PHY Unit 6

Definitions and Concepts for Edexcel (IAL) Physics A-level
Unit 6: Practical Skills in Physics II
Accuracy: A measure of how close a measurement is to the true value.
Absolute Uncertainty: Uncertainty given as a fixed quantity e.g. 7 ±0.6 V.
Calibration: Comparing the reading of one instrument with another of known accuracy.
Making sure that a scale reads zero before measurements are made is also an example of
calibration.
Control Variable: Any factor that is held constant (or controlled) in a scientific experiment.
Dependent Variable: The variable that is being measured or tested in an experiment.
Fair Test: One in which only the independent variable has been allowed to affect the
dependent variable.
Gradient: The change in the y-axis value over the change in the x-axis value between two
points. If the graph is curved, a tangent can be drawn to calculate the gradient at a specific
point.
Independent Variable: The variable that is altered in a scientific experiment in order to affect
the dependent variable.
Micrometer Screw Gauge: A tool used for very accurate measurements of distance. They
have a resolution of 0.01mm, and a range of 25mm.
Percentage Uncertainty: Uncertainty as a percentage of the measurement e.g. 7 ±8.6% V.
Precision: A measure of how close a measurement is to the mean value. It only gives an
indication of the magnitude of random errors, not how close data is to the true value.
Random Error: The unpredictable variation in a measurement. These can be reduced by

taking many repeated measurements and calculating their mean.
Range of an Instrument: The range of values that a tool can measure with its specified
resolution.
Resolution: The smallest change in a quantity that causes a visible change in the reading
that a measuring instrument records.
Sensitivity: The smallest change of input that can be detected by an instrument.

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SI Units: The standard units used in equations. They are: metres, kilograms, seconds, amps,
Kelvin and moles.
Significant Figures: A measure of a measurement’s resolution. All numbers except zero are
counted as a significant figure. When zeros are found immediately after a decimal place, they
too are counted.
Systematic Error: Causes all readings to differ from the true value by a fixed amount.
Systematic error cannot be corrected by repeat readings, instead a different technique or
apparatus should be used.
Uncertainty: The bounds in which the accurate value can be expected to lie e.g. for 20°C ±
2°C, the true value could be within 18-22°C.
Variable: Any factors that can change or be changed.
Vernier Calipers: A tool used for accurate measurements of distance. They have a
resolution of 0.1mm, and a range of 300mm.
Edexcel Physics IAL
Core Practical 9: Investigate the Effect of
Force on an Object’s Change of
Momentum
Practical Notes
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Core Practical 9: Investigate the Relationship Between the Force
Exerted on an Object and its Change of Momentum
Equipment
● Trolley
● Slotted masses and hanger
● Bench pulley
● String
● Light gate
● Metre ruler
● Stop clock
● Runway
● Mass balance
Method
1. Attach the bench pulley to one end of the runway and position it so that this end
hangs off the edge of the bench.
2. Secure the mass hanger to one end of the string and attach the other end to the
trolley - pass the string over the pulley so that the trolley is on the runway and the
mass hanger is sitting on the floor.
3. Move the trolley up the runway so the string becomes taut, but ensure the mass
hanger remains touching the floor.
4. Pull the trolley further back up the runway until the mass hanger is lifted up to the
pulley - add the five 10g masses to the trolley and hold it in place.
5. Release the trolley and start the stop clock - record the time it takes to reach the
light gate (when the mass hanger reaches the floor) - record this time as T.
6. Also record them time reading given by the light gate - this is denoted by t.
7. Transfer a 10g mass from the trolley onto the mass hanger and repeat the process
until all the masses are on the hanger. Each time, record the mass on the hanger,
m.
8. Measure the distance that the trolley travels - this is denoted by d.
9. Measure the length of the interrupt card - this is denoted by L.
10. Use a mass balance to measure the mass of the trolley, string, masses and mass
hanger - this is denoted by M.
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Calculations
● Theory suggests that: Change in Momentum = Force x Time.
■ Change in momentum in this case is Mv, where v is the velocity of the
trolley as it passes through the light gate and is given by L/t.
■ The force is mg, since it is the masses on the mass hanger that are
providing the force.
■ Combining this produces Mv = mgT.
● Plot a graph of mT against v, and draw a line of best fit.
■ The gradient is equal to mT/v and so compare this value to your
calculated value for M/g.
Tips
● The runway should be slightly inclined to compensate for the friction between the
trolley and track.
● The graph you plot should form a straight line that passes through the origin.
● To develop the analysis further, error bars and the steepest and shallowest lines
that pass through these bars can be drawn on - the gradients of these two lines can
then be calculated, and if your value for M/g lies within these two gradients, it can
be concluded that Newton’s second law is being observed.
Safety Precautions
● Don’t stand underneath the mass hanger since it can cause injury if it falls.
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Edexcel Physics A-level
CP09 - Investigating Change in
Momentum
Practical Flashcards
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Why should the runway be tilted when
carrying out this experiment?
Why should the runway be tilted when carrying out
this experiment?
As the trolley travels along the runway,

friction will act. To compensate for this,
the runway should be tilted.
How would friction affect your results?
How would friction affect your results?
Friction reduces the resultant force
acting on the trolley. This will cause the
velocity of the trolley as it passes
through the light gate to be smaller, and
result in a shallower gradient to your
graph.
Suggest how friction could further be
reduced when carrying out this
experiment.
Suggest how friction could further be reduced when
carrying out this experiment.
An air track could be used to reduce the

contact and therefore friction.
Describe how the start position of the
trolley is determined.
Describe how the start position of the trolley is
determined.
The trolley should be pulled up the

runway until the mass hanger is just
touching the pulley.
How should the light-gate be positioned
in this experiment?
How should the light-gate be positioned in this
experiment?
The trolley should be pulled up the runway
until the mass hanger is just touching the
floor, but the string is still taught. The
light-gate should then be positioned so it is in
the centre of the trolley’s interrupt card.
What components should be included
when measuring the mass of the whole
system?
What components should be included when
measuring the mass of the whole system?
The mass of the whole system (M) is

equal to the sum of masses of the trolley,
slotted masses, mass hanger and string.
Suggest two ways that the distance
travelled by the trolley could be
measured.
Suggest two ways that the distance travelled by the
trolley could be measured.
The distance (d) can be given by the

length travelled along the runaway or by
the length that the mass hanger falls.
How is the time over which the force acts
on the trolley measured?
How is the time over which the force acts on the
trolley measured?
A stop-clock should be used to measure

the time (T) between the trolley being
released and the masses striking the
ground.
How is the force acting on the trolley
determined?
How is the force acting on the trolley determined?
The force is equal to the weight of the

masses and mass hanger:
F = mg
What is the momentum of the trolley
equal to when it reaches the light gate?
What is the momentum of the trolley equal to when it
reaches the light gate?
Momentum = Mass of System x Velocity

p = Mv
How do you calculate the trolley’s
velocity as it passes through the
light-gate?
How do you calculate the trolley’s velocity as it
passes through the light-gate?
The distance travelled through the light-gate
will equal the length of the interrupt card (L).
This can be combined with the time it takes
to pass through the light-gate (t) to give:
v=L/t
What is the change of momentum that
the system undergoes?
What is the change of momentum that the system
undergoes?
The initial momentum of the system is

zero since it is initially at rest. This
means the change of momentum is
equal to the final momentum (Mv).
What equation is obtained when
equating the impulse to the system’s
change of momentum?
What equation is obtained when equating the
impulse to the system’s change of momentum?
Ft = Δmv
mgT = Mv
How can the uncertainties in your time
readings (t and T) be obtained?
How can the uncertainties in your time readings (t
and T) be obtained?
The uncertainties in t and T are given by

halving the range of the repeat readings
for each of them.
Explain what graph can be plotted to
compare your experimental value of M/g
to the theoretical value.
Explain what graph can be plotted to compare your
experimental value of M/g to the theoretical value.
A graph of mT against v can be plotted.

The gradient of this graph will be mT/v
and can be compared with the
theoretical value for M/g.
What safety precautions should be taken
when carrying out this experiment?
What safety precautions should be taken when
The masses travelling with the trolley
should be attached to it securely to avoid
them falling off during motion. You should
also avoid standing with your feet near the
mass hanger.
Explain how the conservation of energy
could be applied in this experiment.
Explain how the conservation of energy could be
applied in this experiment.
The system starts at rest, with gravitational
potential energy. As the masses fall, this
GPE is converted into kinetic energy. Note
that work will also be done against resistive
forces.
How could multiple light-gates be
implemented to improve this
experiment?
How could multiple light-gates be implemented to
improve this experiment?
A light-gate could also be added to the
start. This will remove the need to measure
the time T using a stop-clock, and so will
reduce the uncertainty due to human
reaction time.
How can the uncertainty in your gradient
value be calculated?
How can the uncertainty in your gradient value be
calculated?
The difference in gradients between the lines
of best and worst fit can be divided by the
gradient of your line of best fit. This value
can then be multiplied by 100% to produce
the percentage uncertainty.
Edexcel Physics IAL
Core Practical 10: Analysing Collisions
Between Small Spheres
Practical Notes
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Core Practical 10: Use ICT to Analyse Collisions Between Small
Spheres, e.g. ball bearings on a table top
Equipment:
● Small spheres
● Video camera and tripod
● Ruler
● Vernier Callipers
● Mass balance
Method
1. Record the masses, m, of the two spheres using a mass balance then place them on a level table
top.
2. Position two metre rulers perpendicular to each other using a set square.
3. Position a video camera above the table top (bird’s eye view) and start camera recording.
4. Roll one sphere towards the stationary sphere and allow them to collide and roll.
5. Stop recording when both spheres come to rest.
6. Import video to tracking software, and calibrate distance and a 90o angle using the metre rulers.
7. Go through each frame of the video, use the rulers to calculate the distance travelled and calculate
the time between each frame.
8. Calculate the initial and final velocity of the spheres using Pythagoras Theorem:
√(V
2 2
V = x) + (V y )
where Vx is the horizontal component of velocity and Vy is the vertical
9. Angle of travel of the two speeds calculated using trigonometry or calculated by the software
10. Use velocities to find the initial and final momentums in both the horizontal and vertical plane and
show if momentum is conserved in the two collisions
Horizontal Plane: m1 U x1 + m2 U x2 = m1 V x1 + m2 V x2
Vertical Plane: m1 U y1 + m2 U y2 = m1 V y1 + m2 V y2
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Safety
● Low energy collisions used, no major hazard.
Notes
● Uncertainty in velocity comes from half the range of repeat readings.
● Friction cannot be accounted for in 2D.
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Edexcel Physics IAL
CP10 - Analysing Collisions Between
Small Spheres
(using video analysis)

What is momentum?
What is momentum?
Momentum of an object is the product of

its mass and velocity. Momentum is
always conserved in a collision.
How could the diameter of a sphere be
measured?
How could the diameter of a sphere be measured?
The diameter of a sphere could be

measured using a screw gauge
micrometer or a vernier calliper.
How can you determine whether
momentum is conserved using
momentum vectors?
How can you determine whether momentum is
conserved using momentum vectors?
You can construct a momentum vector

triangle. If the vectors form a closed
triangle, momentum is conserved.
When using the velocity overlay feature
on Tracker, how can you analyse
momentum?
When using the velocity overlay feature on Tracker,
how can you analyse momentum?
The velocity overlay feature will produce

velocities. To convert these into
momentums, you need to multiply by
mass.
What two pieces of information about the
velocities do you need to record?
What two pieces of information about the velocities
do you need to record?
Velocity is a vector quantity and so both

the magnitude and direction need to be
recorded. The direction can be
expressed as an angle.
Why should the surface be slightly
angled?
Why should the surface be slightly angled?
There will be friction between the

spheres and the surface. By tilting the
surface at an angle, this can be
compensated for.
Why may glass marbles not be suitable
for this experiment?
Why may glass marbles not be suitable for this
experiment?
The edges of a glass marble may not be

clear when recorded on a camera. This
may reduce the accuracy of your results.
How should the camera be positioned?
How should the camera be positioned?
The camera must be positioned so that it

has a wide enough field of view to catch
the tracks of the spheres both before and
after the collision.
What is an elastic collision?
What is an elastic collision?
An elastic collision is one in which kinetic

energy is conserved.
How can you determine if momentum is
conserved through calculation?
How can you determine if momentum is conserved
through calculation?
The x and y planes should be considered
separately. The initial momentum should equal
the final momentum in both planes if momentum
is conserved.
m₁U₁ₓ + m₂U₂ₓ = m₁V₁ₓ + m₂V₂ₓ (likewise for y)
How can the uncertainty in your velocity
readings be calculated?
How can the uncertainty in your velocity readings be
calculated?
The uncertainty in each velocity value

can be considered to be equal to half the
range of the repeat readings.
If you know the separate x and y
components of velocity, how can the
overall velocity be calculated?
If you know the separate x and y components of
velocity, how can the overall velocity be calculated?
Pythagoras theorem can be used:
If you know the separate x and y
components of velocity, how can the
direction of the overall velocity be
calculated?
If you know the separate x and y components of
velocity, how can the direction of the overall velocity
be calculated?
Trigonometry can be used to obtain the

angle.
tanθ =Vᵧ/Vₓ
Edexcel Physics IAL
Core Practical 11: Charging and
Discharging Capacitors
Practical Notes
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Core Practical 11: Use an oscilloscope or data logger to display and
analyse the potential difference (p.d.) across a capacitor as it charges
and discharges through a resistor
Equipment
● Electrolytic capacitor
● Non-electrolytic capacitor
● Resistors
● Multimeter
● Power supply
● Two-way switch
● Oscilloscope
● Stop clock
● Signal generator
Method (Time Constant):

1. Record the value of the resistor, R using the multimeter, and the emf of the battery
using the oscilloscope.
2. Set up the below circuit using 100µF capacitor and a 470kΩ resistor.
3. Switch the switch to the position shown in the diagram so that the capacitor charges
up, and record the potential difference, V₀.
4. Switch the switch to the opposite position and start the stop clock.
5. Use the lap function and record the time it takes for the voltage to drop by 0.5V until
the capacitor has fully discharged.
Calculations
● Plot a graph of voltage against time for the discharging of the capacitor, and use it
to determine the time constant of the capacitor.
● The capacitance of the capacitor can then be worked out using:
■ Capacitance = Time Constant/Resistance
■ The resistance in this case is 470x10³Ω
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Method (Changing Resistance):
1. Set the square wave supply to produce a 50Hz 3V wave and attach it to the
oscilloscope - adjust the controls as necessary so the waveform is clear.
2. Leave the settings as they are, and disconnect the supply from the oscilloscope.
3. Connect the supply in series with a 5µF capacitor and 1.2kΩ resistor and then
attach the oscilloscope across the resistor so it reads the potential difference.
4. Sketch the trace with voltage and time scales.
5. Switch off the square wave supply and replace the resistor with a 470Ω on - turn the
supply back on and sketch the new trace.
6. Repeat this process with a 2.2kΩ resistor.
Safety Precautions
● Ensure you don’t use a supply voltage greater than the voltage rating of the
capacitor.
● Disconnect the supply when not taking measurements to reduce the likelihood of
the components overheating.
How to Read an Oscilloscope
Oscilloscopes show the variation of voltage with time, however it is possible to turn off
the time-base, which will cause the trace to show all the possible voltages at any time
in one area, this is useful for taking measurements. For a direct current, the trace will
show a straight line parallel to the axis, at the height of the output voltage. If the time-base
is turned off, then only a dot will be seen on the screen, at the height of the output voltage.
For an alternating current, the trace will show a repeating sinusoidal waveform which
shows the variation of output voltage with time. If the time-base is switched off, then a
straight vertical line will appear on the screen, showing all the possible voltages.
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An oscilloscope will have a fixed grid on its display, you can adjust the scale of both axes
to make measurements easier. To change the scale of the Y-axis, select the number of
volts per division using a Y-gain control dial which will be marked on the oscilloscope. To
change the scale of the X-axis, adjust the time base.
In order to take measurements from an oscilloscope count the number of divisions

(adjusting the axes to make this easier), and multiply them by either the volts per division
or the time base, depending on what you are measuring:
1. Time period (T) - distance from one point on a curve e.g its peak, to the point
where the curve repeats, in this example when it reaches the next peak. You can
find the frequency of the waveform by using the formula: f = T1 .
2. Amplitude - distance from the equilibrium to the highest (or lowest) point.
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Edexcel Physics IAL
CP11 - Capacitor Charging and
Discharging

What must always be checked when
using an electrolytic capacitor in a
circuit?
What must always be checked when using an
electrolytic capacitor in a circuit?
The electrolytic capacitor is a polarised
component and so must be connected with
the correct polarity in the circuit. If connected
incorrectly, it can overheat and perhaps
explode, thus becoming a safety hazard.
State the equation used to calculate the
time constant of a resistor-capacitor
circuit.
State the equation used to calculate the time
constant of a resistor-capacitor circuit.
Time Constant = Resistance x

Capacitance
𝛕 = RC
What information does the time constant
tell us?
What information does the time constant tell us?
The time constant tells us how long it

takes for the capacitor to charge to 63%
of full capacity, as well as how long it
takes for it to discharge to 37% of full
capacity.
State the equation that shows how the
potential difference across a capacitor
varies with time as it discharges.
State the equation that shows how the potential
difference across a capacitor varies with time as it
discharges.
Where V₀ is the initial pd across the capacitor.

What graph can be plotted to confirm
that the change in the potential
difference, across a capacitor as it
discharges, follows an exponential decay
trend?
What graph can be plotted to confirm that the
change in the potential difference, across a capacitor
as it discharges, follows an exponential decay trend?
A graph of ln(V/V₀) against t can be

plotted. This should form a straight line
graph.
When plotting a discharge graph of
ln(V/V₀) against t, how can the time
constant of the capacitor be found?
When plotting a discharge graph of ln(V/V₀) against t,
how can the time constant of the capacitor be found?
The graph will have an equation of

ln(V) = ln(V₀) - t/RC
and so the time constant (RC) is given
by -1/gradient
What is the benefit of doing a trial
discharge before carrying out this
experiment in full?
What is the benefit of doing a trial discharge before
carrying out this experiment in full?
A trial discharge with your chosen values of
R and C allows you to choose a suitable
time interval to take recordings at,
depending on how quickly the capacitor
discharges.
State the equation that shows how the
potential difference across a capacitor
varies with time as it charges.
State the equation that shows how the potential
difference across a capacitor varies with time as it
charges.
Where V₀ is the pd across the fully-charged capacitor.

What is the maximum voltage that you
should use in this experiment?
What is the maximum voltage that you should use in
this experiment?
Capacitors have voltage ratings - the

voltage you use should not exceed this
value.
How can the time constant of a
discharging capacitor be measured using
an oscilloscope and stop-clock?
How can the time constant of a discharging capacitor
be measured using an oscilloscope and stop-clock?
Use the lap function on the stop-clock to record

the times that the voltage falls to predetermined
values on the oscilloscope. This data can then be
plotted on a graph to determine the time
constant.
What is the advantage of using the
lap-function, rather than just writing the
time down at each voltage interval?
What is the advantage of using the lap-function,
rather than just writing the time down at each voltage
interval?
Using the lap-function avoids you having to
continually look between the screens of the
oscilloscope and the stop-clock. This
should result in lower uncertainties.
What measuring device could be used to
measure the resistance of an unknown
resistor?
What measuring device could be used to measure
the resistance of an unknown resistor?
You could measure the unknown

resistance of a resistor with a multimeter
or ohmmeter.
How can you determine the length of
your error bars for time?
How can you determine the length of your error bars
for time?
The length that your error bars should be can be
determined by picking a mid-range time
measurement and calculating the range of the
repeat potential difference readings at that time.
This range should be used as the error bar length
(half the range on either side).
Edexcel Physics IAL
Core Practical 12: Calibrating a
Thermistor in a Potential Divider Circuit
Practical Notes
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Core Practical 12: Calibrate a thermistor in a potential divider circuit as
a thermostat
Equipment
● Thermistor
● Ohmmeter
● Kettle
● Alcohol thermometer
● Variable resistor
● Ice
● Beaker
Method
1. Set up a circuit with the resistor and thermistor in series, and with the ohmmeter
attached across the thermistor.
2. Pour boiling water into the beaker and carefully submerge the thermistor.
3. Record the initial temperature using a thermometer, and record the corresponding
resistance from the ohmmeter.
4. Gradually add in small quantities of ice, stir and then record the new temperature
and resistance.
5. Repeat until all the ice has been used up and the water is below room temperature.
Calculations
● Plot a graph of resistance against temperature - this is known as a calibration curve.
● Use the curve to determine the resistance at the desired switch on temperature and
then use:
R1
■ V out = V in ( R1 +R2
)
● Construct a potential divider circuit, with the required second resistance to produce
the desired Vout.
Tips
● You can test how successful you have been by heating water up to the required
switch on temperature and measuring the resistance over the thermistor at that
temperature.
Safety Precautions
● Take care when pouring boiling water.
● Don’t touch the beaker when the water temperature is high.
● Keep electrical connections away from the water, and clean up any spillages
immediately.
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Edexcel Physics IAL
CP12 - Calibrating a Thermistor in a
Potential Divider Circuit

How does the resistance of a NTC
thermistor vary with temperature?
How does the resistance of a NTC thermistor vary
with temperature?
As temperature increases, the resistance

of the NTC thermistor will decrease.
What formula is used to calculate the
resistance of a thermistor as temperature
varies?
What formula is used to calculate the resistance of a
thermistor as temperature varies?
What is the advantage of taking
logarithms before plotting the graph?
What is the advantage of taking logarithms before
plotting the graph?
Taking logarithms will result in a straight

line graph that is easier to plot and take
readings from than an exponential curve.
Why should you avoid heating the water
too quickly?
Why should you avoid heating the water too quickly?
The thermistor and thermometer will

have thermal inertia. If you try to heat the
water too quickly, the temperature of the
thermistor and thermometer won’t be the
same as that of the water.
What is the advantage of heating the
water very slowly when carrying out this
experiment?
What is the advantage of heating the water very
slowly when carrying out this experiment?
By heating the water very slowly, you are

allowing the thermistor and thermometer
to become as close in temperature to the
water as possible.
when using a bunsen burner?
What safety precautions should be taken when using
a bunsen burner?
● Hair and loose clothing should be tied back.
● A heatproof mat should be used to protect the work
bench.
● The safety flame should be used when not directly heating
the water.
● Avoid touching non-insulated regions during and
immediately after use, as they will be very hot.
What is the added risk when using wires
near a bunsen burner?
What is the added risk when using wires near a
bunsen burner?
The plastic coating on wires could melt if
caught in the bunsen burner flame. You
must ensure that loose wires don’t get
close to the flame or touch any hot
apparatus.
What does a potential divider do?
What does a potential divider do?
A potential divider is an arrangement that

allows a desired output voltage to be
generated by producing the required
ratio of resistances in the thermistor and
the ordinary resistor.
How could you cool the thermistor down
to zero degrees in this experiment?
How could you cool the thermistor down to zero
degrees in this experiment?
The experiment can start with the thermistor
placed in a beaker of dominantly ice. This can
then be heated using a bunsen burner to
produce resistance measurements from 0°C
right up to 100°C (melting and evaporating
points of water).
When plotting a graph of ln(R) against
1/T, what will the y-intercept be?
When plotting a graph of ln(R) against 1/T, what will
the y-intercept be?
The graph will be of the form:

ln (R) = b/T + a
‘a’ is the y-intercept and will equal ln(R₀)
What should you do to ensure the
temperature of the water is constant
throughout the beaker?
What should you do to ensure the temperature of the
water is constant throughout the beaker?
You should use a stirrer to stir the water

before taking temperature readings.
What equation can be used to calculate
the output potential difference for a
potential divider circuit?
What equation can be used to calculate the output
potential difference for a potential divider circuit?
How should you take a reading from a
thermometer?
How should you take a reading from a thermometer?
Thermometer readings should be taken

at eye level to reduce parallax error.
Why is it important that the fixed resistor
value isn’t too high?
Why is it important that the fixed resistor value isn’t
too high?
If the fixed resistor is significantly larger than
the thermistor resistance, changes in
temperature won’t result in a significant enough
change in the output voltage. This makes it
harder to measure how the output changes.
Why is it important that the fixed resistor
value isn’t too low?
Why is it important that the fixed resistor value isn’t
too low?
If the fixed resistor value is too low, it may
result in the output voltage changing across
too large a range of values. This range may
exceed the range measurable using your
voltmeter.
Edexcel Physics IAL
Core Practical 13: Determine the Specific
Latent Heat of a Phase Change
Practical Notes
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Core Practical 13: Determine the specific latent heat of a phase change
Equipment
● 250cm³ beaker
● Thermometer
● Stirring rod
● Crushed ice
● Plastic container
● Funnel
Method
1. Place the funnel into the plastic container and pour the ice into the funnel.
2. Allow the ice to cool to 0°C - any ice that melts will be collected by the container.
3. Place the empty beaker onto the mass balance, and zero the reading so that it
reads 0g whilst the beaker is in place.
4. Pour around 100cm³ of water into the beaker and record the mass of the water
added, m.
5. At this stage, zero the balance again so that it now reads 0g whilst the beaker with
the water added is in place.
6. Use a thermometer to measure the initial temperature of the water and then add
around 20g of the 0°C ice into the beaker.
7. Stir the mixture until the ice melts, and record the lowest temperature that is
reached in the process - this should occur when the final pieces of ice melt.
8. Remove the thermometer and stirring rod, and record the new reading on the mass
balance - this is the mass of the ice added, M.
Calculations
● The heat lost as the ice melts is equal to the heat gained by the melted ice and
water:
■ mc(θ₁-θ₂) = ML + Mc(θ₂-0)
○ m = mass of water
○ M = mass of ice
○ c = specific heat capacity of water = 4.2 Jg⁻¹°C⁻¹
○ θ₁ = initial temperature of water
○ θ₂ = lowest temperature reached by water and ice
mixture
○ L = specific latent heat of ice
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Tips
● An accepted value for the specific latent heat of ice is 336Jg⁻¹.
● Throughout this experiment ensure you are working in grams to avoid the need for
standard form.
● The ice should be crushed finely so that it quickly melts.
Safety Precautions
● Ensure no water gets on the mass balance - wipe up any spillages immediately and
disconnect the device.
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Edexcel Physics IAL
CP13 - Determining the Specific Latent
Heat of a Phase Change

Define specific latent heat.
Define specific latent heat.
The specific latent heat of a substance is

the amount of energy required to change
the state of 1kg of the substance, without
changing its temperature.
What equation is used to determine the
energy required to change the state of a
substance?
What equation is used to determine the energy
required to change the state of a substance?
Q = mL
Where ‘Q’ is the energy required, ‘m’ is
the mass of the substance and ‘L’ is the
specific latent heat
Define specific heat capacity.
Define specific heat capacity.
The specific heat capacity of a

substance is the amount of energy
required to increase the temperature of
1kg of a substance by 1 degree, without
changing its state.
What equation is used to calculate the
energy required to increase the
temperature of a substance?
What equation is used to calculate the energy
required to increase the temperature of a
substance?
Q = mcΔT
Where ‘Q’ is the energy required, ‘m’ is the mass of
the substance,’c’ is the specific heat capacity and
‘ΔT’ is the change in temperature
At what moment will the ice-water
mixture reach its lowest temperature?
At what moment will the ice-water mixture reach its
lowest temperature?
The ice-water mixture will be at its lowest

temperature the moment that the last of
the ice melts.
How can you measure the initial mass of
water in the beaker?
How can you measure the initial mass of water in the
beaker?
Measure the mass of the empty beaker using a
mass balance. Add the water and then measure
the mass of the water and beaker combined.
Subtract the mass of the beaker from the
combined mass to obtain the mass of the water.
What is the heat balance equation for
this experiment?
What is the heat balance equation for this
experiment?
Heat lost from cooling water = Heat

required for state change + Heat gained
by ice
How will heat entering the system from
the surroundings affect the value of L?
How will heat entering the system from the
surroundings affect the value of L?
Heat entering the system will result in

your experimental value for L being too
high.
How can you reduce the effects of heat
from the surroundings in your
experiment?
How can you reduce the effects of heat from the
surroundings in your experiment?
Lagging can be added to the beaker to

insulate it and reduce heat addition from
the surroundings.
Why must the ice already be melting
when added to the water?
Why must the ice already be melting when added to
the water?
If the ice wasn’t already melting, the ice
would take in heat to increase its
temperature to 0°C before it would begin
melting. This heat is not accounted for in
our experiment.
Why is it advantageous for the ice to be
crushed up?
Why is it advantageous for the ice to be crushed up?
Crushed up ice will melt quicker than large

lumps. The quicker the ice melts, the shorter
the time available for heat to enter from the
surroundings. This reduces the error caused
by heat gain from the surroundings.
How should you separate the ice on the
point of melting, from the already melted
ice?
How should you separate the ice on the point of
melting, from the already melted ice?
When waiting for the ice to reach 0°C, it

should be placed in a funnel that is over
a beaker. This will separate the water
from the ice on the point of melting.
How does the subtraction of two
temperature values affect the
uncertainty?
How does the subtraction of two temperature values
affect the uncertainty?
When values are subtracted, their

individual uncertainties are added. This
means that subtracting temperature
values increases the overall uncertainty.
Why should you avoid adding too much
ice when carrying out this experiment?
Why should you avoid adding too much ice when
Adding too much ice will result in it taking

longer to melt. This means that more
heat will enter from the surroundings,
leading to less accurate results.
How can you calculate the percentage
difference between your value for L and
the accepted value?
How can you calculate the percentage difference
between your value for L and the accepted value?
[(Your Value - Accepted Value)/Accepted

Value] x 100%
If the ice has just been taken from the

freezer, care should be taken when
handling it. Spillages should be cleaned up
immediately to remove the risk of slipping.
Edexcel Physics IAL
Core Practical 14: Investigate the
Pressure and Volume of a Gas
Practical Notes
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Core Practical 14: Investigate the relationship between pressure and
volume of a gas at fixed temperature
Equipment
● Clamp stand
● 100 g masses and a mass holder
● String
● Syringe
● Tubing which fits tightly on the nozzle of the syringe
● Pinch clip
● Vernier calipers
Method
1. Take the plunger out of the syringe. Measure the syringe’s internal diameter using vernier
calipers and record this value.
2. Place the plunger back into the syringe and draw in 5 cm3 of air.
3. Without moving the plunger at all, place the tubing over the nozzle of the syringe and pinch
it shut using the pinch clip. Make sure that the pinch clip is as close to the nozzle as
possible.
4. Set up the clamp stand and attach the syringe to it so that the plunger is pointing
downwards, leaving quite a bit of space below the syringe.
5. Attach the string to the end of the plunger, leaving a loop. Then, attach the 100 g mass
holder to this loop.
6. Record the volume recorded by the syringe.
7. Add a 100 g mass to the holder and record the volume.
8. Repeat the above step until the total mass is 1000 g.
9. Repeat the whole procedure twice more and calculate the mean values of volume.
Calculations
● Calculate the cross-sectional area of the syringe in metres using the following equation:
2
A = πd4
● Calculate the force exerted by each of the recorded masses by calculating their weight:
W eight = m × g
Where m is the mass and g is the gravitational field strength, 9.81 Nkg-1.
● Using the equation P = F/A, calculate the total pressure exerted on the gas at each value of
force exerted.
● Total pressure is the sum of the pressure of the air sample and atmospheric pressure,
therefore to find the pressure of the air sample you must subtract the atmospheric pressure
(101 kPa) from your calculated values.
● Plot a graph of 1/V against the pressure of the air sample and draw a line of best fit.
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Safety
● Be careful when handling masses - if dropped they may cause injury.
● If the clamp stand is unstable, a counterweight placed on the base of the clamp stand can
be used to prevent it from falling over. Alternatively it can be clamped to the bench with a
G-clamp.
Notes
● Your line of best fit should form a straight line through the origin showing that 1/V and the
pressure of the air sample are directly proportional or, that V and the pressure of the air
sample are inversely proportional.
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Edexcel Physics IAL
CP14 - Investigating the Pressure and
Volume Relationships for a Gas

State Boyle’s Law.
State Boyle’s Law.
When kept at a constant temperature,

the pressure and volume of an ideal gas
are inversely proportional.
pV = Constant
State the value of the standard
atmospheric pressure in kPa.
State the value of the standard atmospheric
pressure in kPa.
101 kPa
Describe the relationship that should be
found when a graph of 1/V against P is
plotted.
Describe the relationship that should be found when
a graph of 1/V against P is plotted.
Pressure and volume are inversely

proportional so the graph of 1/V against
P should be a straight line that passes
through the origin.
Why should the volume be changed
slowly when carrying out this
experiment?
Why should the volume be changed slowly when
The volume should be changed slowly so
that the temperature remains approximately
constant during the volume change. The
temperature must be constant for Boyle’s
law to hold.
What piece of apparatus can be used to
measure the pressure in a sealed tube?
What piece of apparatus can be used to measure
the pressure in a sealed tube?
A Bourdon gauge can be connected to

the tube and pump to measure the
pressure.
What piece of apparatus can be used to
increase the pressure applied on the oil?
What piece of apparatus can be used to increase the
pressure applied on the oil?
A pump, such as a tyre pump, can be

used to increase the pressure applied to
the oil.
What happens to the air trapped by the
oil when the pressure exerted on the oil
increases?
What happens to the air trapped by the oil when the
pressure exerted on the oil increases?
As the pressure on the oil increases, the

air is compressed and its volume
decreases.
How can the volume of the air be
measured?
How can the volume of the air be measured?
If the sealed tube has a length scale, the
length of the column of air can be multiplied
by the circular area of the tube. This area can
be obtained by measured the diameter of the
tube using a micrometer, and substituting this
into the circular area equation.
Why would it not be suitable to take
volume measurements for decreasing
pressures rather than increasing
pressures?
Why would it not be suitable to take volume
measurements for decreasing pressures rather than
increasing pressures?
If the pressure on the oil was decreased, the oil
level would lower and the volume of the air would
increase. Some oil, however, will cling to the
sides of the tube, resulting in volume readings
that are larger than the true volume of the oil.
Describe the technique for measuring
the height of the oil.
Describe the technique for measuring the height of
the oil.
Measurements should be taken at

eye-level to the oil surface. For accurate
results, values should be read from the
bottom of the meniscus.
Explain why the air column length can be
used instead of the volume to prove
Boyle’s law in this experiment.
Explain why the air column length can be used
instead of the volume to prove Boyle’s law in this
experiment.
In this experiment we are looking to prove that P
and V are inversely proportional. V is directly
proportional to the column length (V=AL) and so
L can be used to prove the relationship, without
calculating volume.
How can the value of the constant be
determined?
How can the value of the constant be determined?
When plotting a graph of P against 1/V,

the constant will be given by the gradient
of the straight line.
The apparatus could break under high

pressures and so safety goggles should be
worn throughout. A safety screen could
also be used to provide further protection.
Edexcel Physics IAL
Core Practical 15: Investigate the
Absorption of Gamma Radiation by Lead
Practical Notes
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Core Practical 15: Investigate the absorption of gamma radiation by lead
Equipment
● Gamma source
● Long-handled tongs
● Geiger-Muller tube and counter
● Clamp stands
● Stop clock
● Lead sheets
● Vernier callipers
Method
1. Clamp the Geiger-Muller tube in place, and connect it to the counter.
2. Before the gamma source is brought into the room, measure the background count
over a period of five minutes and record the background count rate.
3. Using vernier callipers, measure the thicknesses of the lead sheets.
4. Bring in the gamma source, and position it around 15cm from the Geiger-Muller
tube, using long-handled tongs.
5. Measure the count over a period of 5 minutes, and record the count rate.
6. Clamp a lead sheet between the source and the Geiger-Muller tube, and record the
new count rate.
7. Repeat, adding an extra lead sheet each time, until the count rate drops to roughly
the recorded background count rate level.
Calculations
● The rate of radiation absorption by the lead is exponential and so follows the
equation:
■ C = C₀ e-μx
■ This can be rearranged into y=mx+c by taking logs
■ ln (C) = -μx + ln (C₀)
● This means if you plot a graph of ln(C) against x, the gradient will be -μ (a constant).
● The thickness of lead that reduces the count rate by half is known as the
half-thickness and can be calculated using:
■ Half-thickness = (ln2)/-gradient
■ The gradient value itself should be negative meaning the value
obtained from the above equation should be positive.
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Safety Precautions
● Always display a warning sign when working with radioactive sources.
● Never touch the source directly - always use long-handled tongs and an extended
arm to maximise the distance you are from the source.
● Only have the source out for the minimum time required to complete the
experiment.
● A teacher/technician should always be present when working with radioactive
sources.
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Edexcel Physics IAL
CP15 - Investigating the Absorption of
Gamma Radiation by Lead

What safety precautions must be taken
when working with a radioactive source?
What safety precautions must be taken when
working with a radioactive source?
● Limit the time of exposure
● Warning signs should be displayed so people are
aware that a radioactive source is in use
● Keep an arm’s length away at all times, and only
ever handle the source using long-handled tongs
How should a radioactive source be
handled safely?
How should a radioactive source be handled safely?
Long-handled tongs should be used to

handle a radioactive source, and you’re
torso should remain at least an arm’s
length away from it at all times.
How should a radioactive source be
stored safely?
How should a radioactive source be stored safely?
Radioactive sources should be locked

away in a sealed lead-lined container. A
hazard symbol should be visible on the
container as well as at the location
where it is stored.
What is the inverse square law of
radiation?
What is the inverse square law of radiation?
The intensity of radiation is inversely

proportional to the square of the distance
from the source. As the distance
doubles, the intensity quarters.
What device can be used to measure a
radioactive count rate?
What device can be used to measure a radioactive
count rate?
A Geiger Counter or Geiger-Muller Tube

connected to a scale.
Why is Cobalt-60 a suitable source for
this experiment?
Why is Cobalt-60 a suitable source for this
experiment?
Cobalt-60 is safe for use in schools and has a
half-life of around 5 years, meaning it can be
reused for a number of years. The activity is
low enough to be safe, but high enough for
measurements to be taken easily.
When measuring the count-rate, what
advantage comes with measuring over a
longer period of time?
When measuring the count-rate, what advantage
comes with measuring over a longer period of time?
The longer the period of time over which

it is recorded, the lower the uncertainty
will be.
What preliminary recording should be
taken before bringing the radioactive
source into the lab?
What preliminary recording should be taken before
bringing the radioactive source into the lab?
Before bringing the radioactive source

into the lab, the background radiation
count should be taken.
How should the background radiation
count be accounted for in the
experimental data?
How should the background radiation count be
accounted for in the experimental data?
The background count should be

subtracted from the counts for each lead
block thickness, to produce corrected
counts (C’).
How do you convert from a count to a
count rate for a given lead block
thickness?
How do you convert from a count to a count rate for
a given lead block thickness?
The count should be divided by the

length of time over which it was taken to
ascertain the count rate.
What preliminary experiment could you
carry out with the source before
commencing this experiment?
What preliminary experiment could you carry out
with the source before commencing this experiment?
Recordings could be taken to find the

maximum thickness of lead for which you
can still get a reasonable count.
Why may an old gamma source be
unsuitable for this experiment?
Why may an old gamma source be unsuitable for
this experiment?
Depending on the source’s half-life and its
age, the activity of the source may have fallen
to a level that is too low to obtain easily
recordable counts over a large enough range
of lead block thicknesses.
What is meant by the term
‘half-thickness’?
What is meant by the term ‘half-thickness’?
The half-thickness is the thickness of

lead required to reduce the count rate to
half the initial value.
Describe the nature of radioactive decay.
Describe the nature of radioactive decay.
Radioactive decay is a random process,

meaning you cannot predict which nuclei
will decay next or when the next decay
will occur
Why should repeat readings be taken?
Why should repeat readings be taken?
Calculating the average count rate over

several repeat readings, for each lead
block thickness, will allow you to mitigate
the effect of any random fluctuations in
radioactive decay activity.
How can you estimate the uncertainty of
your data using your repeat readings?
How can you estimate the uncertainty of your data
using your repeat readings?
The uncertainty for each thickness can

be estimated as being half the range of
your repeat readings.
What equation shows how the count rate
will change with thickness?
What equation shows how the count rate will change
with thickness?
How can the thickness of the lead sheets
be measured?
How can the thickness of the lead sheets be
measured?
The thickness of the sheets can be
measured using vernier callipers or a
micrometer. It should be measured in a
number of places to allow an average
thickness to be calculated.
Suggest a suitable graph to plot with the
data you collect.
Suggest a suitable graph to plot with the data you
collect.
A graph of ln(C) against thickness can be
plotted. This should give a straight line
graph of the form:
Describe the gradient of a graph of ln(C)
against lead thickness.
Describe the gradient of a graph of ln(C) against
lead thickness.
The gradient should be equal to -μ,

which is a constant. This means the
graph should be a straight line with a
constant negative gradient.
Edexcel Physics IAL
Core Practical 16: Determine Unknown
Masses Using Resonant Frequencies
Practical Notes
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Core Practical 16: Determine the value of an unknown mass using the
resonant frequencies of the oscillation of known masses
Equipment
● Spring
● Slotted masses and mass hanger
● Clamp stand
● Stop clock
● Mass balance
● Unknown mass
● G-clamp
● Splint
Method
1. Set up the clamp stand with the spring and mass hanger attached - clamp the stand
to the desk using a G-clamp to secure it in place.
2. Attach a splint to the clamp stand at the springs equilibrium position - this is going to
be used as a marker to improve the accuracy of your measurements.
3. Attach a mass onto the mass hanger, pull the spring down to a fixed position
(marked using another splint) and then release the spring and measure the time
taken for 10 oscillations.
4. Repeat the process three times for each mass, and calculate an average time
period.
5. Repeat the above steps for a range of different known masses by adding an extra
mass to the mass hanger each time.
6. Repeat the process with the unknown mass and calculate the average value for the
time period, and square it to produce a t² value.
Calculations
● Plot a graph of t² against mass and draw a line of best fit for the points.
● This should form a straight line, since t² is proportional to mass:
■ t² = m (k/4π²)
■ k/4π² is a constant and is equal to the gradient of your graph
● Your graph can then be used to read off the predicted mass for the t² value of the
unknown mass.
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Tips
● Ensure the spring returns to its original length once all masses are removed - if it
doesn’t it has undergone plastic deformation and the results may be invalid.
● One oscillation is the time it takes to pass from maximum displacement to minimum
displacement and then back to maximum displacement.
● You can only estimate masses in the range of the plotted graph points - any
masses outside this region will involve extrapolation and the result may be invalid.
Safety Precautions
● Wear safety glasses in case the spring snaps.
● Avoid standing underneath the hanging masses in case they fall and cause injury.
● Ensure the clamp stand is securely clamped to the bench to prevent it tipping.
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Edexcel Physics IAL
CP16 - Determining the Value of an
Unknown Mass Using the Resonant
Frequencies
State Hooke’s Law in words.
State Hooke’s Law in words.
The extension of a spring is directly

proportional to the force applied to it, up
to the limit of proportionality.
State the defining equation for Hooke’s
Law.
State the defining equation for Hooke’s Law.
Force (N) = Spring Constant (Nm-1) x

Extension (m)
F = kx
If a mass is hung from a spring, how
does the value of the mass relate to the
spring’s extension?
If a mass is hung from a spring, how does the value
of the mass relate to the spring’s extension?
mg = kx
m = kx/g
State the equation used to calculate the
time period of a simple mass-spring
oscillator.
State the equation used to calculate the time period
of a simple mass-spring oscillator.
Describe how the time period of a simple
mass-spring oscillator varies with the
length of the spring.
Describe how the time period of a simple
mass-spring oscillator varies with the length of the
spring.
The time period of a mass-spring
oscillator is independent of the length of
the spring. It only depends on the mass
and the spring constant.
When hanging a mass-spring system
from a clamp stand, what safety
precaution should be taken?
When hanging a mass-spring system from a clamp
stand, what safety precaution should be taken?
A counterweight or G-clamp should be

used to provide a counter moment on the
clamp stand to prevent it toppling.
What safety precaution should be taken
when adding masses to a spring?
What safety precaution should be taken when
adding masses to a spring?
Safety goggles should be worn in case the

spring snaps. It is also important to ensure
you never stand with your feet directly
below the masses in case they fall.
What is the difference between free and
forced oscillations?
What is the difference between free and forced
oscillations?
Free oscillations occur without a continual

driving force. Forced oscillations occur
when energy is continually added to the
system, such as by a driving oscillator.
How should you measure the time period
of an oscillating mass-spring system?
How should you measure the time period of an
oscillating mass-spring system?
Measure the time taken for the system to complete
10 full oscillations. Repeat this measurement three
times and then calculate an average time. Divide
this average by 10 to produce the average time
period for one oscillation.
What could be added to your apparatus
to help measure the time period
accurately?
What could be added to your apparatus to help
measure the time period accurately?
A fiducial marker, such as a small pin,
could be added at the centre of
oscillation to assist your eye in seeing
precisely where an oscillation has been
completed.
What graph could be plotted to allow you
to quantify the size of a mass attached to
a spring, from its period of oscillation?
What graph could be plotted to allow you to quantify
the size of a mass attached to a spring, from its
period of oscillation?
A graph of T2 against m can be plotted using
your experimental data. The time period of
the unknown mass can then be squared and
matched with a value for mass from your
graph.
How could a data logger be used in this
experiment?
How could a data logger be used in this experiment?
A data logger could be connected to a

motion sensor. This could be positioned
below the mass hanger to measure the
time period and extension of the spring.

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Definitions and Concepts for Edexcel (IAL) Physics A-level

Unit 6: Practical Skills in Physics II

Accuracy: ​A measure of how close a measurement is to the true value.

Absolute Uncertainty: ​Uncertainty given as a fixed quantity e.g. 7 ±0.6 V.

Dependent Variable:​ ​The variable that is being measured or tested in an experiment.

Percentage Uncertainty: ​Uncertainty as a percentage of the measurement e.g. 7 ±8.6% V.

Random Error: ​The unpredictable variation in a measurement. These can be reduced by

Sensitivity:​ The smallest change of input that can be detected by an instrument.

Variable: ​Any factors that can change or be changed.

PMT Education is licensed under https://bit.ly/pmt-cc

As the trolley travels along the runway,

An air track could be used to reduce the

The trolley should be pulled up the

The mass of the whole system (M) is

The distance (d) can be given by the

A stop-clock should be used to measure

The force is equal to the weight of the

Momentum = Mass of System x Velocity

The initial momentum of the system is

The uncertainties in t and T are given by

A graph of mT against v can be plotted.

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Momentum of an object is the product of

The diameter of a sphere could be

You can construct a momentum vector

The velocity overlay feature will produce

Velocity is a vector quantity and so both

There will be friction between the

The edges of a glass marble may not be

The camera must be positioned so that it

An elastic collision is one in which kinetic

The uncertainty in each velocity value

Pythagoras theorem can be used:

Trigonometry can be used to obtain the

Method (Time Constant):

How to Read an Oscilloscope

In order to take measurements from an oscilloscope count the number of divisions

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Time Constant = Resistance x

The time constant tells us how long it

Where V₀ is the initial pd across the capacitor.

A graph of ln(V/V₀) against t can be

The graph will have an equation of

Where V₀ is the pd across the fully-charged capacitor.

Capacitors have voltage ratings - the

Use the lap function on the stop-clock to record

You could measure the unknown

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As temperature increases, the resistance

Taking logarithms will result in a straight

The thermistor and thermometer will

By heating the water very slowly, you are

A potential divider is an arrangement that

The graph will be of the form:

You should use a stirrer to stir the water

Thermometer readings should be taken

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The specific latent heat of a substance is

The specific heat capacity of a

The ice-water mixture will be at its lowest

Heat lost from cooling water = Heat

Heat entering the system will result in

Lagging can be added to the beaker to

Accuracy: A measure of how close a measurement is to the true value.

Absolute Uncertainty: Uncertainty given as a fixed quantity e.g. 7 ±0.6 V.

Dependent Variable: The variable that is being measured or tested in an experiment.

Percentage Uncertainty: Uncertainty as a percentage of the measurement e.g. 7 ±8.6% V.

Random Error: The unpredictable variation in a measurement. These can be reduced by

Sensitivity: The smallest change of input that can be detected by an instrument.

Variable: Any factors that can change or be changed.