Contents

1 Effects of space harmonics in Induction machines in creating parasitic

torques 1

2 Harmonic torques 2
2.1 Harmonic induction torques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2.2 Harmonic synchronous torques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

3 Remedies 8
3.1 Skewing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

4 Appendix 11

List of Figures
1 Low speed running due to ripple in developed torque. . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2 Harmonic torques in IM ([4],[5]) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
3 Harmonic torques in IM ([4],[5]) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
4 Skewing (Pg. 76 [3]) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
5 Diagrams to explain skewing effects (Pg. 76-77 [3]) . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

1
1 Effects of space harmonics in Induction machines
in creating parasitic torques
It has been understood that armature excitation formulation is based on the current flow-
ing through the armature coils. A detailed survey of armature excitation fundamentals
for AC machines reveals the following:
1. Concentrated coils give rise to square spatial waveform of mmf. A square waveform
contains all the odd harmonics (including the fundamental) of mmf in h1 proportion,

where h is the order of the harmonic that is h = 1 for the fundamental and so on. The
odd harmonics can be compactly classified in two categories viz., (i) triplen (h = 3k,
where k is any integer) and (ii) h = 6k±1.
2. To reduce the proportion of harmonics w.r.t. the fundamental to make the mmf
more sinusoidal, certain steps are taken like (i) having uniform distribution of windings
within phase belts, (ii) short-pitching of windings and (iii) axial skewing of slots and
hence the conductors within the slots. This last method has not been discussed so far
and is included towards the end of this article.
Mmfs give rise to fluxes and fluxes give rise to electromagnetic torque by the relation,

Tem = K·ΦSh ·ΦRh ·sinδh (1)

where, ΦS,R is the harmonic stator or rotor flux of the hth order, δh is the angle between
h
the and K is a constant. By the above equation and basic principles of trigonometric
relations, the hth harmonic in stator flux (φSh ) will pick out the the hth harmonic in
stator flux (φSh ) and produce a non-zero torque whose periodicity is 2h. The net torque
will thus have contribution from all such harmonics and make the torque have a lot of
ripple components apart from the fundamental component.
As we have understood earlier, the mmf harmonics arise from non-idealities of

(a) the uniformly sinusoidally distributed winding concept - which are related to (i) the
actual discrete windings and (ii)the slotting effects or

(b) the concept of linear magnetic circuit (and application of superposition principle)
which are therefore related to (i) saturation, (ii) gap-length irregularity etc..

Some more relatively minor causes (also related to certain non-idealities) are the effects of
(i) overhang leakage, (ii) axial flux leakage, (iii) supply unbalance and (iv) (time-phase)
harmonics in the supply (Pg. 305 [1]).
We have also seen diagrammatically, earlier in the course (hand-drawn supplementary
notes material Sheets 2,3,4 etc. on ”Armature excitation” ), the effect of time-phase
variation of the supply currents and the effects of distribution and short-pitching of
winding. It is evident from there that the proportion of the different (usually only odd)

1
space harmonics in the spatial plot of the slot ampere-conductors and mmf is affected by
the distribution and pitch (distribution factor and pitch factor effects) of the armature
windings. We had also understood that the hth space harmonic corresponds to a pole
pitch which has a mechanical interval of h1 w.r.t. the fundamental pole pitch. One may
also recall that the angle expressions in the above factors (distribution and pitch) get
multiplied by the factor h for the hth harmonic.
Alternatively, it may be told that the hth space harmonic corresponds to h·P poles,
for a machine which is wound for P poles. So the synchronous speed, corresponding to
the hth space harmonic is h1 ·nsync !! The torque ripple can thus be analysed deterministi-
cally by looking at the ripple shape. (More interestingly, it can be correlated with slots
numbers, pole numbers and other design and dimensional details of the machine).
A matter of much greater concern is that the presence of these torque ripples ( also
termed as parasitic torques, as they do not increase the average torque at synchronous
speed, i.e. due to the fundamental, but degrade it), arising out of space harmonics in
armature mmf lead to a number of detrimental effects in IM operation as listed in [1, 3].
These effects include one or more among

(i) crawling (attributable to both harmonic induction and harmonic synchronous torques),

(ii) cogging (attributable harmonic synchronous torques),

(iii) audible or acoustic noise,

(iv) vibration,

(v) even shaft deformation, leading to irreversible failure finally.

2 Harmonic torques
Now, a ripple in the torque may be due either to harmonic induction or harmonic syn-
chronous nature as mentioned above. Whatever be the reason, the torque may typically
look like that in Fig.1. In the figure, Tem1 represents the electromagnetic torque profile
for fundamental alone while Tem−net implies the net torque with ripple being present. For
the shown load torque profile, if the machine is now started from zero speed, it shall now
run not at the desired rated point A as shown in the figure, but at point C, i.e., at a
very low speed. This mal-operation is undesirable and is of real concern.

2
 Figure 1: Low speed running due to ripple in developed torque.

In the sample torque characteristic shown in the figure there is a way out of the
problem, but only specific to this example and is otherwise unacceptable for a running
production line or process. One can consider decreasing the load (by reducing load), such
that the load torque line falls from TL to TL 0 so that it falls below the point D. Then
the machine will once more accelerate to operate at point A’. After that the load may
again be increased to TL , and the operating point may settle back to point A. However,
this is possible only in a laboratory environment and not for real loads. Thus, one can
appreciate that ripples in the developed torque are unacceptable.
Now, point (i) above, regarding unwanted crawling , can be explained , if one considers
Fig.2 below. A harmonic induction torque occurring due to the 5th or 7th harmonic shall
look like those shown in Fig.2a. On the other hand, a harmonic induction torque at some
low speed will cause the torque-speed characteristic to like the one shown in Fig.2b.
The presence of harmonic torques was observed and then identified by researchers
during 1920-30s. Fig. 2 taken from work quoted in [4, 5] are cases in point.

3
 (a) 7th harmonic induction torque super-
posed on fundamental torque. (b) Effect of harmonic synchronous torque

Figure 2: Harmonic torques in IM ([4],[5])

The situations get worse for cage rotor IMs since any harmonic current can flow
through the shorted rotor bars, where as in case the wound rotor a particular harmonic
may get suppressed due the harmonic winding factor effects.

2.1 Harmonic induction torques

Let us consider Fig.3a. It shows 7th harmonic IM torque (positive sequence) at n7s
and a 5th harmonic IM torque (negative sequence) at − n5s . The signs are consistent
with their directions of rotation while their magnitudes are dependent on their harmonic
order related coefficients, multiplied by their harmonic winding factors. When these
harmonic induction torques are superposed on the torque-speed characteristic due to the
fundamental component, the resultant is the red curve with the ripples.
It is observed (in pg 75 [3]) that ”.... of all the stator harmonics that create asyn-
chronous torques, special attention should be paid to the tooth-ripple (TR) harmonics,
i.e., the harmonics which in the general case have an order,

S1
ht1 = n ±1 (2)
p
This is justifiable, when we take into consideration the following. Let us say that the
SPP, q, is taken as an integer. Then its minimum value is qmin = 1. Then for each pole
pair, the no. of slots is given by, Sp1 = 6 = 2·3, i.e., 2 slots multiplied by 3 phases. For

4
 S1
a m-phase machine p
= 2m. Thus, for a 3-phase machine,

S1
= 6q
p

(for integral q, at least). We have understood otherwise that 6k ± 1 harmonic orders exist
in non-sinusoidal (squarish!) wave-forms which are symmetric about their peak values,
and that these harmonics are also crucial. The harmonic orders 6k + 1 are of positive
sequence (rotating in the same direction as the fundamental air-gap field flux), while the
6k − 1 are of negative sequence. In other words the harmonic orders,

h = n 6q ± 1
= 6k ± 1

are crucial, (where, k = nq is an integer).

It can be shown that unless the rotor slot numbers (S2 ) bear a certain relation with
(S1 ), the parasitic torques due to TR harmonics may be quite large and may lead to a
number of detrimental effects. The relation is given by,

S2 5 S1

≤ ±1
p 4 p

One may consider the details in [4, 5].

(a) 7th harmonic induction torque super-

posed on fundamental torque. (b) Effect of harmonic synchronous torque

Figure 3: Harmonic torques in IM ([4],[5])

2.2 Harmonic synchronous torques

The torque-speed characteristic of a synchronous machine(SM) can be shown to look like
that in 3b. The upper part of the plot (first quadrant) corresponds to that for motoring
and the lower for generating (regenerative). If for one or more reasons (detailed below),

5
a synchronous harmonic torque is developed at n7s 4 as shown, then the Tnet develops a
”hook” at that speed and the machine can never be made to come of that low speed
(operating at point P). Such situations may arise due to some identified reasons. It can
be shown that particularly dangerous is the set of stator-rotor slot combinations which
can be compactly represented by,

S2 S1
±1 = ±1
p p

which imply

• either
S2 = S1

• or,
(S1 ∼ S2 ) = 2p

[1] (Pg. 307-08) and [2] also specify these and other similar conditions. These may
be carefully derived as shown by [4, 5]. One may show that for bar rotors,

S1
S2
6a ±1 = ±1
3P p
S1
is actually SPP and Sp2 is bars per pole pair, where a is any integer. This


since 3P
imply the same relations as may be shown below:

• either

S1 S2
2a = 2
P P
or, aS1 = S2

that is S2 is a multiple of S1 .

• or, in case a positive sequence space harmonic generated by the stator ((6m + 1)
locks with negative sequence ((6n − 1) space harmonic generated by the rotor ,
then

S1 S2
2a +1 = 2 −1
P P
S1 S2
2a +2 = 2
P P
or, S2 = aS1 + P

• or, in case a negative sequence space harmonic generated by the stator ((6m − 1)
locks with negative sequence ((6n + 1) space harmonic generated by the rotor ,

6
 then

S1 S2
2a −1 = 2 +1
P P
S1 S2
2a −2 = 2
P P
or, S2 = aS1 − P

Thus we arrive again at the conditions that one has to avoid, namely,

• either
S2 = aS1

• or,
S2 = aS1 ± 2p

Thus for example, in 4-pole machine with S1 = 24, S2 = 28 or 20 are NOT ALLOWED.
Next, let us see what may happen if we choose S2 = 28 in the above example. For
the stator, from (2) above,

S1
ht1 = n ±1
p
24
or, ht1 = (1). ±1
2
or, = 13th harmonic in +ve seq. or, 11th harmonic in -ve seq.

depending on the (±) sign.

Similarly, for the rotor,

S2
ht2 = n ±1
p
28
or, ht2 = (1). ±1
2
or, = 15th harmonic in +ve seq. or, 13th harmonic in -ve seq.

depending on the (±) sign. Now, this 13th negative sequence tooth ripple harmonic flux
component arising due to the rotor teeth, will rotate in a direction (say, CCW) opposite
1 th
to the fundamental (say, CW), at a speed of 13 that of the rotor, that is CCW rotation
1 th
of slip frequency flux at 13 speed w.r.t the rotor which itself moves at nr .
Therefore, the speed of this TR harmonic flux w.r.t the static observer is given by,

(n1 − nr )
nT R13 = (−) + nr
13

In case this has to lock with the stator 13th TR harmonic, which is of positive sequence,

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we must have,

n1 (n1 − nr )
= (−) + nr
13 13
n1 + n1 − nr
or, = nr
13
n1
or, nr =
7

and so a a solution exists! This is extremely significant. It implies that the rotor can

th
rotate at 17 the synchronous speed. That is, a locking of the positive sequence stator
and negative sequence rotor 13th harmonic TR fluxes can generate a synchronous torque

th
at 17 the synchronous speed. Superposed on the IM speed torque curve this will
produce an almost vertical line nature at that sped and the machine can never come out
of this speed after start, whatever be the load torque. Thus the machine will experience
crawling due to harmonic synchronous torque generation.
In extreme cases if this speed is very close to zero, the machine can not start at all
and the situation is equivalent to ”putting a cog in the wheel”. Hence, the term cogging

3 Remedies
The suggested remedies are:
• Choosing S1 , S2 combinations following the above exceptions.

• Skewing of slots (in some cases for both the stator and rotor slots).

τ
c

(a) Skewing of bars (Pg. ..[3]) (b) Skewing of poles

Figure 4: Skewing (Pg. 76 [3])

• Short-pitching (though in some cases this is ineffective).

8
 Pictorially (Pg. 75, [3] ), as in the figure (Fig. XX) it can be also established that
TRH gives rise to odd symmetry in B̃g , that is,

B̃g (θ) = −B̃g (θ ± π)

3.1 Skewing
Skewing, as the name suggests, is the term for disposing the slots at an angle to shaft
axis instead of setting them parallel to the same, along the length of the machine stack.
Mechanically it is achieve by twisting the stack about the shaft axis such that there is a
twisted angle between the front and back lamination, with intermediate laminations all
along the length getting proportionately skewed. This ensures that the slots are skewed
and hence the conductors in them. In case of an IM, either the stator slots, or the rotor
slots (but in opposite sense, Fig.4) or both may be skewed (in opposite directions to
get a larger skew angle) to achieve the desired skew angle, depending on the ratings,
construction and stack length. This means skewing of either the field (poles) or the
conductors (which are seats of emf, but in directions opposite to each other to get the
same angular shift relatively, and with the same results of shifting the phase of the emf.

AB

(b) Skewed-bar broken into straight no-

(a) Skewing ( Pg.77 [3]) tional sub-bars (idea taken from Pg.76 [3])

Figure 5: Diagrams to explain skewing effects (Pg. 76-77 [3])

Referring to Fig.5b, one can consider the skewed bar as equivalently having many
small straight sections (or sub-bars as in the figure) put in series.
Thus considering the emf of the original un-skewed conductor and that of the skewed
conductor we may define skew-factor,

emf of the skewed conductor

kskew =
emf of the un-skewed conductor

9
wherefrom we get,

( cπ )
sin τ
2
kskew−1 = ( cπ )
(3)
τ
2
h( cπ )
sin 2τ
kskew−h = h( cπ )
(4)
τ
2

The effect of skew also shows up in the winding factor and we get,

kw = kd ·kp ·kskew

[ Proof of equation (3) above is left for students to try; to be revealed in the appendix after students

10
4 Appendix
[Proof of (3) above to be shown here after students try themselves and report back]

References
[1] M. G. Say, The Performance and design of Alternating Current Machines,3rd ed.,/
1st Indian ed.1983, CBS Publishers and Distributors, New Delhi, India. (Specifi-
cally, page 304-309)

[2] A.F. Puchstein, T.C. Lloyd & A. G. Conrad, Alternating Current Machines, 3rd
ed. John Wiley & Sons Inc., 4th reprint May, 1960, Asia Publishing House, India.
( Pgs. 300-305)

[3] M. Kostenko, L. Piotrovsky, Electrical Machines - Part Two, Foreign Languages

Publishing House, Moscow, USSR. (Specifically, Pgs.49-50, 75-77, 458- 464)

[4] Dreese E. E. , Synchronous Motor Effects in Induction Machines, Transaction

AIEE, May, 1930, pp. 1033-1040.

[5] Kron G. , SInduction Motor Slot Combinations, Transaction AIEE, Jan., 1931,
pp. 757-767.

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