Ore Geology Reviews 157 (2023) 105453

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Ore Geology Reviews

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Tungsten and tin deposits in South China: Temporal and spatial

distribution, metallogenic models and prospecting directions
Pei Ni *, Jun-Yi Pan *, Liang Han, Jian-Ming Cui, Yan Gao, Ming-Sen Fan, Wen-Sheng Li, Zhe Chi,
Kai-Han Zhang, Zhi-Lin Cheng, Yu-Pei Liu
State Key Laboratory for Mineral Deposit Research, Institute of Geofluids, Frontiers Science Center for Critical Earth Material Cycling, School of Earth Sciences and
Engineering, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210023, China

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: South China is one of the most important tungsten-tin metallogenic areas in the world. Based on the up-to-date
South China geological and chronological data of more than 130 deposits of economic significance, this paper preliminarily
Granite-related tungsten-tin deposits summarized the main types and temporal-spatial distribution characteristics of the large-scale tungsten and tin
Metallogenic type
mineralization related to granite in South China. The statistical results show that skarn and quartz-vein types are
Spatial and temporal distribution
the most important tungsten metallogenic styles, while skarn and cassiterite-sulfide types are the most important
Metallogenic model
Prospecting direction tin metallogenic styles in South China. Tungsten and tin mineralization related to granite in South China are
Mineralization potential multi-aged, but the largest scale of mineralization is developed within the Yanshanian period. Tungsten
mineralization, the majority of which represented by the Nanling and Ganbei metallogenic belts, mainly formed
from the Late Jurassic to Early Cretaceous (160 ~ 120 Ma), while the most important tin mineralization formed
in the Late Cretaceous (110 ~ 80 Ma, peaking at 90 ~ 80 Ma) and Late Jurassic (160 ~ 150 Ma) as represented
by the Youjiang Basin and Nanling metallogenic belt, respectively. The combined occurrence of different
mineralization styles or metal assemblages in individual deposit and sometimes within the same orefield is the
most striking feature of granite-related tungsten-tin deposits in South China, and a comprehensive understanding
of their patterns are of great significance to guide ore prospecting. To address this issue, this paper proposed
several combined metallogenic models and prospecting directions for tungsten-tin mineralization in South China
based on recent researches and exploration progresses from typical examples including the Yaogangxian,
Chuankou, Maoping, Shizhuyuan, Dachang and Gejiu deposits or orefields. In addition, conventional petrological
and mineralogical characteristics that differentiates tungsten and tin granites are summarized, and on this basis
the chemical composition of both melt inclusion and early stage fluid inclusion from granitic magmatic-
hydrothermal systems were tested as new index to evaluate the tungsten and tin mineralization potential of
granitic system.

1. Introduction
As important strategic critical metals, tungsten and tin have a very
wide range of industrial uses and they are indispensable in fields such as
energy, chemical, electronic and military industries. In China, tungsten
and tin are important strategic resources with their reserves both being
the largest in the world (Chen et al., 2000; Xia et al., 2018; Mao et al.,
2019; Ni et al., 2020a, 2022; Chen et al., 2015). In 2021, China provides
83.5% and 30.3% of the global tungsten and tin production, respec­
tively, both ranking first among all nations (USGS, 2022).
Tin deposits can be divided into primary deposits and placers. More
than 90% of tin comes from primary tin deposits formed within ca. 300
Ma, and more than 90% of primary tin deposits are directly related to
granite (Lehmann, 1990). For tungsten, although there are more than 20
kinds of tungsten minerals or tungsten-bearing minerals, only
wolframite and scheelite have industrial value, and their genesis is
closely related to granite. In China, despite the wide distribution of
granite-related tungsten-tin deposits over the country (Mao et al., 2019;
Jiang et al., 2020), South China has always been the dominate producer
for both metals. At the beginning of this century, granite-related tung­
sten-tin deposits in South China have been systematically summarized in
terms of their spatial–temporal distribution, metallogenic specialization,

* Corresponding authors.
E-mail addresses: peini@nju.edu.cn (P. Ni), pjynju2010@126.com (J.-Y. Pan).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oregeorev.2023.105453
Received 24 September 2022; Received in revised form 14 April 2023; Accepted 18 April 2023
Available online 23 April 2023
0169-1368/© 2023 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-
nc-nd/4.0/).
P. Ni et al.
geodynamic background and metallogenic regularity (Mao et al., 2007;
Hua et al., 2010; Wang et al., 2007; Chen et al., 2013a; Fu et al., 2013).
Nevertheless, considerable progresses in both theoretical research and
exploration practice have been made on these deposits during the past
decade. Following the technological advancement of radiometric dating,
a large number of new high-precision ages from cassiterite, wolframite
and other ore minerals were obtained. Besides, prospecting break­
throughs made in the deep and periphery of many known deposits
provide new insights on the genetic model of tungsten-tin mineraliza­
tion. These progresses thus made it important to reexamine the temporal
and spatial distribution of large-scale tungsten-tin mineralization in
South China and to establish new metallogenic models. Particularly, the
combination of different mineralization styles or metal assemblage
within individual deposit or orefield is a striking feature of granite-
related tungsten-tin deposits in this area. A detailed summary of these
combination features and accordingly advanced understanding on their
metallogenic models are therefore of great significance for ore pro­
specting in the future.
In view of the above questions, this paper summarizes the deposit
geology, ore reserves and metallogenic ages of more than 130 major
tungsten and tin deposits in South China, and discusses the main types
and spatial–temporal distribution pattern of the large-scale granite-
related tungsten-tin mineralization in this area. On this basis, several
large to super-large tungsten and tin deposits or orefields, namely
Yaogangxian, Chuankou, Maoping, Shizhuyuan, Dachang and Gejiu are
taking as examples to illustrate the co-occurrences of different miner­
alization styles or metal assemblage within individual deposit or ore­
field, and accordingly the combined metallogenic models and
Fig. 1. Type, scale and temporal-spatial distribution of granite-related tungsten and tin deposits in South China (the geological information is modified after Ni
et al., 2020b).
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Ore Geology Reviews 157 (2023) 105453
prospecting directions for tungsten-tin mineralization in South China
are proposed. Based on the conventional petrological and mineralogical
characteristics of tungsten and tin granites, the chemical composition of
both melt inclusion and early stage fluid inclusion from granitic
magmatic-hydrothermal systems were tested as new index to evaluate
the tungsten and tin mineralization potential of granitic system.
2. Main types and spatial–temporal distribution of granite-
related tungsten and tin deposits in South China
South China is the most important tungsten-tin ore producing area in
China, accounting for 73% of WO3 and 85% of Sn of the China’s total
production (Mao et al., 2019). Most of these tungsten and tin deposits
are closely related to granite. Tungsten deposits can be mainly divided
into quartz-vein type, skarn type, greisen type and porphyry type,
whereas tin deposits can be divided into skarn type, cassiterite-sulfide
type, quartz-vein type, greisen type and porphyry type. The current
classifications of W and Sn deposits are generally similar to previous
studies except that the cassiterite-sulfide mineralization, which has been
termed carbonate replacement type (Lehmann, 1990), or attributed to
mantos or skarn type (Mao et al., 2019) is now classified as an individual
mineralization style. This is due to its particularly high industrial value
in tin production, as is represented by Gejiu and Dachang, the two
largest tin deposits in China. Granite-related tungsten and tin deposits in
South China mainly formed between Neoproterozoic and Cenozoic. In
this section, statistics on the metallogenic types and spatial–temporal
distribution of tungsten-tin deposits related to granite in South China are
discussed (Fig. 1). Appendix Table 1 summarizes the main deposit types,
P. Ni et al.
metal assemblages, reserves and mineralization alteration characteris­
tics of over 130 granite-related tungsten and tin deposits in South China,
and compiled their granite and/or metallogenic ages based on reliable
dating results published in recent years.
Among the compiled deposits, special emphasizes are given to
tungsten and tin deposits distributed in the Nanling metallogenic belt
(Fig. 2), the Ganbei metallogenic belt (Fig. 3) and the Youjiang basin
(Fig. 4). The Nanling metallogenic belt is known as an important area of
large-scale Mesozoic tungsten-tin-rare metal mineralization in South
China. There distributes a number of large to super-large tungsten and/
or tin polymetallic deposits, such as Xihuashan, Dajishan, Yaogangxian,
Taoxikeng, Maoping, Chuankou, Shizhuyuan, Xianghualing and Furong
(Fig. 2). Early research on tungsten-tin mineralization in Nanling has
been carried out before founding of the People’s Republic of China (e.g.,
Hsu, 1943). Since then, tungsten and tin deposits and their related
granite in this area have been intensively studied. Some important
progresses made by these studies include the relationship between
transformation type granite and tungsten-tin mineralization (Xu, 1984),
the recognition of multi-aged granite and its metallogenic specificity in
Nanling (Chen et al., 2008, 2014; Hua et al., 2010), the establishment of
the “five floors” prospecting model for quartz-vein type tungsten-tin
deposit (No. 932 Metallurgical exploration team Guangdong, 1966;
Wang et al., 2010a) and the relationship between large-scale tungsten-
tin mineralization and multi-stage lithospheric extension (Mao et al.,
2004; Mao et al., 2007). These progresses not only enrich greatly the
tungsten-tin metallogenic theory, but also lead to a series of major
breakthroughs in ore prospecting and exploration. The ore belt in
Fig. 2. Distribution of major tungsten and tin deposits in the Nanling metallogenic belt.
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Ore Geology Reviews 157 (2023) 105453
northern Jiangxi is another important tungsten area discovered in recent
years. There are several large to super-large skarn type, porphyry type
and quartz-vein type tungsten deposits, such as Zhuxi, Dahutang,
Dongping, Yangchuling and Xianglushan (Fig. 3, Chen et al., 2012a;
Huang et al., 2012; Mao et al., 2013, Mao et al., 2015; Mao et al., 2017;
Sun and Chen, 2017; Song et al., 2018a, 2018b, 2019; Zhang et al.,
2019a). Among them, the discovery of the world-class Zhuxi and
Dahutang W (-Cu) deposits have made, respectively, the skarn and
porphyry veinlet-disseminated tungsten mineralization become the
dominant tungsten resource in China. The Youjiang Basin located on the
Sino-Vietnam border is another principal tin-tungsten area which hosts
the world-class Gejiu, Dachang and Dulong Sn polymetallic deposits
(Fig. 4, Wang et al., 2004; Cai et al., 2007; Cheng et al., 2013, 2019; Xu
et al., 2015a). Despite the intensive studies carried out on these world-
class deposits such as Dachang and Gejiu in early decades, some recent
works, in particular the precise determination of metallogenic age of the
multi-type tin polymetallic mineralization in these deposits, have
further clarified their genesis and their connection with granite (e.g.,
Guo et al., 2018; Cheng et al., 2019; Cai et al., 2023), and in turn pro­
vided important guidance for ore prospecting and exploration.
2.1. Main types of tungsten and tin deposits
South China has accumulated in total over 10 million tons of WO3
and 7 million tons of Sn reserves, respectively. There are dozens of large
(greater than50 Kt) to super-large (greater than250 Kt) scale deposits,
including 7 tungsten deposits each hosting WO3 reserves of over 250 Kt
P. Ni et al.
Fig. 3. Distribution of major tungsten and tin deposits in the Ganbei metallogenic belt.
(Zhuxi, Dahutang, Shizhuyuan, Xingluokeng, Yaogangxian, Xintianling
and Weijia) and 6 tin deposits each hosting Sn reserves of over 300 Kt
(Gejiu, Dachang, Dulong, Shizhuyuan, Furong and Xitian) (Fig. 1). In
terms of deposit types, the main types of tungsten deposits related to
granite in South China are skarn type, quartz-vein type, porphyry type
and greisen type. Among them, skarn type tungsten deposits represented
by Zhuxi, Shizhuyuan and Xintianling have contributed nearly 60% of
the known tungsten reserves in South China. The quartz-vein type
tungsten deposits such as Yaogangxian, Xihuashan, Dajishan, Taoxikeng
and Damingshan, and porphyry type tungsten deposits such as Dahu­
tang, Xingluokeng, Dongyuan and Yangchuling account for 26% and
14% of the total tungsten reserves, respectively. Greisen type tungsten
ores are commonly present in many deposits but it may only accounts for
about 1% of the total W reserves in South China (Fig. 5a). It is note­
worthy that although the reserve proportion of quartz-vein type tung­
sten deposit has decreased following the discovery of few super-large
skarn and porphyry type tungsten deposit in recent years, the quartz-
vein type deposit remains the dominate industrial producer of W in
China.
The main types of tin deposits related to granite in South China are
skarn type, cassiterite-sulfide type, porphyry type, quartz-vein type and
greisen type. Among these types, skarn type, such as Gejiu, Furong,
Xitian and Xianghualing, provide nearly 60% of the tin metal in South
China. Cassiterite-sulfide mineralization such as Dachang, Dulong and
Hehuaping, quartz-vein type such as Piaotang, Hongqiling, Jubankeng,
Yidong and Wudi, as well as porphyry type such as Yinyan, Yanbei and
Taoxiba account for 28%, 5% and 5% of the total tin reserves, respec­
tively. The greisen type such as Limu account for only about 3% of the
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Ore Geology Reviews 157 (2023) 105453
total tin reserves (Fig. 5b). It is notable that cassiterite-sulfide mineral­
ization is sometimes considered as a part of skarn ore system rather than
an individual genetic classification. However, given its exceptional
importance in China’s tin resources, the cassiterite-sulfide mineraliza­
tion is kept as an independent classification in this paper.
It should be particularly pointed out that the above classification of
tungsten and tin deposits is based on their dominate mineralization type.
However, granite-related tungsten and tin deposits in South China is
commonly characterized by combination of various mineralization
styles (Appendix Table 1). Some tungsten deposits, such as Yaogangxian,
develop both large-scale quartz-vein type (over 200 Kt of WO3) and
skarn type (over 300 Kt of WO3) tungsten mineralization, while the
Dajishan and Maoping W deposits developed both quartz-vein type and
greisen type tungsten mineralization. Moreover, the Shizhuyuan,
Dahutang and Xingluokeng deposits also developed wolframite-quartz
veins in addition to their main skarn or veinlet-disseminated scheelite
mineralization. In terms of tin deposits, the Gejiu, Dachang, Xian­
ghualing and few other Sn deposits all developed small amount of vein
type and greisen type tin mineralization in addition to their dominate
skarn type and cassiterite-sulfide type tin mineralization.
Except for the combined development of various tungsten or tin
mineralization styles, many granite-related tungsten and tin deposits in
South China also display polymetallic features (Appendix Table 1), with
tungsten or tin mineralization sometimes accompanying each other, and
is commonly but not necessarily associated with other metals such as
Mo, Cu, Pb, Zn, Sb and Bi. To be specific, the main metal assemblage of
skarn type tungsten deposits is W ± Cu ± Mo ± Zn ± Pb, with scheelite,
chalcopyrite, molybdenite, sphalerite and galena being the main ore
P. Ni et al. Ore Geology Reviews 157 (2023) 105453

Fig. 4. Distribution of major tungsten and tin deposits in the Youjiang Basin.

Fig. 5. Reserve proportions of granite-related tungsten and tin deposits types in South China. Data sourced from Appendix Table 1.

minerals, as exemplified by the Zhuxi, Shizhuyuan and Xintianling cassiterite, molybdenite and to a lesser extent bismuthinite are common
(Appendix Table 1), etc. In quartz-vein type tungsten deposit, metal economic ore minerals that may partly occur in deposits such as
assemblage of W ± Sn ± Mo ± Bi is dominate whereas Pb and Zn are Maoping, Piaotang, Shanhu, Pangushan, Dajishan and many others
relatively minor. Except for wolframite, ore minerals such as scheelite, (Appendix Table 1). Porphyry tungsten deposits commonly show metal

5
P. Ni et al.
assemblage of W ± Mo ± Cu where scheelite, molybdenite and chalco­
pyrite are the chief ore minerals such as Dahutang and Yangchuling.
However, there are also cases such as Xingluokeng where both
wolframite and scheelite are dominated. For tin deposits, the main metal
assemblage of skarn type is Sn ± Cu ± Zn ± Pb, and the chief ore
minerals are cassiterite, chalcopyrite, sphalerite and galena, such as
Gejiu, Xianghualing, Dulong and Dading (Appendix Table 1). The
cassiterite-sulfide mineralization is commonly consisting of metal
assemblage of Sn ± Zn ± Pb ± Sb, and the main ore minerals are
cassiterite, sphalerite and sometimes jamesonite, as exemplified by
Dachang and Hehuaping (Appendix Table 1), etc. Quartz-vein type tin
deposits, such as Hongqiling, Piaotang, Yidong, Wudi and Xiling (Ap­
pendix Table 1) show Sn ± W ± Zn ± Pb as the main economic metals,
which corresponds to cassiterite, wolframite, sphalerite and galena as
the chief ore minerals. Porphyry tin deposit generally show association
of Sn ± Cu ± W, with cassiterite, chalcopyrite and sometimes
wolframite as the main ore minerals, such as Yanbei, Yejiwei and Yinyan
(Appendix Table 1), etc. It should be noticed that tin deposits of any type
seldomly accompany significant Mo mineralization, which is on the
contrary commonly developed in W-dominated deposits. The combi­
nation of the above different mineralization styles or metal assemblage
in the same deposit or orefield is an important feature of granite-related
tungsten-tin deposits in South China. A systematic description and
summary of this feature can be significant for guiding the deep and
periphery ore prospecting in the mining area, and thus is elaborate later
based on six typical examples.
2.2. Spatial and temporal distribution of tungsten and tin deposits
Tungsten and tin deposits related to granite are widely distributed in
South China. In terms of spatial distribution, the Nanling metallogenic
belt (Fig. 2), the Ganbei metallogenic belt (Fig. 3) and the Youjiang
Basin (Fig. 4) are important areas hosting major tungsten and tin
mineralization. From a whole perspective, selective distribution of
tungsten in the northeast (the Ganbei metallogenic belt), tin in west (the
Youjiang Basin) and both tungsten and tin in the middle (the Nanling
metallogenic belt) is striking in South China (Fig. 1). The tungsten and
tin deposits in these metallogenic belts also exhibit distinct metallogenic
types and metal assemblages.
The Nanling metallogenic belt is enriched in both tungsten and tin
resources with a large number of deposits (Fig. 2). The total amount of
tungsten and tin reserves in Nanling reaches over 4 million tons and over
3.3 million tons, respectively. Although tungsten and tin mineralization
are nearly equally developed in Nanling, certain heterogeneity may be
observed in their spatial distribution. The south Jiangxi, north Guang­
dong and west Fujian areas in the eastern part of Nanling are charac­
terized by intensive development of tungsten and tungsten-dominated
deposits, including Xingluokeng in Fujian, Xihuashan, Dajishan, Pan­
gushan, Piaotang and Taoxikeng in Jiangxi, and Meiziwo, Shirenzhang
and Yaoling in Guangdong. Tin deposits, as exemplified by Xianghual­
ing, Furong, Xitian and Xinlu, are more frequently occur in southern
Hunan and northern Guangxi areas along the Chenzhou-Linwu fault
which crosses the middle north to the southwest of Nanling, but
meanwhile there are still many tungsten deposits such as Xintianling,
Yaogangxian, Chuankou-Yanglin’ao, as well as Shizhuyuan, Shanhu and
other tungsten-tin deposits. It is worth noting that although tungsten is
dominant in the eastern part of Nanling, certain amount of tin deposits
also occurs, such as Yanbei, Kuangbei and Dading, and tin can be an
important ore metal in several tungsten-tin deposits such as Piaotang,
Maoping, Baxiannao and Jubankeng in southern Jiangxi and northern
Guangdong. Similarly, despite the dominance of tin reserve in the
western part of Nanling, certain amount of tungsten deposits is found in
the Miaoershan-Yuechengling area and elsewhere in the western part of
Nanling. The tungsten and tin deposits in the Nanling metallogenic belt
are mainly of skarn and quartz-vein type, with a small amount of por­
phyry type. Characteristic metal combinations of these deposits are W,
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Ore Geology Reviews 157 (2023) 105453
Sn or W-Sn domination with associated Mo-Pb-Zn-Bi.
The Ganbei metallogenic belt mainly consists of tungsten-dominated
deposits while tin mineralization is minor (Fig. 3). Despite the small
number of tungsten deposits found in this area, many of them are large
or super-large scale such as Zhuxi, Dahutang, Dongping and Yangchul­
ing, and have total WO3 reserve of nearly 5 million tons. These tungsten
deposits are mainly skarn and porphyry types, with characteristic W-Cu
or W-Mo metal assemblages. In contrast to Ganbei, the Youjiang Basin is
the most important tin producing region in China, and it hosts a series of
large and super-large tin orefields (Fig. 4), such as Gejiu, Dachang and
Dulong, etc., with total tin metal reserve of more than 4.8 million tons. A
few tungsten deposits have been found in this region as well, but most of
them are small deposits or merely mineral occurrences, except for the
Damingshan W deposit which has WO3 reserve reaching large scale. Tin
and tungsten deposits in the Youjiang Basin are rather concentrated, as
they mainly occur in the Danchi metallogenic belt in northern Guangxi
and the tin metallogenic belt in southeastern Yunnan and mostly
distributed along the regional fault zones. The tin deposits in the You­
jiang Basin are mainly skarn and cassiterite-sulfide type with charac­
teristic Sn-Cu-Zn-Pb-Sb polymetallic assemblages.
The vast majority of tungsten and tin deposits in South China formed
in close affinity with granitic intrusions, showing not only close spa­
tial–temporal relationship, but also intimate genetic association (Xu and
Zhu, 1987; Chen et al., 1990; Mao et al., 2007; Chen et al., 2014). Based
on the compiled information in Appendix Table 1, Fig. 6 summarizes the
distribution of metallogenic ages of tungsten and tin deposits related to
granite in South China. In general, tungsten and tin deposits related to
granites in South China developed from Jinningian period to Yan­
shanian period, but they were formed most intensively in Yanshanian
period. As far as tungsten deposits are concerned, the main metallogenic
periods can be divided into Caledonian (440 ~ 420 Ma), Indosinian
(235 ~ 205 Ma) and Yanshanian (180 ~ 75 Ma; Fig. 6). Among them,
Yanshanian mineralization is particularly important and can be further
subdivided into two concentrated periods, i.e., early Yanshanian (180 ~
150 Ma, peaking at 160 ~ 150 Ma) and late Yanshanian (145 ~ 75 Ma).
The spatial distribution of tungsten deposits in different periods displays
obvious regularity (Fig. 1 and Fig. 2). For example, the early Yanshanian
tungsten deposits are absolutely dominant in the middle and eastern
parts of Nanling, whereas the Caledonian and Indosinian tungsten de­
posits are concentrated in the northern Guangxi to central Hunan region
in the west. In addition, the late Yanshanian tungsten deposits are rare in
the Nanling metallogenic belt, but they mainly occur in the south and
north sides of Nanling, among which the tungsten deposits in the Ganbei
metallogenic belt are formed mostly during Early Cretaceous (145 ~
120 Ma), while the tungsten deposits in the southern and western pe­
riphery of Nanling and those in the Danchi metallogenic belt of the
Youjiang Basin are mainly formed during Late Cretaceous (110 ~ 75
Ma).
The main metallogenic periods of tin deposits related to granite in
South China are Jinningian (840 ~ 820 Ma) and Yanshanian (190 ~ 80
Ma), with only minor scattered tin deposits formed during Caledonian
(450 ~ 440 Ma) and Indosinian (240 ~ 200 Ma; Fig. 6). Similar to
tungsten deposits, the Yanshanian period is apparently the most
important time for concentrated formation of tin deposits in South
China, and these intensive tin mineralization can be further divided into
two concentrated periods, i.e., early Yanshanian (190 ~ 150 Ma, peak
period 160 ~ 150 Ma) and late Yanshanian (145 ~ 80 Ma). Spatially, the
Jinningian tin mineralization in South China is almost entirely
concentrated in the junction area between Guangxi, Guizhou and Hunan
provinces at the western margin of the Nanling metallogenic belt
(Fig. 1). In early Yanshanian, tin mineralization is concentrated together
with coeval tungsten mineralization in the middle and western segments
of the Nanling metallogenic belt (Fig. 2). Notably, tin mineralization
formed during the late Yanshanian period is rather widely distributed in
South China, and they can be further divided into two stages of Early
Cretaceous and Late Cretaceous, which display certain spatial
P. Ni et al.
Fig. 6. Age histograms of granite-related tungsten (a) and tin (b) deposits in South China. Data sourced from Appendix Table 1.
distribution patterns. Specifically, taking the S-N central axis of Nanling
as a rough division, the southeast area of Nanling and the coastal area of
eastern Guangdong to the east of the axis are dominated by Early
Cretaceous tin deposits (145 ~ 130 Ma), while the southwest area of
Nanling, the coastal area of southwestern Guangdong and the Youjiang
Basin to the west are dominated by Late Cretaceous tin deposits (110 ~
80 Ma, with a peak period of 90 ~ 80 Ma). In terms of tin reserves,
unlike tungsten mineralization which extensively formed in the Mid-
Late Jurassic and Early Cretaceous (160 ~ 120 Ma), the Late Creta­
ceous tin deposits such as Gejiu, Dachang and Dulong constituted the
most important tin mineralization in South China.
It is worth noting that although granite intrusions have been exposed
in most tungsten and tin deposits in South China, some recent high-
precision geochronological studies show that granite closely related to
mineralization in space may not necessarily be the parental rock of
tungsten-tin mineralization. For example, the metallogenic age of the
Zhangjialong tungsten deposit which is hosted in the Caledonian granite
batholith (441 ~ 434 Ma) is determined to be 160 ~ 152 Ma (Yuan
et al., 2018), suggesting its genetic association with the Yanshanian
magmatism rather than the intimately associated Caledonian granite.
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Ore Geology Reviews 157 (2023) 105453
Similarly, new ages obtained from hydrothermal zircon and cassiterite
U-Pb, molybdenite Re-Os and muscovite Ar-Ar dating indicate that the
Indosinian granite-hosted tungsten-tin mineralization at Xitian and
Dengfuxian deposits is genetically related to the granite of early Yan­
shanian period (Sun et al., 2017; Cao et al., 2018; He et al., 2018). In
some other cases where the hosting granite have ages close to the
tungsten-tin mineralization, a genetic link should still be concluded with
cautious. For instance, age of quartz-vein type scheelite and wolframite
mineralization at the Chuankou W deposit in central Hunan are both
determined at 212 Ma, which is more than 15 Ma younger than hosting
granite (237.3 ~ 227.8 Ma, Li et al., 2021). This inconsistence implies
that the currently exposed muscovite granite is not the direct ore-
forming parental rock, which on the other hand may still be hidden in
the deep part of the mining area.
3. Combination features and metallogenic model of granite-
related tungsten-tin deposits in South China
The above statistical results show that skarn, quartz-vein and
cassiterite-sulfide mineralization are the most important metallogenic
P. Ni et al.
styles of granite-related tungsten-tin deposits in South China. While
independent mineralization type can be dominate in many cases, the
combined development of different mineralization styles or metal
assemblage within individual deposit or orefield is characteristic and is
crucial for establishing metallogenic models and guiding ore pro­
specting. This section summarizes geological and metallogenic charac­
teristics of six large to super-large tungsten and tin deposits where co-
occurrences of different mineralization styles or metal assemblage are
typically developed. Accordingly, several combined metallogenic
models and prospecting directions are preliminarily proposed in these
cases.
3.1. Yaogangxian W deposit
3.1.1. Geological background and mineralization characteristics
The giant Yaogangxian W deposit, located in the southern Hunan is
one of the typical wolframite-quartz vein type deposit in the Nanling
metallogenic belt. Yaogangxian has a total WO3 reserve of 500,000 tons,
and is characterized by the simultaneous development of two distinct
types of tungsten mineralization, namely quartz-vein type wolframite
(about 200,000 tons) and skarn type scheelite mineralization (about
300,000 tons, Xu, 1957). The granite associated with W mineralization
in Yaogangxian is a composite granitic intrusion with zircon U-Pb age at
about 157 Ma, and it is emplaced in the surrounding Paleozoic clastic
sedimentary strata (Fig. 7). The composite granite can be further divided
into three continuously evolved lithofacies: coarse-grained biotite
granite, medium grained biotite granite and fine-grained muscovite
granite. The latter two are closely related to Yaogangxian W minerali­
zation (Peng et al., 2006; Mao et al., 2007; Li et al., 2011). The exposed
sedimentary rocks in the region are Cambrian and Middle Devonian low-
grade metamorphic sandstone and slate, Upper Devonian limestone and
shale, Lower Carboniferous limestone and sandstone and Lower Jurassic
quartz sandstone. More than 200 wolframite quartz veins are distributed
radially in the internal and external contact zone between the granite
and the surrounding rocks (Fig. 7). The wolframite-quartz veins at
Fig. 7. Geological map of the Yaogangxian W deposit in Hunan province (modified after Pan et al., 2019).
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Yaogangxian are steeply dipping, and exhibits spatial zonation of vein
width from bottom to the top (Fig. 8a). On the level 26 (the deepest
mining level at present), the width of the vein is generally 1–1.5 m and it
gradually decreases upward, eventually branching into a large number
of mica-rich quartz veinlets with a width of 1–2 cm at the surface.
Gangue minerals in veins mainly include quartz, mica, fluorite and
calcite. Wolframite is the most important ore mineral in veins and
locally it is associated with minor amounts of scheelite, chalcopyrite,
molybdenite, cassiterite and sphalerite (Pan et al., 2019). The scheelite
skarn mineralization is developed in the contact zone of Devonian
sandstone and limestone on the east side of the composite granite
(Fig. 8b). The lenticular massive skarn orebody is gently dipping to the
southeast. It extends up to 2000 m in the dip direction, 1400 m in the
north–south strike direction, and the average thickness of the orebody is
21.7 m. The main ore minerals of skarn type scheelite mineralization are
scheelite, molybdenite, pyrrhotite and sphalerite, while the gangue
minerals mainly include garnet, tremolite, vesuvianite, fluorite and
feldspar (Li et al., 2020).
3.1.2. Metallogenic model
At Yaogangxian, both large scale quartz-vein type and skarn type
tungsten mineralization are simultaneously developed, and they are
both closely related to Yaogangxian composite granite. Xu (1957) first
proposed that these two types of tungsten mineralization have genetic
relationship based on detailed field geological observation. Recently, Li
et al. (2011) obtained molybdenite Re-Os age of 160 ± 3.3 Ma from the
skarn orebody, which is consistent with the new U-Pb age of cassiterite
(158 ± 1.9 Ma) in the wolframite-bearing quartz vein and the zircon U-
Pb age of Yaogangxian composite granite (161 ~ 157 Ma, Li et al.,
2020). These investigations indicate that diverse tungsten mineraliza­
tion styles in Yaogangxian are products of an identical granitic
magmatic-hydrothermal system, and fluid interaction with different
wall rocks are probably responsible for the formation of diverse tungsten
mineralization. Specifically, the Cambrian and Devonian metamorphic
clastic rocks are favorable for wolframite-quartz vein whereas scheelite-
P. Ni et al. Ore Geology Reviews 157 (2023) 105453

Fig. 8. Cross sections of the Yaogangxian W deposit. (a) Section map of the wolframite-quartz vein type ore section; (b) Section map of the scheelite-skarn type ore
section (modified after Li et al., 2020).

bearing skarn is developed in the contact between granite and carbonate
rock or the interface of carbonate rock and aluminosilicate strata near
granite (Fig. 9).
It is worth noting that the metallogenetic association of quartz-vein
type and skarn type tungsten mineralization at Yaogangxian is not the
sole case in South China. Similar mineralization assemblage is exhibited
elsewhere such as the Kuimeishan W(-Sn) deposit in southern Jiangxi,
where the metasandstone and slate in the mining area host the
wolframite-quartz veins, and the scheelite-bearing skarn occurs in the
marble (Li et al., 2022a). Therefore, the occurrence of carbonate strata
around wolframite-quartz veins may be a potential favorable pro­
specting indicator for skarn type tungsten mineralization.
3.2. Chuankou W orefield
3.2.1. Geological background and mineralization characteristics
The Chuankou tungsten orefield is located about 30 km west of
Hengyang City, Hunan Province. There are more than 10 tungsten de­
posits in the area, including Chuankou, Baishui, Huanglong and San­
jiaotan, among which Chuankou has WO3 reserves of 212,000 tons and
is the largest W deposit in the region. The Chuankou W deposit is a rare
case developing both large-scale quartz-vein type scheelite and quartz-
vein type wolframite mineralization. The two types of mineralization
are spatially distributed along the contact zone between the Chuankou
granite and the Yanglin’ao Formation calcareous sandstone and they are
separated by the north–south striking fault (F24) in the area. The
tungsten mineralization is divided into the Yanglin’ao quartz-vein type

Fig. 9. Combined metallogenetic model of wolframite-quartz vein and scheelite-bearing skarn at the Yaogangxian W deposit.

9
P. Ni et al.
scheelite deposit in the west and the Chishui quartz-vein type
wolframite deposit in the east (Fig. 10) and their proven WO3 reserves
are 163,000 tons and 49,000 tons, respectively. The exposed strata in
Chuankou are mainly epi-metamorphic fine clasolite of the Banxi group
and sandstones of the Yanglin’ao Formation. The distribution and
occurrence of the quartz-vein type tungsten ore bodies are mainly
controlled by the contact interface, fractures and joints in the strata. The
slate of the Banxi group contains wolframite-quartz veins in Chishui
section, while the sandstone and siltstone of the Yanglin’ao Formation
are the main host rocks of quartz-vein type scheelite mineralization in
the Yanglin’ao ore section. The intrusions exposed in Chuankou deposit
are mainly metaluminous-peraluminous granites and are exposed in
Chishui area (Fig. 10a). The granite is coarse to medium-sized mica
monzogranite containing tourmaline and garnet. The apical portions of
the granite also host wolframite-quartz veins (Fig. 10b).
The scheelite-bearing quartz vein in the Yanglin’ao section is
controlled by the NNW striking and moderately dipping fracture system.
The overall mineralized area is about 1300 m along strike and 500 m
wide. There are 55 vein type orebodies, all of which are composed of
densely distributed scheelite-bearing quartz veins and veinlets. The ore
minerals in the Yanglin’ao section are mainly scheelite and molybde­
nite. All scheelite occurs in quartz veins and is absent in the wall rocks.
The width of scheelite-quartz vein is mainly in the range of 2 ~ 20 cm,
and the veins clearly cut the stratigraphic bedding. The wolframite-
quartz vein is mainly developed in the Chishui section. The
wolframite-quartz veins are mainly hosted in the tourmaline-muscovite
monzogranite with weak greisenization. In total there are over 60 in­
dividual wolframite-quartz veins found in the area. These veins are
generally steep dipping and can extend up to 300 m vertically and 500 m
along strike, with width of 0.5 to 2 m. The main ore minerals in these
veins are wolframite and molybdenite whereas minor amount of chal­
copyrite is locally observed. The granite on both sides of the vein often
displays greisenization halos of about 20 ~ 40 cm wide.
3.2.2. Metallogenic model
The genetic relationship between the two types of quartz-vein type
tungsten mineralization in Chuankou has been further determined based
on recent geochronological and fluid evolution researches (Li et al.,
2021, 2022a). The Re-Os age (212.5 ± 7.3 Ma) of molybdenite in the
Yanglin’ao scheelite-quartz vein and the U-Pb age (212.6 ± 1.4 Ma) of
wolframite in the Chishui wolframite-quartz vein are consistent within
Fig. 10. Geological map (a) and cross section (b) of the Chuankou W deposit in Hunan province (modified after Li et al., 2021).
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error, suggesting the two mineralization types are products of an iden­
tical magmatic-hydrothermal system (Li et al., 2021). Nevertheless, the
ore-forming ages of both mineralization types are at least 15 Ma younger
than the tourmaline-muscovite monzogranite (237 ~ 227 Ma) exposed
in the area, suggesting that the direct ore-forming granite may be still
hidden underneath (Li et al., 2021). LA-ICP-MS analysis of fluid in­
clusions from the coeval scheelite-quartz vein and wolframite-quartz
vein shows that the tungsten ore-forming fluids of Yanglin’ao and
Chishui share identical incompatible element compositions, reflecting a
consistent magmatic fluid sources (Li et al., 2022a). Quantitative anal­
ysis of elements in the altered host rocks shows loss of Ca and Fe as a
function of distance from quartz veins, respectively. As the Yanglin’ao
Formation is composed of calcareous sandstones, the increasing alter­
ation of feldspar and apatite in the host rocks towards vein wall can
release large amount of Ca which may control the formation of scheelite
in the quartz vein. On the contrary, alteration of tourmaline and biotite
in the monzogranite at Chishui may be a potential source of Fe for
wolframite formation (Li et al., 2022a).
In summary, the Chuankou W deposit provides a typical case illus­
trating the host rock control on the formation of different form but
cogenetic tungsten mineralization related to granite (Fig. 11). Metal­
logenic models of Chuankou and Yaogangxian cases collectively indicate
that a homologous scheelite-dominated deposit being likely to exist in
association with a wolframite-dominated deposit, where the lithology of
Ca-bearing formations may be good indicators of potential prospecting
areas.
3.3. Maoping W-Sn polymetallic deposit
3.3.1. Geological background and mineralization characteristics
The Maoping W-Sn deposit is one of the largest tungsten-tin poly­
metallic deposits in the Chongyi-Dayu-Shangyou ore cluster in southern
Jiangxi. W-Sn mineralization covers an area of about 2 km2 with proven
reserves of 108,000 tons of WO3 and 50,000 tons of tin (Feng et al.,
2011c, Fig. 12). The Maoping W-Sn deposit is characterized by associ­
ation of both quartz-vein type and greisen type tungsten-tin minerali­
zation, which refers to the wolframite-cassiterite-quartz veins hosted in
the Cambrian metasediments and the wolframite-cassiterite-bearing
greisen developed at the cupola of the concealed granite (Fig. 13).
This combined mineralization types at Maoping exemplify a typical case
of the “five floors & basement” model for wolframite-quartz vein system
P. Ni et al. Ore Geology Reviews 157 (2023) 105453

Fig. 11. Combined metallogenetic model of wolframite-quartz vein and scheelite-quartz vein at the Chuankou W orefield.

Fig. 12. Geological map of the Maoping W-Sn deposit in Jiangxi province (modified after Chen et al., 2018a).

(Wang et al., 2010b; Hua et al., 2015; Ni et al., 2022).
The exposed strata in Maoping are Middle to Lower Cambrian met­
asediments series (Fig. 12), which is a set of flysch-like clastic formation
with clear rhythm and a thickness of about 500 m. Under the influence
of regional structure, folds and faults in the mining area are quite
developed (Fig. 12). The fold structure is dominated by anticlines with
the axial direction near SN and NNE, which is roughly parallel to the
regional main fold axis. The post-mineralization faults are all reverse
faults, among which two large fracture zones are in NE and NW di­
rections. The magmatic rocks in the mining area mainly consists of

11
P. Ni et al.
Fig. 13. No. 300 cross section map of the Maoping W-Sn deposit (modified after Chen et al., 2018a).
diorite porphyrite dikes and the concealed granite intrusion, whereas
the regional large scale Tianmenshan complex massif is exposed in the
periphery of the mining area.
Maoping develops both quartz-vein type and greisen type tungsten-
tin mineralization (Fig. 13). Ore minerals in quartz-vein type orebody
consist of wolframite, cassiterite, molybdenite, chalcopyrite and sphal­
erite followed by pyrite, arsenopyrite and bismuthinite. Except for
quartz, the veins are featured by fluorine-rich gangue minerals con­
sisting of topaz and fluorite. The mineral assemblage varies spatially in
veins, showing early stage minerals such as molybdenite, wolframite
and cassiterite more concentrated in the middle and lower part of the
vein system, whereas later stage minerals such as chalcopyrite, sphal­
erite and other sulfides becoming abundant in the upper part. The vein is
narrow at the top and becomes wider downward, showing characteristic
similar to “five floors” zonation (Chen et al., 2018a). In greisen type
orebody, wolframite, cassiterite and molybdenite are the major ore
minerals while bismuthinite, pyrite, sphalerite, chalcopyrite, niobite
and tantalite. These ore minerals distribute in the intensely greisenized
granite in the form of dissemination or veinlet. In the field, quartz veins
are commonly observed cutting through the upper greisenized granite
and the greisen type orebody.
3.3.2. Metallogenic model
The Maoping W-Sn polymetallic deposit is closely related to the early
Yanshanian granite intrusion. The orebody is clearly controlled by the
extensional fracture system in the external contact zone between the
protrusion part of the concealed granite and the surrounding rocks
(Fig. 16). The association of the two types of tungsten-tin mineralization
in Maoping is previously summarized, and a genetic relationship is
speculated (Hua et al., 2015). Recently, Chen et al. (2019a) carried out
high-precision U-Pb dating on cassiterite from both mineralization types
and dating on zircon from the concealed granite. The obtained
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mineralization ages of quartz-vein and greisen type mineralization are
157.0 ± 1.3 Ma and 157.1 ± 1.3 Ma, respectively, and these ages are
consistent with the age of the concealed granite (159.0 ± 1.5 Ma). These
results suggest that the two types of tungsten-tin mineralization are
products of the same magmatic-hydrothermal system and are geneti­
cally related to the concealed granite intrusions. In addition, the in-situ
trace elements of cassiterite from the two mineralization types show
consistent compositions of high Fe, Ta, Zr and low Zr/HF ratio, indi­
cating an intimate genetic association (Chen et al., 2019a).
A combined metallogenic model based on co-genetic quartz-vein
type and greisen type tungsten-tin mineralization at Maoping can be
established in Fig. 14. During upwelling and crystallization of the
granitic magma, the hydrothermal fluid enriched in F and other volatiles
exsolved and accumulated on the top the granite. High-temperature
hydrothermal metasomatism thus occurred among the earlier crystal­
lized granite and formed massive greisenization with W, Sn and Mo
mineralization. Along with continuous accumulation of fluid, the in­
ternal pressure eventually exceeded the lithostatic pressure and formed
radial fractures in the surrounding rocks. The ore-forming fluid thus
migrated along the fracture forming wolframite- and cassiterite-bearing
quartz veins. In general, this metallogenic model emphasizes the com­
mon association of quartz-vein type and greisen type mineralization in
granite-related tungsten-tin deposit and can be particularly useful for
deep ore prospecting in quartz-vein type tungsten-tin deposits.
3.4. Shizhuyuan W-Sn-Mo-Bi polymetallic orefield
3.4.1. Geological background and mineralization characteristics
The Shizhuyuan orefield, located in the middle of Nanling and east of
the Chenzhou-Linwu deep fault, is a crucial tungsten-tin production area
in South China (Wang et al., 1987; Chen et al., 1992; Mao et al., 1996; Lu
et al., 2003). Up to now, proven reserve at Shizhuyuan has exceeded
P. Ni et al.
Fig. 14. Combined metallogenetic model of quartz-vein type and greisen type W-Sn mineralization at Maoping W-Sn polymetallic deposit.
900,000 tons of WO3 and 700,000 tons of tin. The Shizhuyuan orefield
contains many deposits with abundant mineralization styles and metal
association (Fig. 15). Major deposits include the Shizhuyuan skarn-
greisen type polymetallic deposit (750,000 tons of WO3, 490,000 tons
of Sn, 300,000 tons of Bi, 130,000 tons of Mo, 200,000 tons of Be, 46
million tons of fluorite, Mao et al., 1996; Lu et al., 2003), the Yejiwei
porphyry Sn-Cu deposit (118,300 tons of Sn, 66,000 tons of Cu, Su,
2008), the Jinchuantang skarn Sn-Bi deposit (120,000 tons of Sn,
100,000 tons of Bi, Liu et al., 2012; Xu et al., 2016), the Hongqiling vein
type Sn polymetallic deposit (65,400 tons of Sn, 16,700 tons of WO3,
188,200 tons of Pb, 137,700 tons of Zn, 417 tons of Ag, Yuan et al.,
2012a), the Congshuban vein type Zn-Pb-Ag deposit (602,800 tons of
Pb, 408,000 tons of Zn, 1187 tons of Ag, Chen et al., 1998; Xu et al.,
2016), the Manaoshan skarn type Fe-Mn-Pb-Zn deposit, the Chaishan
and the Shexingping-Caiguan vein type Zn-Pb-Ag deposits. These de­
posits were mainly formed in Jurassic and display close association with
the Late Jurassic magmatic activities in the orefield (Li et al., 1996; Zhao
et al., 2018a).
The exposed strata in the area mainly include Neoproterozoic
metamorphic basement, Devonian sedimentary strata, and Quaternary
sediments (Fig. 15), among which the Devonian strata is most widely
exposed. The Middle and Upper Devonian carbonate rocks are the main
host rock of skarn type W-Sn-Mo-Bi deposits in the area. Sinian and
Cambrian strata composed of metamorphic sandstone and slate are
mainly distributed in the east, and they are the main host rocks of hy­
drothermal vein type Sn-Zn-Pb-Ag deposits. Magmatic activities in the
area mainly occur in the Yanshanian period, including granite, granite
porphyry, quartz porphyry, and a small number of basic rocks (Fig. 15).
The Qianlishan granite has the largest exposed area on surface, and it is
divided into early porphyritic biotite granite and late equigranular
biotite granite (155 ~ 152 Ma, Li et al., 2004; Guo et al., 2015). The
latter is considered as the main ore-forming granite in the region. The
quartz porphyry dikes are mainly distributed in the Yejiwei area, which
is related to the porphyry type Sn-Cu mineralization, whereas the
granite porphyry is mainly distributed along the NE faults and cuts the
granite and orebody of the first two stages (Fig. 15). The NE and NNE
faults are the main intrusion- and ore-controlling structures.
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The main alteration types in the orefield include skarnization, grei­
senization, sericitization, chloritization, tourmalinization, fluorization
and silicification. Typically, zoned alterations are developed in a
sequence of greisenization, skarnization, marmorosis, and silicification
from the granite center towards the surrounding carbonate and clastic
rocks. Among them, skarnization, greisenization, and silicification are
closely related to mineralization. Silicification, the primary alteration
type of the vein type deposits, is mainly developed in the clastic rock in
the northeast of the mining area.
The Shizhuyuan polymetallic deposit is the largest deposit in the
orefield. Complex mineralization type and vertical ore zonation occur in
the deposit. According to the ore compositions, their occurrences, and
mineralogical characteristics, the deposit can be divided into four ore
belts from top to the bottom (Fig. 16, Wang et al., 1987; Lu et al., 2003).
Ore belt I is a stockwork Sn-Be orebody accounting for 3.3% of the de­
posit resources. It mainly occurs in the marble above 700 m elevation.
Cassiterite, beryl and bavenite are the main ore minerals. Ore belt II
occurring in the range of 500 ~ 700 m elevation is a massive skarn type
W-Bi orebody, accounting for 27.6% of the resources. The main ore
minerals are scheelite, bismuthinite, and wolframite. Ore belt III is a
stockwork W-Sn-Mo-Bi orebody that is superimposed on skarn miner­
alization. The stockwork comprises several successively formed veins
that show regular crosscutting relationship. Scheelite, wolframite,
molybdenite, bismuthinite and cassiterite are the main ore minerals in
veins and skarn. The ore belt IV, accounting for about 23.5% of the total
metal reserves, is a greisen type W-Sn-Mo-Bi orebody that occurs along
the endo-contact of the granite. Primary ore minerals in greisen are
wolframite, scheelite, bismuthinite, molybdenite and fluorite.
The Jinchuantang Sn-Bi deposit where 11 lenticular ore bodies were
found in the contact zone between the Qianlishan pluton and the
Devonian carbonate rocks, is another proximal skarn polymetallic de­
posit in the area (Liu et al., 2012). Associated distal polymetallic
mineralization in carbonates are mainly vein type Pb-Zn-Ag deposits
exemplified by Shexingping-Caiguan, which are located thousands of
meters southwest of the exposed Qianlishan granite (Fig. 15). The veins
are hosted by Devonian carbonate rocks and extend for tens to hundreds
of meters. Primary ore minerals in these veins are galena, sphalerite and
P. Ni et al.
Fig. 15. Geological map of the Shizhuyuan W-Sn-Mo-Bi orefield in Hunan province.
freibergite (Wu et al., 2018). The Yejiwei Sn-Cu deposit occurring in the
middle of the orefield is a porphyry type deposit genetically related to
the quartz porphyry intrusion. Tin-copper mineralization is mainly
distributed surrounding the quartz porphyry above 510 m elevation and
forms stockworks and veinlets. The main ore minerals are cassiterite and
chalcopyrite (Su, 2008). Several vein type Sn-Zn-Pb-Ag deposits occur in
the Sinian metamorphic rocks in the northeast of the orefield, namely
the Hongqiling vein type Sn polymetallic deposit at the proximal end
and the Zongshuban and Nanfeng’ao vein type Zn-Pb-Ag deposits at the
distal end. At Hongqiling, a concealed biotite granite intrusion is
revealed in the deep above which 14 NE trending ore veins are devel­
oped in the shallow part with cassiterite, wolframite, and scheelite as the
main ore minerals (Yuan et al., 2012a). In the Zongshuban Zn-Pb-Ag
deposit, ore veins are mainly distributed in the NE direction and
contain chief ore minerals of galena, sphalerite, and chalcopyrite (Chen
et al., 1998).
3.4.2. Metallogenetic model
Recent geology and geochronology study on the Shizhuyuan orefield
shows that the equigranular biotite granite developed in the Manaoshan
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and Hongqiling areas are indicative of multiple emplacement centers
formed along with the emplacement of the Qianlishan pluton, and the
W-Sn-Mo-Bi-Pb-Zn-Ag mineralization of various types are formed syn­
chronously (Zhao et al., 2018a). It is also proposed that the host rock
may have played important control on the mineralization types and
metal assemblages, forming the skarn W-Sn-Mo-Bi deposits (including
Shizhuyuan, and Jinchuantang) at the proximal end and the vein type
Pb-Zn-Ag deposits (including Shexingping-Caiguan, Zongshuban, and
Nanfeng’ao) at the distal end.
A polymetallic metallogenic model that includes several minerali­
zation types at Shizhuyuan is established according to previous studies
mentioned above (Fig. 17). With the emplacement of biotite granite into
the surrounding carbonate rock, skarns were formed in the contact zone,
and it is accompanied by releasing of large amount of CO2 that increases
the pressure and form hydraulic fractures in the surrounding rocks.
Open space formed by these fractures is conducive to formation of late
massive greisen type orebodies and stockworks, thus forming the skarn-
greisen type W-Sn-Mo-Bi deposits (e.g., Shizhuyuan and Jinchuantang)
at the proximal end. When the released fluid migrated to the outer
carbonate rocks via the fracture system along its cooling path, the vein
P. Ni et al.
Fig. 16. Section of the Shizhuyuan skarn-greisen W-Sn-Mo-Bi deposit (modified after Lu et al., 2003).
Fig. 17. Combined metallogenetic model of the Shizhuyuan orefield, showing occurrence of multiple mineralization styles and metal assemblages.
type Pb-Zn-Ag deposits (including Shexingping-Caiguan deposit) at the
distal end formed. On the other hand, the intrusive body emplaced in the
Sinian metamorphic clastic rocks formed vein type Sn polymetallic de­
posit at the proximal end (Hongqiling) and the vein type Pb-Zn-Ag de­
posit at the distal end (Zongshuban and Nanfeng’ao). In addition,
slightly later porphyritic branch of the granite can emplace at shallower
location and be responsible for the formation of porphyry type Sn-Cu
mineralization (Yejiwei deposit).
3.5. Dachang Sn-Pb-Zn-Sb polymetallic orefield
3.5.1. Geological background and mineralization characteristics
The Dachang tin polymetallic orefield suited in the Nandan county of
Guangxi Province, is developed in the Danchi fold belt at the junction of
the north edge of the Youjiang Basin and the southwest edge of the
Jiangnan orogenic belt. The proven Sn reserves at Dachang reaches 1.47
million tons and there are total metal reserves of nearly 12 million tons
including zinc, lead, antimony, copper and silver (6.8 million tons of
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Ore Geology Reviews 157 (2023) 105453
zinc, 1.76 million tons of lead, 1.38 million tons of antimony and
370,000 tons of copper). Dachang is one of the largest tin polymetallic
ore cluster in the world and has been intensively studied previously (e.
g., Chen et al., 1985, 1993; Zhou et al., 1987; Han and Hutchinson,
1989, 1991; Fu et al., 1991, 1993; Jiang et al., 1999; Pašava et al., 2003;
Cai et al., 2007; Zhao et al., 2007; Liang et al., 2008; Guo et al., 2018;
Zhao et al., 2018c, 2018d; Zhao et al., 2021). The main strata in the
mining area are a set of Devonian and Carboniferous formation consists
of clastic, carbonate and siliceous rocks (Fig. 18). Tin polymetallic de­
posits in the area mainly occur in the Devonian strata, which comprises
Nabiao Formation, Luofu Formation, Liujiang Formation, Wuzhishan
Formation and Tongchejiang Formation from old to new. Among them,
the Nabiao Formation biohermal limestone is the main host rock of the
Gaofeng cassiterite-sulfide ore bodies. The Luofu Formation composed
of calcareous mudstone, argillaceous limestone, bioclastic limestone and
the interbedding of shale and argillaceous limestone, is the main host
rock for the Tongkeng No. 94, 95 and 96 skarn type Zn-Cu ore bodies.
The Liujiang Formation is mainly layered siliceous (shale) rock, which is
P. Ni et al.
Fig. 18. Geological map of the Dachang Sn-Pb-Zn-Sb polymetallic orefield (modified after Cai et al., 2023).
also an important ore-bearing stratum where the Tongkeng No. 92
cassiterite-sulfide orebody is produced. The Wuzhishan Formation
limestone and interbeds of siliceous rock is the main host rock of the
Tongkeng No. 91 cassiterite-sulfide orebody and the Lame skarn type
Zn-Cu orebody. The Tongchejiang Formation is the main outcropping
stratum of the Dachang orefield. It is mainly composed of mudstone,
limestone, carbonaceous shale, siltstone and silty mudstone, and vein
type orebody are produced in the lower part. The magmatic activity in
the area are mainly featured by intermediate to acid intrusions, and the
exposed area is very small. The Longxianggai composite granite located
in the middle of the orefield is the main intrusive rock, and at the
meanwhile small number of granite porphyry (the East Dyke) and dio­
rite porphyry (the West Dyke) exposed on both sides of the Changpo-
Tongkeng deposit (Fig. 18). The Longxianggai composite granite is
mainly biotite granite with several different lithofacies from equi­
granular to porphyritic. Despite its small exposure area on the surface,
the granite body expands downward and extends to the deep part of the
Tongkeng-Changpo deposit to the west. It is generally considered as the
ore-related granite in the area with emplacement age at 97 ~ 91 Ma (Cai
et al., 2006; Li et al., 2008b; Liang et al., 2008, Liang et al., 2011). The
orefield mainly develops NNW-trending and the NE-trending fault sys­
tems. The Dachang anticline and the Longxianggai anticline are also
developed in the east and west, respectively (Fig. 18).
The exposed Longxianggai granite divides the orefield into the east
and the west ore belts. The west ore belt mainly includes Tongkeng
(Changpo), Gaofeng and Bali Sn polymetallic deposits. Among them,
Tongkeng and Gaofeng are the two largest tin polymetallic deposits with
total Sn reserves of more than 1 million tons, accounting for nearly 70%
of the total Sn reserves in the orefield. The eastern ore belt is mainly
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Ore Geology Reviews 157 (2023) 105453
composed of small and medium-sized tin polymetallic deposits such as
Dafulou, Huile and Kangma. In the middle, the Lamo Zn-Cu deposit and
the Chashan Sb-W deposit are developed. Skarn and cassiterite-sulfide
are the major mineralization styles in the area whereas quartz-vein
type ore are also developed. Taking the largest Tongkeng deposit as
example (Fig. 19), multi-layered skarn type Zn-Cu-Sn orebodies are
developed in the Luofu Formation near the concealed granite in the
deep, whereas the stratiform-like cassiterite-sulfide type Sn-Zn-Pb-Sb
orebodies are developed in the siliceous rocks of the Liujiang Forma­
tion and the limestone of the Wuzhishan Formation in the middle. Above
these two ore zones, veinlet and quartz-vein type Sn polymetallic ore­
bodies are developed in the Tongchejiang Formation. Specific charac­
teristics of main mineralization types at Dachang are described as
follows:
(1) Cassiterite-sulfide type: As the most important Sn-polymetallic
ore type in Dachang, cassiterite-sulfide mineralization generally forms
strata-bound ore bodies in siliceous rocks and carbonate in Tongkeng,
Kangma, Huile and Dafulou deposits. At Gaofeng, the cassiterite-sulfide
mineralization is mainly developed in replacement of the reef core of the
biohermal limestone of the Nabiao Formation. The polymetallic
mineralization of this type mainly contains metal assemblage of Sn, Zn,
Pb and Sb with rather week wall rock alteration including silicification
and calcitization. The main ore minerals include cassiterite, pyrrhotite,
pyrite, sphalerite, arsenopyrite, jamesonite, chalcopyrite, tetrahedrite
and galena, whereas the main gangue minerals are quartz, calcite,
tourmaline and fluorite. Cassiterite-sulfide ore bodies at Dachang
generally exhibit characteristics of carbonate replacement
mineralization.
(2) Skarn type: This type of mineralization mainly develops in the
P. Ni et al.
Fig. 19. Cross section of the Tongkeng Sn-polymetallic deposit in the Dachang orefield (modified after Cai et al., 2023).
contact zone between granite and carbonate rock, as exemplified by the
skarn orebody at Lame and Tongkeng. The skarn mineralization at
Dachang is mainly characterized by Zn and Cu assemblage whereas tin
grade is generally low. Except for skarnization, silicification, chloriti­
zation and marbleization are common wall rock alteration styles, among
which chloritization in retrograde stage is closely related to Zn-Cu
mineralization. The main ore minerals are sphalerite, chalcopyrite, py­
rite, arsenopyrite, pyrrhotite, cassiterite, jamesonite, galena and
siderite, whereas the main gangue minerals are garnet, diopside, trem­
olite, actinolite, chlorite, calcite and quartz.
(3) Quartz-vein type: Ore-bearing veins are developed in the shallow
part or periphery of cassiterite-sulfide and skarn orebody at Dachang,
such as the cassiterite-sulfide-quartz veins and veinlets orebody in the
shallow part of Tongkeng, the cassiterite-sulfide-quartz veins at Huile
and sulfide-quartz veins in the upper part of the Lamo skarn orebody.
The main ore minerals of these hydrothermal veins are generally
consistent with the corresponding strata-bound cassiterite-sulfide or
skarn type ore bodies, but may have higher ore grades. For example, the
average grade of the large vein type orebody at the top of Tongkeng
reaches 2.1% for Sn and 8.3% for Zn, which are much higher than the
average grade for Sn (1.0%) and Zn (3.0%) of the deposit.
3.5.2. Metallogenic model
Although genetic relationship between Yanshanian granite and the
skarn and quartz-vein type mineralization in Dachang orefield is un­
disputed, the genetic type and metal source of the most industrial
valuable strata-bound cassiterite-sulfide orebody have long been
debated, centering on a Devonian submarine exhalative sedimentation
genesis (e.g., Zhou et al., 1987; Han and Hutchinson, 1989, 1991; Jiang
et al., 1999; Zhao et al., 2007) or a Yanshanian magmatic-hydrothermal
genesis (e.g., Chen et al., 1985, 1993; Fu et al., 1991, 1993; Pašava et al.,
2003; Cai et al., 2007). Recently, the in-situ cassiterite U-Pb dating
technology has provided key evidence for solving this dispute. Guo et al.
(2018) obtained systematical cassiterite U-Pb ages of the strata-bound
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cassiterite-sulfide ore bodies in Tongkeng, Gaofeng, Dafulou, Huile
and Kangma deposits. The results are all concentrated in the range of 95
~ 90 Ma, which is consistent with the zircon ages of the Longxianggai
composite granite and the granite porphyry dykes in the orefield within
error. The geochronology results thus provide robust evidence showing
the strata-bound cassiterite-sulfide mineralization in the area is the
product of Yanshanian granitic magmatic-hydrothermal system.
Recently, Zhao et al. (2021) compared the chemical and B isotopic
compositions of tourmalines of various genesis in the Dachang area and
the results have further confirmed a magmatic origin for the ore-forming
fluid responsible for the strata-bound cassiterite-sulfide mineralization
at Tongkeng.
The above-mentioned studies collectively documented that the tin-
polymetallic mineralization in Dachang orefield is closely related to
the Longxianggai granite or its deep buried counterpart with consistent
mineralization ages obtained from different deposits (Cai et al., 2023).
Lithology and structural conditions of surrounding rocks can be a
dominate control on different mineralization types in the orefield. On
this basis, the preliminary tin-polymetallic metallogenic model at
Dachang is established in Fig. 20. After emplacement of the highly
differentiated magma into the surrounding sedimentary rocks,
magmatic fluids were dissolved and upwelling during magma crystalli­
zation. The fluid-rock interaction along the carbonate rock or argilla­
ceous rock strata near the contact zone results in formation of skarn type
zinc-copper orebody at the proximal end. As the fluid continues to
migrate towards the distal end and shallow part, veinlet, vein and
disseminated mineralization that cut through the strata are developed
together with replacement type mineralization in carbonate-bearing
rocks, and collectively form the macroscopic strata-bound cassiterite-
sulfide ore bodies. During fluid migration, temperature drop, meteoric
water mixing, fluid boiling, neutralization reaction with carbonate rocks
(Heinrich, 1990) and redox reaction of Sn (II) with CO2, H3AsO3 or other
species in the fluid (Heinrich and Eadington, 1986) may all in favor of
cassiterite precipitation, and eventually form high-grade and large-scale
P. Ni et al.
Fig. 20. Combined metallogenetic model of the Dachang orefield, showing occurrence of multiple mineralization styles and metal assemblages (modified after Chen
et al., 1993).
cassiterite-sulfide ore bodies and veins.
3.6. Gejiu Sn-Cu-Pb-Zn polymetallic orefield
3.6.1. Geological background and mineralization characteristics
The Gejiu tin-polymetallic orefield, which holds the largest tin re­
sources in the world, is situated in Gejiu City, Yunnan Province. It is
geologically located on the western edge of the South China block,
adjacent to the Yangtze craton in the north and the Sanjiang fold belt in
the west. The strata in Gejiu area are mainly composed of the Lower
Triassic Feixianguan and Yongningzhen Formation, the Middle Triassic
Gejiu and Falang Formation, and the Upper Triassic Niaoge and Huo­
bachong Formation. Among them, the Feixianguan Formation is
composed of mottled sandy shale and the Yongningzhen Formation is
composed of sand mudstone. The Gejiu Formation is mainly carbonate
rock with basic volcanic rocks intercalated in the lower part. The Falang
Formation is composed of fine-grained clastic rocks and coal seam, and
the Niaoge and Huobachong Formation are composed of fine-grained
clastic rocks. There are abundant magmatic activities in the mining
area. In addition to a small amount of Permian and Triassic mafic rocks,
the main magmatism in the orefield is the large-scale intrusion during
the Cretaceous period. These magmatic rocks in the area mainly include
the Baishachong porphyry and granular granite, the Beipaotai granular
granite, the Longchahe porphyritic granite, the Shenxianshui alkali
feldspar granite, the Baiyunshan nepheline syenite, the Jiasha gabbro,
basalt and lamprophyre (Fig. 21). The tin mineralization of the Malage
deposit and the Songshujiao deposit in the north of the orefield is closely
related to a concealed porphyritic granite in the deep, while the other
deposits, namely Gaosong, Laochang and Kafang are related to the deep
concealed isogranular granite (No. 308 Geological Team, 1984; Wang &
Zhu, 1992; Mao et al., 2008). The tectonic regime in the area is also
complex, mainly including the SN-striking Gejiu fault along the deposits,
the NNE-striking Longchahe, Jiaodingshan and Yangjiatian faults and
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Ore Geology Reviews 157 (2023) 105453
the NW-striking Baishachong fault. The Gejiu fault divides the Gejiu
orefield into east and west areas. Tin polymetallic deposits are all
distributed in the east area. There exist a series of EW-striking faults and
they divide the orefield into several individual ore sections, including
Malage, Songshujiao, Gaosong, Laochang and Kafang from north to
south (Fig. 21).
As the largest granite-related tin orefield in the world, Gejiu hosts
total Sn-Cu-Pb-Zn metal reserves of over 10 million tons, including 3.27
million tons of Sn, 3.25 million tons of Cu and 4.29 million tons of Pb
and Zn. Tin placers and primary tin deposits each account for half of the
total tin reserves (No. 308 Geological Team, 1984; Zhuang et al., 1996;
Yang et al., 2008; Cheng & Mao, 2010, Cheng et al., 2019). The main
mineralization types of primary tin deposits include skarn, cassiterite-
sulfide, veins (Fig. 22) and locally greisen. Most of the mineralization
is dominated by tin, but copper-dominated tin-copper mineralization
can be formed when skarn type mineralization is accompanied by basalt.
Specific mineralization types are described as follows:
(1) Skarn type: Skarn is intensively developed in the Gejiu orefield.
Skarn is mainly distributed in lenticular, massive and vein form at the
contact part between granite and carbonate rock. The thickness of the
ore bodies varies greatly, ranging from 5 m to 100 m and the length of
the ore bodies extend up to 100 ~ 500 m. There are many types of skarn
in the Gejiu orefield, mainly including diopside skarn, diopside garnet
skarn, andradite skarn, vesuvianite skarn and andalusite skarn. A variety
of wall rock alterations are widely distributed around the skarn orebody,
mainly including albitization, potassium feldsparization, greisenization,
sericitization and chloritization. The ore minerals are cassiterite, pyr­
rhotite, chalcopyrite, pyrite, arsenopyrite, tetrahedrite, bismuthinite,
magnetite, galena, sphalerite, scheelite and molybdenite. Gangue min­
erals mainly include garnet, diopside, andalusite, vesuvianite, tremolite,
actinolite, phlogopite and chlorite. The Gejiu orefield shows a gradual
increase in copper mineralization intensity from the north to the south.
This characteristic is particularly obvious in the skarn type
P. Ni et al.
Fig. 21. Geological map of the Gejiu Sn-Cu-Pb-Zn polymetallic orefield (modified after Cheng et al., 2013).
mineralization. The copper-rich skarn mainly occurs in the Kafang and
the Laochang deposits in the south of the orefield, and basalt often oc­
curs near copper-rich orebody.
(2) Cassiterite-sulfide type: Cassiterite-sulfide is another important
mineralization type in the Gejiu orefield. It is mainly characterized by
dense massive sulfide enrichment and is widely distributed in carbonate
rock strata in the form of vein and massive ore bodies. Some of them
have undergone oxidation, probably forming oxide orebodies. Ore
minerals include cassiterite, pyrrhotite, chalcopyrite, arsenopyrite,
sphalerite and pyrite. Gangue minerals mainly include fluorite, phlog­
opite, quartz, chlorite and plagioclase.
(3) Greisen: Greisen mainly occurs at the copula of isogranular
granite and porphyritic granite intrusion, and it often constitutes the
endo-contact zone of skarn. Gangue minerals of greisen type minerali­
zation are mainly quartz, muscovite, potassium feldspar, albite, beryl,
tourmaline, fluorite, lepidolite and topaz. Ore minerals are mainly
cassiterite, which is locally accompanied by a small amount of
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Ore Geology Reviews 157 (2023) 105453
wolframite.
(4) Vein type: Mineralized veins in the Gejiu orefield is mainly
divided into two categories, namely tourmaline-quartz veins that mainly
distributed in carbonate strata of the Laochang deposits and quartz veins
distributed in concealed granites of the Laochang and Kafang deposits.
Tourmaline-quartz vein is an important mineralization type in the
Laochang deposit. The main gangue minerals are quartz, muscovite and
tourmaline, and the ore minerals are cassiterite and pyrite. The latter
category occurs less commonly in the Gejiu orefield and is mainly in the
form of wolframite- and cassiterite-bearing veins with quartz and
muscovite being the main gangue minerals.
3.6.2. Metallogenic model
The formation of the Gejiu tin polymetallic orefield is closely related
to the Cretaceous S-type granitic magmatism which displays similar
characteristics to other typical tin-bearing granites (Lehmann, 1990,
2021; Chen & Mao, 1995). To determine the relationship between tin
P. Ni et al. Ore Geology Reviews 157 (2023) 105453

Fig. 22. Typical cross section of the Laochang Sn-polymetallic deposit in the Gejiu orefield (modified after Cheng et al., 2012b).

mineralization and ore-forming granites in the Gejiu tin orefield, Cheng
et al. (2019) conducted U-Pb dating of cassiterite from greisen, skarn,
vein and oxidized ore types in the orefield, and the results are 80.8 ±
1.0 Ma, 77.9 ± 1.2 Ma, 81.9 ± 1.4 and 83.6 ± 1.3 Ma, respectively.
These cassiterite mineralization ages are generally consistent with the
40
Ar/39Ar dating results (77.4 ± 0.6 Ma to 95.3 ± 0.7 Ma, Cheng et al.,
2013) of mica in different mineralization obtained earlier and they
overlap the age range of granite in the mining area (77.4 ± 2.5 Ma to
85.8 ± 0.6 Ma, Cheng, 2012). In addition, the dating results of cassit­
erite from cassiterite-sulfide type ore in the Gaosong deposit are 84.3 ±

Fig. 23. Combined metallogenetic model of the Gejiu orefield, showing occurrence of multiple mineralization styles and metal assemblages (modified after Mao
et al., 2008).

20
P. Ni et al.
1.4 Ma, 85.1 ± 1.0 Ma and 83.5 ± 2.1 Ma, which are also consistent with
the age of Gaofengshan intrusion in the area (85.8 ± 0.6 Ma, Guo et al.,
2018). The above chronological evidence shows that the tin minerali­
zation events in the Gejiu orefield are closely related to the Cretaceous
granite. The formation of different types of tin deposits may have multi-
stage characteristics, but the mineralization processes are relatively
rapid. The combined metallogenetic model of different mineralization
types in the Gejiu tin polymetallic orefield was preliminarily established
by Mao et al. (2008) and is modified in Fig. 23. During the evolution and
crystallization of granitic magma, volatile components together with Sn,
W and other metals are continuously enriched in the residual melts and
exsolved as upwelling fluids forming greisen and associated minerali­
zation at the top of the earlier crystallized intrusion. It is likely that the
initial magmatic fluid already carries significant amount of Sn because
the extraction of Sn from granitic magma via fluid exsolution can be
effective (Zhao et al., 2022c, Han et al., 2023). The ore-forming fluid can
form cassiterite-quartz veins in granite along factures, and massive
cassiterite-sulfide ore bodies will form as carbonate replacement along
faults and joints in surrounding carbonate strata. Meanwhile, the
magmatic-hydrothermal fluid and the surrounding carbonate rock un­
derwent skarnization, and Sn-Bi-Pb-Zn mineralization occurred during
the retrograde stage of skarnization. Remobilization of Sn by later stage
magmatic-hydrothermal fluids is also possible and may redistribute
some of the Sn mineralization (Schmidt et al., 2020; Xu et al., 2021).
When the surrounding rock contains basalt, the skarn mineralization
becomes Cu-rich and the alteration mineral assemblage of phlogopite,
actinolite and tremolite becomes characteristic. Therefore, basalt may
be the potential metal source of copper mineralization in the Gejiu
orefield (Mao et al., 2008; Cheng et al., 2012b).
4. Evaluation of tungsten and tin metallogenic potential of
granitic system
Most of tungsten and tin deposits are closely related to highly frac­
tionated granites. However, not all highly fractionated granites can form
economic tungsten or tin mineralization, and when they are mineral­
ized, they often show certain selectivity, that is, one metal dominates
over the other (Hua et al., 2010; Schmidt et al., 2020; Zhao et al.,
2022a). Therefore, evaluation on the W-Sn metallogenic potential of the
granitic magmatic-hydrothermal system becomes an important issue in
both theoretical study and ore prospecting practice. As the final product
of magmatic evolution, granite has always been the main object to
reflect the metallogenic fertility of the granitic system. Previous studies
have made systematic summaries on the petrogeochemical, mineralog­
ical characteristics and the metallogenic specificity of the tungsten and
tin granites in South China (e.g., Chen et al., 2008, 2014; Hua et al.,
2010; Mao et al., 2019). It is worth noting that the application of LA-ICP-
MS analysis on fluid and melt inclusion in recent years has provided
direct knowledges on the evolving melt and initial fluid composition
from granitic magmatic-hydrothermal system, and opens new perspec­
tive for evaluating mineralization potential (e.g., Lerchbaumer and
Audétat, 2013; Audétat, 2019). Compared with the traditional whole
rock and mineral analysis, tracing magmatic evolution using melt in­
clusion analysis has great advantages, as it can more accurately deter­
mine the concentration of trace elements such as ore-forming metals in
the melt of different stages during magmatic evolution (Monecke et al.,
2007, 2011; Halter et al., 2004; Audétat, 2006). In view of this, this
section summarizes the specificity and metallogenic indexes that
distinguish tungsten and tin granites in South China from the perspec­
tive of petrology and mineralogy (Table 1). Moreover, metal contents of
the granitic melt and initial ore-forming fluid from both mineralized and
barren granitic systems are compiled based on previous studies and
unpublished data obtained from several large to super-large tungsten
and tin deposit in South China. These data thus allow a preliminary
comparison between tungsten, tin mineralized and barren systems, and
likely provide new indexes for evaluating mineralization potential of
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Ore Geology Reviews 157 (2023) 105453
tungsten and tin in granitic systems.
4.1. Petrological and mineralogical characteristics of tungsten and tin
granites
Recent systematic study on the tungsten- and tin-bearing granites in
the Nanling metallogenetic belt of South China (Chen et al., 2008, Chen
et al., 2013b) shows that Sn-bearing granites are mainly metaluminous
to weak peraluminous biotite granites, with ASI (aluminum saturation
index) range in 0.9–1.1 and relatively low Rb/Sr ratios and differenti­
ation degree, while W-bearing granites are mainly two-mica granites
and muscovite granites, with ASI higher than 1.1 and have high contents
of Y, Rb and Rb/Sr ratios and higher differentiation degree. In general,
tungsten granites in South China are characterized by highly differen­
tiated crustal source without significant involvement of mantle mate­
rials, while tin granites also include A-type granite and granodiorite in
addition to the highly differentiated S-type granites, and mafic enclaves
are widely developed (such as those in Southern Hunan, Northern
Guangxi and Southeast Yunnan), implying participation of mantle ma­
terials during magmatism (Zhu et al., 2006; Li et al., 2009; Zhao et al.,
2009; Hua et al., 2010; Cheng et al., 2012a; Chen et al., 2013a). Isotopic
studies on several major tungsten and tin granites in South China (i.e.,
Jiang et al., 2006; Cheng & Mao, 2010; Guo et al., 2012, 2015; Huang
and Jiang, 2012, Huang and Jiang, 2014; Zhao et al., 2012; Mao et al.,
2015; Chen et al., 2016; Mao et al., 2017; Li et al., 2018d; Su et al., 2018;
Wang et al., 2019; Cao et al., 2020; Li et al., 2020; Zhang et al., 2020b;
Wang et al., 2021) show similar εNd (t) value distribution that is mainly in
the range from − 13 to − 5 and both tungsten and tin granites show two
peaks, i.e., ranging from − 11 to − 12 and − 8 to − 5 for tungsten granite
and ranging from − 10.5 to − 12 and − 8.5 to − 7 for tin granite,
respectively. On the other hand, the distribution range of zircon εHf(t)
value from tungsten granite is mainly between − 15 and − 2, with two
peaks ranging from − 12 to − 9 and − 5 to − 2, while zircon εHf(t) value of
tin granite is mainly between − 12 and + 3, with one peak ranging from
− 8 to − 1. These statistical results collectively suggest higher input of
mantle materials in tin granite than tungsten granite, which is mainly
sourced from the crust. This distinction is also consistent with He-Ar
isotopic studies on some tin deposits suggesting that mantle compo­
nents are involved in the ore-forming fluids (such as Furong and
Dachang, Li et al., 2006; Cai et al., 2007). Recently, Yuan et al. (2019)
and Zhao et al. (2022a) proposed that different melting conditions in the
source area may be a controlling factor resulting in tungsten and tin
mineralization potential of granites. The low-level partial melting
dominated by muscovite dehydration at lower temperature (below 750
℃) leads to the enrichment of tungsten in the initial melt, whereas the
partial melting of biotite dehydration at higher temperature (above 800
℃) is favorable for tin enrichment, thus resulting in tin granite.
As the parental rock for the most important tin mineralization in
South China, tin granites in Gejiu and Dachang belong to ilmenite series
granite of relatively low oxygen fugacity (Guo, 2019), which is consis­
tent with most tin granites worldwide with oxygen fugacity often lower
than NNO or similar to QFM (Ishihara, 1977; Heinrich, 1990), a con­
dition favorable for speciation and enrichment of Sn (II) in the melt
during crystallization. However, tin granites in the Nanling belt
commonly develop magnetite as the major Ti-Fe oxides and suggests
more oxidized condition (Chen et al., 2013a). The titanium-rich biotite
in these granites and their higher oxygen fugacity is conducive to the
replacement of Sn (IV) and Ti (IV) in biotite, and thus the tin concen­
tration in biotite of metaluminous granite is proposed as an index for
evaluating tin mineralization potential (Wang et al., 2013). Similarly,
higher tin concentration in other titanium- or iron-bearing minerals such
as magnetite and sphene may also indicate higher tin mineralization
potential of the granite (Linnen and Cuney, 2005). This is exemplified by
the Nanling metallogenic belt where tin granites of Qitianling, Huashan
and Guposhan contain tin-rich titanite, while other tin-poor granites
have tin-poor titanite (Wang et al., 2011). For tungsten granites,
P. Ni et al. Ore Geology Reviews 157 (2023) 105453

occurrence of magmatic tungsten minerals is indicative of high tungsten dependent than Sn. This scenario probably reflects that both W and Sn
mineralization potential, such as that wolframite is contained in the are enriched in the residual melt and thereby the exsolving fluid with
Wangxianling and Yaogangxian granite, wolframoixiolite is found in the increasing degree of magma crystallization, but the enrichment of Sn in
Xihuashan granite, and scheelite is found in Penggongmiao aplite (Wang either melt or the exsolving fluid may be further affected by other factors
et al., 2003; Zhang et al., 2011b). (such as oxygen fugacity). Compared with barren systems, the miner­
alized systems including those Sn-bearing deposits in China show
4.2. New fluid-melt index of tungsten and tin metallogenic system obviously higher Sn/Na ratios which indicates that Sn-rich ore-forming
fluid is necessary for the formation of tin deposits. In contrast, the W/Na
In granitic magmatic-hydrothermal systems, whether initial exsolv­ ratio in the ore-forming fluids of mineralized systems may be slightly
ing magmatic fluid of mineralized system is more enriched in metals higher than or similar to that of the barren granite. It is worth noting that
than barren system, and whether the mineralized granite has signifi­ the 1000 × Cs/Na values of both Sn and W ore-forming fluids are
cantly higher ore metal contents than barren granite, are fundamental distributed in a relatively narrow range (10 ~ 100) compared with
issues regarding their ore genesis and mineralization potential (Audétat barren systems, implying that the exsolution of ore-forming fluid re­
et al., 2000, 2008; Audétat & Li, 2017; Lerchbaumer & Audétat, 2013; quires appropriate crystallization degree of the magma, as discussed by
Zhang & Audétat, 2018). Recent studies have shown that there is no Han et al. (2023). Therefore, the characteristic Cs/Na ratios of the early
significant difference in Mo contents of the melt and initial ore-forming stage fluid may serve as an important index for evaluating W and Sn
fluid between Mo mineralized and barren system, so that formation of mineralization potential of granitic systems (Table 1).
Mo deposit in hydrothermal system does not necessarily require Granite intrusions closely related to tungsten and tin deposits in time
enrichment of Mo in the melt or initial fluid (Audétat & Li, 2017). and space are usually the main metal sources of tungsten and tin
Compared with barren granitic system, few available case studies mostly mineralization. Previous studies suggest enrichment of ore metals in the
from small sized tungsten and tin mineralized systems show significantly
higher Sn, and to a lesser extent W content in the initial fluids (Audétat, Table 1
2019). Nevertheless, it is unclear whether similar regularity applies to Summary of evaluation indexes of tungsten and tin mineralization potential of
tungsten and tin deposits in South China, especially those large to super- granitic magmatic-hydrothermal system.
large scale deposits. Tungsten deposit Tin deposit
Here we integrate initial and/or ore-forming fluid composition of
Highly differentiated strong Metaluminous and weakly
tungsten-tin mineralized and barren granitic systems based on previous peraluminous granite, mainly peraluminous granites, mainly
data compilation provided by Audétat (2019) and recently obtained composed of two- mica granite and (amphibole) biotite granite
data from several large to super-large tungsten-tin deposits in South muscovite granite
China, namely the Yaogangxian W deposit, the Piaotang W-Sn deposit, Rare mafic enclaves Common mafic enclaves
ASI > 1.1 0.9 < ASI < 1.1
the Taoxikeng W-Sn deposit and the Dachang Sn-polymetallic deposit
Zr saturation temperature < 750 ℃ Zr saturation temperature > 800 ℃
(Pan et al., 2019 and unpublished data). The compositions of fluid in­ Accessory minerals including wolframite, Accessory minerals including
clusion from these occurrences were all obtained from ore minerals or wolframoixiolite, monazite, ilmenite, cassiterite, sphene, ilmenite, etc.
pre-ore gangue minerals so that their relative metal contents are sup­ etc (Nanling A-type granite mainly contain
posed to be identical to initial exsolving fluids from the granite. Pre-ore magnetite)
εHf (t) − 15 ~ 1, peak value − 12 ~ -9 and εHf (t) − 16 ~ 6, peak value − 8 ~ -1
fluid inclusion composition obtained from the newly discovered large − 5 ~ -2
scale Weilasituo Sn-polymetallic deposit in North China (Han et al. The initial fluid is relatively rich in W1: The initial fluid is significantly rich in
2023) were also added for comparison (Fig. 24). Because Cs is incom­ 1000 × W/Na > 0.5 Sn1: 1000 × Sn/Na > 1, mostly between
patible in most minerals and partition strongly into the fluid phase 2 and 20
And has moderately high Cs content1: 10 And has moderately high Cs content1:
during fluid exsolution, relative Cs concentrations in the fluid, as
< 1000 × Cs/Na < 100 10 < 1000 × Cs/Na < 100
expressed by Cs/Na ratios which remove the influence of fluid salinity Average W concentration of granite Average Sn concentration of granite
variation, are reflection of the evolution degree of deep magma (Audétat melt2: W > 20 ppm melt2: Sn > 40 ppm
and Pettke, 2003). As plotted in Fig. 24, the relative concentrations of Sn 1
Determined by LA-ICP-MS analysis of fluid inclusion.
and W in all fluids generally increase with increasing Cs concentration, 2
Determined by LA-ICP-MS analysis of melt inclusion.
and the positive correlation between W and Cs is seemly more

Fig. 24. Comparison of fluid inclusion compositions between typical tungsten-tin deposits and barren granites. The data from Yaogangxian, Taoxikeng, Piaotang and
Dachang are sourced from Pan et al. (2019) and unpublished results; data from Weilasituo are sourced from Han et al. (2023); other data including those of barren
systems are based on the data compilation of Audétat (2019). See text for discussion.

22
P. Ni et al.
magma via melting of enriched protolith and/or high degree of crys­
tallization differentiation is a prerequisite for mineralization (Romer
and Kroner, 2016; Lehmann, 2021). However, as an important param­
eter, the metal content of tungsten and tin in the ore-forming granitic
magma has not been well constrained. Due to widespread hydrothermal
alteration of ore-related granite (Monecke et al., 2007, 2011), tungsten
and tin contents obtained from conventional whole-rock analysis may be
biased and commonly display a wide range. In contrast, melt inclusions
preserved in the rock-forming minerals (such as quartz phenocryst) of
granite are direct record of granitic magma, and may better reflect the
original metal contents in the magma.
Here, a preliminary comparison of metal content in melt inclusion
was made on several tungsten-dominated and tin-dominated granite
together with porphyry Cu, porphyry Mo and barren granitic systems
(Fig. 25). The melt inclusion data of six typical W-Sn deposits (i.e.,
Dulong, Gejiu, Dachang, Muziyuan, Dangping and Dajishan) in the
Youjiang Basin and Nanling metallogenic belt in South China were all
obtained from quartz phenocryst of the well-documented highly-frac­
tionated ore-forming granite (our unpublished data). Because the cur­
rent melt inclusion data of W-Sn mineralized system in South China was
obtained from limited samples representing the late, major parental
granitic phase at each occurrence, the range of data may most likely
reflect the metal contents of melt at the time during fluid exsolution and
ore formation rather than during the entire evolutionary processes. Melt
inclusion data obtained from a barren granite occurrence, i.e. the
Wushan A-type granite in the southeast coastal area of South China (Chi
et al., submitted) is also plotted for comparison. These preliminary re­
sults show that melt inclusions of all W-Sn mineralized granites display
significantly higher Sn contents than otherwise non-W-Sn mineralized
system, while W contents in most W-Sn mineralized systems are slightly
higher than barren granite, porphyry Cu system and probably equal to
porphyry Mo system. The Sn contents of the granitic melt from all
examined W-Sn mineralized systems are in the range of 8 ~ 155 ppm,
averaging at 50 ppm and there is no systemic difference between Sn-
dominated and W-dominated deposits. The W contents of the melt are
between 9 ~ 254 ppm (45 ppm in average) from Sn-dominated systems,
and 5 ~ 134 ppm (22 ppm in average) from W-dominated systems,
respectively. The melt W contents in both Sn- and W-dominated systems
are overall overlapping and W contents in some Sn-dominated systems
Fig. 25. Box-whisker plots showing the melt inclusion compositions from parental granite of typical tungsten-tin deposits, porphyry Cu and Mo deposits and barren
systems. The data from Mole Granite, Elatsite, Climax and Rito del Medio are sourced from Audétat et al. (2000), Stefanova et al. (2014), Audétat (2015) and Audétat
& Pettke (2003), respectively. Other data obtained from mineralized and barren granitic systems in South China are sourced from our unpublished results. See text
for discussion.
23
Ore Geology Reviews 157 (2023) 105453
(such as Dachang) may even exceed those from W-dominated systems.
Interestingly, the Sn contents in the melt from some tungsten granites
(such as Muziyuan, Dangping and Dajishan) can exceed the W content,
but Sn mineralization is not developed in these deposits. The above data
show that melt Sn contents and to a lesser extent W contents can be
potentially used as an index for distinguishing W-Sn mineralized systems
from barren systems (Table 1). However, because there is no selectively
enrichment of W or Sn in melt inclusions from W-Sn mineralized gran­
ites, distinction between W- and Sn-dominated system may not be
applicable. This may imply that formation of W- or Sn-dominated de­
posit is further controlled by metal partition condition during magmatic-
hydrothermal transition and/or the following hydrothermal process.
5. Conclusion and prospect
Based on an up-to-date compilation of more than 130 major deposits,
this contribution provides a latest reassessment on the main types and
temporal-spatial distribution characteristics of granite-related tungsten-
tin mineralization in South China. As one of the most striking features in
these deposits, the combined occurrence of different mineralization
styles or metal assemblages in individual deposit or orefield are
described from six typical cases and are accordingly generalized as
metallogenetic models. Furthermore, composition of fluid and melt in­
clusion was tested as new index in addition to previous petrological and
mineralogical indicators to discriminate between tungsten mineralized,
tin mineralized and barren granitic systems. The main conclusions are as
follows:
(1) The total reserve of tungsten-tin deposits related to granite in
South China reaches 10 million tons of WO3 and 7 million tons of Sn,
respectively. Although more than one hundred deposits are counted,
only a few large to super-large deposits contribute to the main reserves.
In terms of deposit types, skarn type, quartz-vein type and to a lesser
extent porphyry type mineralization constitute the major tungsten
reserve in South China, while skarn type and cassiterite-sulfide type
mineralization constitute the major tin reserve.
(2) The Nanling metallogenic belt, the Ganbei metallogenic belt and
the Youjiang Basin are the most important tungsten-tin metallogenic
regions in South China. As a whole, tungsten-tin deposits exhibit se­
lective distribution of tungsten in the northeast Ganbei metallogenic
P. Ni et al.
belt, tin in the west Youjiang Basin and both tungsten and tin in the
middle Nanling metallogenic belt. The tungsten and tin mineralization
related to granite in South China are multi-aged, but the largest scale
mineralization is concentrated in Yanshanian period. In addition, a
small amount of tungsten mineralization occurred in Indosinian and
Caledonian periods, and a small amount of tin mineralization occurred
in Jinningian period. From the prospective of mineralization intensity,
the major tungsten mineralization, as represented by the Nanling and
Ganbei metallogenic belts, were mainly formed during the Late Jurassic
to Early Cretaceous (160 ~ 120 Ma), while the Late Cretaceous (110 ~
80 Ma, peaking at 90 ~ 80 Ma) tin deposits in the Youjiang Basin and the
Late Jurassic (160 ~ 150 Ma) tin deposits in the Nanling metallogenic
belt collectively constituted the most important tin mineralization in
South China.
(3) The combination of multiple mineralization styles or metal
assemblage in the deposit or orefield scale is an important feature of
granite-related tungsten and tin deposits in South China. The Yao­
gangxian W deposit, the Chuankou W orefield, the Maoping W-Sn pol­
ymetallic deposit, the Shizhuyuan W-Sn-Mo-Bi polymetallic orefield, the
Dachang Sn-Pb-Zn-Sb polymetallic orefield and the Gejiu Sn-Cu-Pb-Zn
polymetallic orefield represent six major types of metallogenic associ­
ation in South China.
(4) The composition of melt and initial fluid may be potentially used
as effective means to evaluate the mineralization potential of tin and
tungsten in granitic magmatic-hydrothermal system. In particular,
initial fluid with Sn enrichment is a strong indicator for Sn mineraliza­
tion of the system. Preliminary data statistic shows the exsolving fluids
responsible for tungsten and tin ore formation is characterized by spe­
cific crystallization degree of the magma, and correspondingly a
confined Cs/Na range, which is likely a key index to evaluate mineral­
ization potential of the magmatic-hydrothermal system. In addition, the
melt Sn contents and to a lesser extent W contents can be potentially
used as an index for distinguishing tin-tungsten mineralized systems
from barren systems, but the current data show no significant difference
in W and Sn contents from W-dominated and Sn-dominated granite.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Data availability
No data was used for the research described in the article.
Acknowledgements
This research was supported by the National Natural Science Foun­
dation of China (92062220, 41830426), the fundamental research funds
for the Central Universities (2021300199, 2023300131, 2022300300)
and the Natural Science Foundation of Jiangsu Province (BK20201258,
BK20200325).
Appendix A. Supplementary data
Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.oregeorev.2023.105453.
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Further reading
Linnen, R.L., 2005. The effect of water on accessory phase solubility in subaluminous and
peralkaline granitic melts. Lithos 80 (1–4), 267–280.