Syllogism, Binary

SYLLOGISM
Logic and Logical
CONNECTIVES
Connectives
& BINARY
eBook

TIME AND WORK

CAT
CAT'19
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 Table of Contents

Chapter Topic Page

No No.

1 Syllogism
1.1 Syllogism 1

1.2 Venn Diagram Approach 6

1.3 Some Examples 9

1.4 Syllogism - Complimentary Pairs 13

2 Logical Connectives 18

2.1 Implication and Negation 21

2.2 Binary Logic 28

Chapter 1: Syllogism

1.1 Syllogism
Syllogism has been defined as “A form of reasoning in
which a conclusion is drawn from two given or assumed
propositions. It is deductive reasoning rather than
inductive reasoning.
For Example the two Propositions could be
1. All short men are fat.
2. All fat men wear caps.
We can conclude on the basis of the above two
statements that “All short men wear caps”
However the validity of the conclusion is important. Not
all conclusions need be valid. Only those two
propositions which lead to a valid conclusion are
relevant to our cause.
For Example
1. All trains are long.
2. Some buses are long.
The Conclusion that “Some buses are trains” is invalid.

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You might be facing some difficulties regarding which
type of statement can lead to what type of conclusion. If
you understand the rules given below and their proper
use, you are likely to commit no mistakes.
Classes of Statements
“A class is defined to be the collection of all objects that
have some characteristics in common”. Classes can be
related to each other in many ways. If every member of
one class is also a member of a second class, then the
first class is said to be included or contained in the
second. If some but perhaps not all members of one
class are also member of another, then the first class
may be said to be contained partially in the second class.
Of course, there are pairs of classes having no members
in common, such as the class of all triangles and the
class of all circles.
Now let us take 4 statements
1. All politicians are liars
2. No politician is a liar
3. Some politicians are liars
4. Some politicians are not liars.

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The first statement is about two classes and clearly
defines that the first class is included in the second.
The second statement says that the first class is wholly
excluded from the second.
The third statement says that at least one member of
class 1 is also a member of class 2. The fourth similarly
implies that at least one politician is not a liar.
Note: it is important to understand the above four
statements completely before proceeding further.
1. Universal Positive Statement: First of all universal
means something which is applicable to all and positive
means, this is of ‘yes’ format. Universal positive
statement indicates something positive applicable to all
the items of that category. This is represented by the
letter ‘A’. This kind of statements begins with all, every &
each.
Some Examples are
All boys are cute.
All girls are hardworking.
All Indians are brave.
All these are ‘A’ type of statements, because they all are
conveying universal positive meanings.

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2. Universal Negative Statement: Again in this case, the
only difference from the last category is that, in this case,
the statement conveys a negative meaning. It implies
that it refers to that kind of statements, which are
universal and giving negative impression. These types of
statements begin with No, None of the, Not a single etc.
and are represented by the letter ‘E’.
3. Particular Positive Statement: In this case, the
statement given gives a positive impression but it covers
only some items and not all. This kind of statement
begins with some, any, a few and are represented by the
letter ‘I’.
4. Particular Negative Statement: Here, the statement
again covers only some items, but it gives a negative
impression. These kinds of statements are represented
by the letter ‘O’.
The definitions of the A, E, I, O statement are very
important and the student must be able to immediately
recognize the statement. With this need in mind, given
below is a list of all the four types of statements.

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 Sr. Represented by
Type of statement
No. the letter
1. Universal Positive A
2. Universal Negative E
3. Particular Positive I
4. Particular Negative O
As far as the questions of syllogism are concerned, there
are so many varieties of questions; it could be two
statements and two conclusions, three/four statements
and three/four conclusions and it could also be a
question having six statements. In order to solve
questions, first the candidate should try to check the
conclusions, by reversing the individual statements given
and then by combining the two/three statements given.
First of all, we will start with, what can be derived from a
single statement. Before we start with that, let us
understand some universal principles.
Rules for Conclusions
 With two particular statements, no universal
conclusion is possible.
 With two positive statements, no negative
conclusion is possible.

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  With two negative statements, no positive
conclusion is possible.
 With two particular statements, no conclusion is
possible, except when an ‘I’ type of statement is
given and then by reversing it, an ‘I’ type of
conclusion is given.
1.2 Venn Diagram Approach
N A statement of Type When reversed gives a
o conclusion of type
Type Example Venn Type Conclusion
Diagram
1. E No cat E No dog is cat
C
is dog & Some dogs are not
O cats.
D
 O is a part of E

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2. I Some I Some helmets are
S
scooter scooters
H
s are Here, the
helmets conclusion ‘some
helmets are not
scooters’ is
seemingly right,
but simply
remember the
universal principal
no. 2. So this
cannot be true.
3. A All I Some rats are
mouses mouses.
R
are rats. M In this case, if you
are also taking the
conclusion ‘some
rats are not
mouses’ to be true,
again remember
the second
universal principal.
(no negative with
positive is
possible)

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4. O Some No With O type of
TV are T conc statement, you
not lusio cannot get any
C
comput n is conclusion. Even
er poss you cannot make
ible the conclusion as
‘some computers
are not TVs’. The
T representation of
the main
C statement could
be given in the
following way.

Because the
statement only
signifies that some
part of TV must be
outside the circle
of computers, and
the entire diagram,
which are
representing that
are valid diagram.

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1.3 Some Examples
You may have some confusion regarding I and O types of
statements. Each of the statements should be taken
literally i.e. nothing should be assumed.
Let us take an example of a statement of type I.
Some Indians are brave. This information just indicates
that some part of the circle of Indians must be inside the
circle of brave, may be all. Please note, the stated words
are may be, therefore this statement can be represented
in three different diagrammatic ways, which are

I B
I
I B

All these three diagrams are valid ones. You should

always make the first type of diagram, but always keep in
mind that the second and third types of diagram are also
possibilities. The second diagram is indicating that, if
you conclude that ‘Some Indians are not brave’, then it is
wrong. Similarly the third diagram indicates that if you
conclude ‘Some brave are not Indians’, even which is
wrong. Because the statement given is positive, you
cannot conclude anything negative.

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Let us try to find all the possible conclusions from the
statements given. Let us take some examples.
Ex.1 Statements:
I. Some printers are scanners.
II. Some scanners are not clocks.
Sol. Now, in this case, the possible conclusion is, Some
scanners are printers (I to I), as the universal
principal no. 4 says, that with two particular
statements only I to I is possible, therefore only 1
conclusion is possible.
Ex.2 Statements:
I. Some houses are not homes
II. Some theatres are not houses.
Sol. It can be seen, here that both the statements given
are particular and none of the statements is of I
type, so no conclusion is possible.
Ex. 3 Statements:
I. Some bags are helmets.
I. All helmets are telephones.
Sol. Here the possible conclusions are

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 1. Some helmets are bags. (I to I)
2. Some telephones are helmets. (A to I)
These two conclusions have been derived from the
individual statements alone, but if you combine
these two statements, then the diagram becomes

H
T

By combining these two statements, the third conclusion

possible is ‘some telephones are bags’. Similarly the
fourth conclusion is ‘some bags are telephones’. So four
conclusions are possible.
Ex. 4 Statements:
I. All X are Y II. All Y are Z.
Sol. Here by these statements, individually, the
following conclusions can be drawn.
1. Some Y are X. 2. Some Z are Y.
If you combine these two statements then the
diagram would be

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 Z
X Y

From this diagram, the conclusions, which can be drawn

are
3. All X are Z. 4. Some Z are X.
Again, if you are getting the conclusion, some Z are not
X, then simply remember the universal principal no. 2,
with two positive statements, no negative conclusion is
possible.
Ex.5 Statements:
I. All A are B II. No B is C.
Sol. Now individually, the conclusions are
1. Some B are A (A to I) 2. No C is B (E to E)
Again if you combine these two statements, then
the diagram would be like

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 B
A
C

The conclusions, which can be drawn from this

diagram are
3. No A is C 4. No C is A.
1.4 Syllogism - Complimentary Pairs
The concept of 'Complimentary Pairs' is very important in
syllogisms.
Consider the statement: x ≥ y
Conclusions:
1. x> y 2. x = y
Now, if you see the first conclusion only, it may or may
not be true; hence it is independently false.
And if you see the second conclusion only, it may or may
not be true; hence it is independently false as well.
But if you conclude that both the conclusions are false at
the same time, then it would imply x<y, which negates
the given statement. Hence, the conclusion should be
either 1 or 2 is true i.e. both cannot be false

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simultaneously. So conclusions 1 and 2 make a
complimentary pair.
The following are the two conditions for the statements
to be complementary to each other:
1. The conclusions to be included in the
complimentary pairs are those, which are not
definite otherwise.
2. The subject and the predicate should be same i.e.
some x are not y or some x are z, cannot be
included in the complimentary pairs. This is
because the subject is same but the predicate is
not the same.
The following three kinds of pairs can be included in
complimentary pairs.
i) ‘Some are .… NO’
Ex.1 Statements:
1. Some men are intelligent.
2. Some intelligent are honest.
Conclusions:
I. Some men are honest
II. No man is honest.

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Sol. The statements can be depicted using Venn
diagrams as:
I
M I I
H M H
M
H

From the above diagrams, it is clear that nothing

can be definitely concluded about the positions of
men and honest. So independently, each
conclusion is false.
But if we consider only the first conclusion i.e.
some men are honest; it implies that men and
honest will either partially overlap or all men will lie
inside honest or all honest will lie inside men…As
some means few or all.
In the second conclusion, it says that men and
honest will not intersect each other at all. Now,
both the conclusions cannot be false at the same
time as there is no other possible position for the
two circles representing honest and men.
Hence, with respect to the position of the two
circles representing honest and men, there can

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 only be two possibilities: (1) either they partially
intersect or (2) not intersect at all.
Hence one of the conclusions has to be true. So
the answer is either conclusion 1 or 2.
ii) ‘Some not .… All’
Ex.2 Statements:
1. Some men are intelligent.
2. Some intelligent are honest.
Conclusions:
I. Some men are not honest.
II. All men are honest.
Sol. As discussed earlier, each conclusion is false,
when taken independently.
But if you consider only the first conclusion i.e.
some men are not honest, it means that men circle
will be at least partially outside the honest circle.
The 2nd conclusion implies that all men are inside
the honest circle. Now both the conclusions
cannot be false simultaneously as there is no third
possible position for the two circles honest and

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 men. Hence, one of the conclusions has to be true.
Therefore, the answer is either conclusion 1 or 2.
iii) ‘Some are.… Some not’
Ex.3 Statements:
1. Some men are intelligent.
2. Some intelligent are honest.
Conclusions:
I. Some men are not honest
II. Some men are honest
Sol. Again, each conclusion is false, when taken
independently.
But if we consider only the first conclusion i.e.
some men are not honest, it means that men and
honest will be at least partially non-intersecting or
two absolutely different circles.
Further, the2nd conclusion implies that either the
men circle will at least partially intersect with the
honest circle. Now, both the conclusions cannot be
false at the same time as there no third possible
position for the two circles honest and men.
Hence, one of the conclusions has to be true.
Therefore, the answer is either conclusion 1 or 2.

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Chapter 2: Logical Connectives
In Logic, we deal with statements that are essentially
sentences in the English language. However, in Logic we
are not interested in or worried about the factual
correctness of the sentence. We are interested only in
the Logical "truthfulness" of the statements.
Statements like "I will go for shopping", "It is a rainy day",
etc are called simple statements. When two or more
such simple statements are connected together to form
a single statement, such a statement is called a
compound statement.
The simple statements are combined using logical
connectives to form compound statements. We should
know some of the important logical
operators/connectives to be able to effectively tackle
questions that involve compound statements and logical
operations on compound statements.
Negation ("NOT")
Any statement can be negated by using the words "not"
or "no". In layman's language, negation is like the
opposite of a statement.
For example, the negation of the statement "I will drink
water" is "I will not drink water." The negation of the

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statement "He will pass the exam" is "He will not pass
the exam."
Having defined simple statements, we shall now study
about a few common operators (also called connectives)
that can be used to combine (or operate upon) two or
more simple statements and arrive at more complicated
or compound statements.
Logical Connective ‘OR’
Two or more statements can be connected using the
connective OR. The following is an example using OR.
It is raining or I will go to movie.
The same statement can also be written as: Either it is
raining or I will go to movie.
Both the statements above mean the same. The
additional word "either" does not change the meaning of
the statement.
When two (or more) statements are connected using OR,
that implies exactly one of them is true and the other is
false. Suppose we have a statement "Either p or q", that
implies if p is not happening, then q must happen and if q
is not happening, then p must happen.

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Logical Connective ‘AND’
Two or more statements can be connected using the
connective AND. The following is an example using AND.
It is raining and I will go to movie.
The two statements connected by “and” have to be true
for the compound statement to be true. In general, if we
have a statement "p and q", then we can conclude that p
should be true as well as q, that is, both the statements
should be true. Even if one of the two statements is false,
the compound statement is false. Here ‘p’ and ‘q’ are
simple statements.
Implication and Negation Table
Number Logical Connectives Implications Negations
1. If p, then q pq p & -q
2. Whenever p, then q -q  -p -q & p
3. Either p or q -p  q -p & -q
-q  p -q & -p
p  -q p&q
q-p q&p
4. Unless p, then q -p  q -p & -q
-q  p -q & -p
5. Only if p, then q qp q & -p
-p  -q -p & q

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2.1 Implication and Negation
Let us take all the statements one by one and
understand their meanings as well the implications we
can draw from the same. Here we will also do the
negation of a particular statement. But let all of us be
clear about the same, that negation does not mean
opposite of the statement. It means where the condition
given in the question gets broken i.e. it is not fulfilled e.g.
the negation of the statement “India will win the match”
is India will not win the match”. The negation of this
statement would not be “India will lose the match”. While
negating we have to keep in mind that the condition
given in the question is not fulfilled. Let us understand all
the above types in detail.
1. If p, then q: The implication of this is that if p
happens, q happens. Also the reverse with
negation of each of them is true. It means if
negation q happens, implies negation p happens.
In simple language if q does not happen, p does
not happen. These two are the valid conclusions or
implications.
Ex: If it is raining, there would be slippery.
Sol. The implications of this statement are:

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 It is raining, there is slippery.
There is no slippery, it is not raining.
Negation: The negations of the statement,
If p, then q are:
1) pand negation q
2) negation q and p.
Ex: If it is raining, there would be slippery.
Sol. The negations of this statement are:
It is raining and it is not slippery.
It is not slippery and it is raining.
2. Whenever p, then q: This second type of
connectives gives exactly the same implications
and same negations. Hence for all the practical
purposes, the same implications and the same
negations as explained in the first type should be
considered. Let us just take one more example to
get some more clarity.
Ex: Whenever I study, I get good marks.
Sol. The implications of this statement are:
I study implies I would get good marks.

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 I do not get good marks imply I do not study.
The negations of this statement are:
I studied and I did not get good marks.
I did not get good marks and I studied.
3. Either p or q: The implication of this is that if
negation p happens, implies q happens. One more
implication is there, that is: if negation q happens,
implies p happens. Besides that there are two more
implications, which are: 1) p happens implies q
does not happen 2) q happens implies p does not
happen.
Ex: Either Mohan would sleep or Sohan would play the
game.
Sol. Itsimplications are:
Mohan did not sleep implies Sohan plays the
game.
Sohan did not play the game implies Mohan slept.
Mohan sleeps implies Sohan would not play the
game.
Sohan plays the game implies Mohan would not
sleep.

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 Negation: The negation of this is if p does not
happen, implies q does not happen. One more
negation is there, that is: if q does not happen,
implies p does not happen. Besides that there are
two more negations, i.e. when p & q both are
happening simultaneously.
Negations of this statement are:
Mohan did not sleep implies Sohan did not play the
game.
Sohan did not play the game implies Mohan did not
sleep.
Mohan sleeps implies Sohan plays the game.
Sohan plays the game implies Mohan sleeps.
4. Unless p, then q: The implication of this is that if
negation p happens, implies q happens. One more
implication is there, that is: if negation q happens,
implies p happens.
Ex: Unless he works hard, he would fail.
Sol. Its implications are:
He did not work hard implies he failed.
He did not fail implies he worked hard.

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 Negation: The negation of this is if p does not
happen, implies q does not happen. One more
implication is there, that is: if q does not happen,
implies p does not happen. Any other negation
would be incorrect.
Negations of this statement are:
He did not work hard implies he did not fail.
He did not fail implies he did not work hard.
5. Only if p, then q:: The implication of this is exactly
reverse of the 1st case. The implication of this is
that if q happens, implies p happens. Also the
reverse with negation of each of them is true. It
means if negation p happens, implies negation q
happens.
Ex: Only if she performs well, she would get promotion.
Sol. Its implications are:
She got promotion implies she performed well.
She did not perform well implies she did not get
promotion.
Negation: The negation of this is exactly reverse of
the 1st case. The negation of this is that if q
happens, implies p does not happen. Also one

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more negation is true which is, if negation of p
happens, implies q happens. Any other negation
would be incorrect.
The negations of this statement are:
She got promotion and she did not perform well.
She did not perform well and she got promotion.
Negation of compound statements formed with or,
And
A compound statement formed with OR or AND
can be negated in the following manner:
"Negation (p OR q)" is the same as "Negation p
AND Negation q."
"Negation (p AND q)" is the same as "Negation p
OR Negation q."
As described above, when a compound statement
consisting of two simple statements (connected
within OR or AND) is negated, the result will consist
of each of the individual statements negated in the
same manner
i.e. (i) OR will become AND (ii) AND will become OR

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Ex: Mohan would go to cinema or would read a book.
Sol. The negation of this statement is: Mohan would
not go to cinema and would not read a book.
Ex: Seema would go to party and Sneha would clean
the house.
Sol. The negation of this statement is: Seema would
not go to party or Sneha would not clean the
house.
Ex: If it is raining, then I will go to a mall or I will visit
my uncle's place.
(A) It is not raining, means that I will not go to a
mall or I will not visit my uncle's place.
(B) It is not raining, means that I will not go to a
mall and I will not visit my uncle's place.
(C) I will not go for a mall or I will not visit my
uncle's place, means that it is not raining.
(D) I will not go for a mall and I will not visit my
uncle's place, means that it is raining.
Sol. As both the effects, i.e. “I will not go to a mall and I
will not visit my uncle’s place”, are simultaneously
not there, so cause should also not be there. But

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 given, cause is there i.e. its raining. So it implies
negation. Hence 4th option
2.2 Binary Logic
Binary logic deals with statements or propositions which
are declarative sentences that are either true or false but
not both.
Truth value of a proposition:
The truth value of a proposition is true, denoted by T or 1,
if it is a true statement and false, denoted by F or 0, if it is
a false statement.
Negation of a proposition:
The denial of a statement is called the negation of the
statement. If a statement p is true, then its negation is
false and if p is false, then its negation is true.
Using binary logic for solving questions:
The questions based on binary logic are solved using the
following two facts that have been already discussed.
1. A proposition cannot be true as well as false at the
same time.
2. If a proposition is true, then its negation is false and if
a statement is false, then its negation is true.

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Questions based on binary logic:
Type 1:
When there are statements made by some people say A,
B and C such that one of them always tells the truth, one
of them always lies and one of them alternates between
the truth and lie not necessarily in that order.
In this case we first take the possibility of A always
telling the truth. Considering that the statements made
by A are true, we can find if the other two people are able
to make the combination of one being always a liar and
the other alternating between truth and lie. If this
combination turns out to be possible, then we take this
as a valid situation otherwise we eliminate it.
Secondly we repeat the above mentioned procedure by
taking the possibility of B always telling the truth and
based on his statements being true we make the
combination of the other two people, one being always a
liar and the other one alternating between truth and lie
not necessarily in that order. Again if this combination
turns out to be possible, then we take this as a valid
situation otherwise we eliminate it.
Thirdly we consider C always telling the truth and repeat
the procedure to check if it is a valid possibility or not.

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By summing up all the valid situations we get the desired
conclusions.
Type2:
When there are statements made by some people say A,
B, C and D such that each one of them alternates
between the truth and lie not necessarily in that order.
In this situation we first assume that the statements
made by A are true, false, true, false…alternately in this
order. Considering the statements made by A and using
their truth value we see if the remaining people can be
made as alternating between truth and lie not
necessarily in that order without contradicting A. If this
turns out to be possible, then this is a valid situation and
hence can be used to make necessary conclusions
otherwise we eliminate this possibility and consider the
situation where the statements made by A are false, true,
false, true…alternately in this order and repeat the above
mentioned procedure to make necessary conclusions.
Let us take some examples to understand the concepts
better:

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Illustration: DIRECTIONS for questions 1 to 3:These
questions are based on the following information.
Each of the three persons - Ramu, Raman and Rajan-
belonged to exactly one of different cities amongst Delhi,
Mumbai and Chennai. Each person always gives two
replies to any question asked. Out of these three, exactly
one person always speaks the truth, other always lies
and the another always alternates between truth and lie,
in any order. When each was asked "Which city do you
belong to?", the following were their replies:
Ramu: I am from Delhi. Raman is from Mumbai.
Raman: I am from Delhi. Rajan is from Chennai.
Rajan: Ramu is from Mumbai. Raman is from Delhi.
Based on the above, answer the following questions.
1. Who among the three must be from Chennai?
1. Ramu 2. Raman
3. Rajan 4. Cannot be determined
2. Which city did Raman belong to?
1. Delhi 2. Mumbai
3. Chennai 4. Chennai or Delhi

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3. If there are exactly two persons who always tell the
truth, and the third person either always lies or
alternates between truth and lie, then which of the
following statements must be false?
1. Rajan is not from Mumbai
2. Ramu is not from Delhi.
3. Rajan is not from Chennai.
4. Raman is from Delhi

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Explanation
1-3. (i) Assuming Ramu always speaks the truth:
I II City
Ramu T T Delhi
Raman F T Mumbai
Rajan F F Chennai
This arrangement works out for answering the first
two questions.
(ii) Assuming Raman always speaks the truth:
I II City
Ramu F F Mumbai
Raman T T Delhi
Rajan T T Chennai
(iii) Assuming Rajan always speaks the truth:
I II City
Ramu F F Mumbai
Raman T T Delhi
Rajan T T Chennai
Arrangement (ii) and (iii) help in answering the third
question.
1. Rajan must be from Chennai.
2. Raman belongs to Mumbai.
3. Rajan is not from Chennai is false.

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