.10
Determine the values of 𝜁 and ωn and also expressions for the unit step response
for the systems represented by the following second-order transfer functions

Solution

Example 3.11
When a unity gain second-order system is subjected to a unit step input, its
transient response contains a first overshooting of 77%, occurring after 32.5 ms
has elapsed. Find
a) The damped natural frequency.
b) The damping ratio.
c) The undamped natural frequency
d) The system transfer function.
e) The time to settle down to within ± 2% of the final value.
Solution

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Example 3.12
A torsional spring of stiffness K, a mass of moment of inertia I and a fluid damper
with damping coefficient C are connected together as shown in the following
figure. The angular displacement of the free end of the spring is θi (t) and the
angular displacement of the mass and damper is θo(t).
a) Develop the transfer function relating θi(t) and θo(t).
b) Find an expression for the time response of θo(t). if the time relationship for
θi(t) is given by θi(t) = 4t then. Assume zero initial condition.

Solution

Example 3.13
A system consists of a first-order element linked to a second-order system
element without interaction. The first-order element has a time constant of 5
seconds and a steady-state gain constant of a 0.2. The second-order system
element has an undamped natural frequency of 4 rad/s, a damping ratio of 0.25
and a steady-state gain constant of unity. If a step input function of 10 units is
applied to the system, find an expression for the time response. Assume zero
initial conditions.
Solution

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References
[1] R. S. Burns, “Advanced Control Engineering”, 1st ed., 2001.
[2] N. Nise, “Control Systems Engineering”, 7th ed., 2015.

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