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Forensic Science International xxx (2006) xxx–xxx

www.elsevier.com/locate/forsciint

Estimation of the time since death

Claus Henssge a, Burkhard Madea b,*
a
Institute of Forensic Medicine, University of Duisburg Essen, Hufelandstr. 55, 45122 Essen, Germany
b
Institute of Forensic Medicine, University of Bonn, Stiftsplatz 12, 53111 Bonn, Germany
Received 30 January 2006; received in revised form 10 May 2006; accepted 10 May 2006

Abstract
The main principle of the determination of the time since death is the calculation of a measurable date along a time-dependent curve back to the
start point. Characteristics of the curve (e.g. the slope) and the start point are influenced by internal and external, antemortem and postmortem
conditions. These influencing factors have to be taken into consideration quantitatively in order to improve the precision of death time estimation. It
does not make any sense to study the postmortem time course of any analyte without considering influencing factors and giving statistical
parameters of the variability. Comparison of different methods requires an investigation of the same postmortem interval. For practical purposes, it
must be concluded that the amount of literature on estimating the time since death has a reverse correlation with its importance in practice.
# 2006 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Determination of the time since death; Antemortem and postmortem influencing factors; Accuracy

1. Determination of the time since death
Estimation of the time since death is a practical task in daily
forensic casework. Therefore, research on estimating the time
since death has to have this practical task always in mind.
However, the number of papers on estimating the time since
death has a reverse correlation with its importance and value in
practice.
The main principle of determination of the time since death
is a calculation of a measurable date along a time-dependent
curve back to the start point [2]. Characteristics of the curve
(e.g. the slope) and the start point are influenced by internal and
external, antemortem and postmortem conditions (Fig. 1).
The necessity of improving the quality of research in this
field can be derived from the following observations:
- A great amount of papers on ‘‘estimating the time since
death’’ just describes the time-dependence of an analyte or
parameter. However, the search for new ‘‘analytes’’ on
postmortem changing parameters does not make any sense,
since nearly all parameters are changing more or less with
increasing postmortem interval. Just applying new technol-
ogies (‘‘time since death markers have lacked behind the
advance in technology of the past 50 years’’ [16]) does not
involve any breakthrough for the practical purposes of death
time estimation as well [10].
- Nearly all postmortem parameters are influenced by several
influencing factors, one of the main being the ambient
temperature [2,5,6].
Several papers do not take these influencing factors, e.g.
the ambient temperature or local temperature at the site of
measurement, into account. Therefore, the variability of the
time-dependence of the measured parameter is comparatively
great in relation to the postmortem interval studied.
Compared to the great number of papers on timing of death
which just address postmortem changes there are hardly any
improvements visible in practice compared to the standard
methods. Furthermore, field studies, comparisons of methods,
standardization of methods or procedures and guidelines are
more or less missing for more recently recommended
methods.
2. Design of study (methodology)

If new parameters are studied, the following should be kept

* Corresponding author. Tel: +49 228 73 83 15; fax: +49 228 73 83 68. in mind: what is the nature of the underlying process studied
E-mail address: b.madea@uni-bonn.de (B. Madea). [5,13]:
0379-0738/$ – see front matter # 2006 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.forsciint.2006.05.017
FSI-4843; No of Pages 3
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2 C. Henssge, B. Madea / Forensic Science International xxx (2006) xxx–xxx
Fig. 1. Main principle of the determination of the time since death (calculation
from a measured value along a curve back to the initial value).
- predominantly physical process (body cooling, hypostasis);
- metabolic process (e.g. concentration of metabolites—
substrates, activity of enzymes);
- autolysis (loss of selective membrane permeability, diffusion,
morphological changes);
- physico-chemical process (supravital reagibility, rigor mortis
immunological reactivity);
- bacterial process (putrefaction).
Analysing the underlying process may already prevent
wrong expectations. In theory, it might be expected that a
parameter with just a postmortem increase which is solely due
to diffusion would correlate much more strongly with time
since death than a parameter that increases due to vital/
postmortem degradation (metabolic process) and diffusion
would do [15]. Furthermore, a clear definition of the site of
measurement or site of sample acquisition is necessary.
Postmortem changes should preferably be studied in long-
itudinal studies with objective measurement of postmortem
changes, although it should be kept in mind that the objective
measurement contributes only to a small part to a more accurate
death time estimation [13].
For the early postmortem interval with body cooling and
supravital reactions standards in practice have been established
and applicability and reliability confirmed in field studies
which can hardly be improved by other studies [1,3–9,11].
Therefore, research should focus on the later postmortem
interval. However, investigations on the time course of any
analyte do not make any sense without verifying the variability
as well because it is often the interindividual variability which
prevents the application of a parameter in practice (beside the
fact that in corpore measurements at the scene are from the
standpoint of practicability always superior compared to in
vitro measurements).
Therefore, at some different times (10, 20, 30, . . ., hpm),
postmortem (time-dependence) investigations/taking samples
of/from some bodies should be carried out, however, the
ambient temperature or temperature history of the bodies
should differ markedly (e.g. differing ambient temperature for
identical postmortem intervals). This time saving procedure
already allows a first estimation of the variability in comparison
to established methods.
If new parameters or methods are recommended for death
time estimation, the reliability and accuracy should always be
compared to methods developed for the same postmortem
period. Beside the same postmortem interval, a comparison of
methods should always address the practicability and the time
interval until results are available. Influencing factors govern-
ing the change of the investigated parameter should be studied
(preferably in longitudinal studies) and they should be taken
into account for the death time estimation quantitatively.
Without considering influencing factors, there will result a wide
period.
Control studies on independent case material must be carried
out to prove the accuracy of the method.
Furthermore, field studies on cases with a known time since
death are necessary to check the practicable applicability,
reliability and accuracy compared to standard methods.
Additionally, the combination of different methods for a
common result of death time estimation should be investigated
[8,9].
2.1. Case material
The case material should comprise different causes of death;
diseases and the duration of terminal episode may be vital
points for the strength of correlation between investigated
parameter and time since death and must be addressed [12,14].
2.2. Analysis of results
For statistical analysis, it is not sufficient to present only
mean values of the correlation between investigated parameter
and time since death or correlation coefficients. Instead,
statistical parameters of the deviation of single values from the
mean correlation like confidence limits are necessary.
3. Conclusions
The huge literature, especially on chemical methods of
estimating the time since death [17], is still increasing.
However, most of these methods have never gained any
practical relevance since they do not meet the demands in
practice (being precise, reliable and giving an immediate
result). Field studies are a good indicator for the practical value
of a method but, to our knowledge, field studies on most
methods of estimating the time since death are nearly
completely missing in the literature compared for instance to
body cooling or supravital reactions [1,8,9,11]. Thus, most
methods proposed for estimation of the time since death are of
only academic interest since they describe just postmortem
changes. They only gain practical relevance if the following
criteria are fulfilled: quantitative measurement, mathematical
description, taking into account influencing factors quantita-
tively, declaration of precision and proof of precision on
independent material.
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