GENERAL MATHEMATICS

MODULE 5:
LOGIC
Content Course Competencies

At the end of this module, the students are

expected to:

1. Illustrate a proposition.
2. Distinguish between simple and
compound propositions.
3. Perform the different types of
operations on propositions.
4. Determine the truth values of
propositions.
5. Illustrate the different forms of
conditional propositions.
6. Illustrate different types of tautologies
and fallacies.
7. Determine the validity of categorical
syllogisms.
8. Establish the validity and falsity of real-
life arguments using logical
propositions, syllogisms, and fallacies.
GENERAL MATHEMATICS

UNIT 1: Propositions and Truth Values

TOPIC LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:
1. Define a proposition.
2. Symbolize a proposition.
3. Differentiate between simple and compound propositions.
4. Perform operations on propositions.
5. Determine truth tables for simple and compound propositions.

This will be the last topic under general mathematics. For you to have a
grasp on our topic, which is logic, I prepared an activity that you will do and
write in your notebook.
First Activity:
“Make a convincing argument for or against a statement. Write the argument in your notebook.”

Example:
Statement: Everyone should study Algebra.

Argument for the statement: Algebra is used in any field like

engineering, medicine, architecture, business, and many other
disciplines. Algebra is fun and exciting. Therefore, everyone should
study algebra.
Second Activity:

Based from the photo on the left, what do

you think is our first lesson under logic?
GENERAL MATHEMATICS

Read and understand the introduction of logic in your book found on

page 189. Make a reflection by answering “What Have I Learned So Far?”
found on page 190, and the “Reflection” found on page 191, but instead of
discussing with a partner, you can discuss with your parents, siblings, or
friends.

Our discussion under logic will be on “proposition,”

but please do read and understand the discussion that is
presented on pages 191- 194 because those are very
important.

Definition of Terms:
Logic is the systematic study of the form of valid inference, and the most general laws
of truth. A valid inference is one where there is a specific relation of logical support between
the assumptions of the inference and its conclusion. In ordinary discourse, inferences may be
signified by words such as therefore, thus, hence, ergo, and so on.

Our first topic under logic would be proposition (Page 195). Let us first define a proposition:

PROPOSITION or statement is a declarative sentence that is either true or false but not
both. If the proposition is true, then its truth value is true (T) and if it is false then its truth
value is false (F).

- A proposition is denoted using a variable, most commonly P, Q, and R.

Note: A declarative sentence has a subject and a predicate.

Example: Determine whether each of the following statements is a proposition or not. If a
proposition, give its truth value.
1. Mindanao is an island in the Philippines.
Answer: This is a declarative sentence, and Mindanao is an island in the Philippines.
Hence, it is a true proposition.
2. Find a number that divides your age.
Answer: This is an imperative sentence; therefore, it is not a proposition.
3. Welcome to Baguio!
Answer: The statement is an exclamatory sentence, and so it is not a proposition.
4. 1+2=3
Answer: When you read the statement, it goes this way: “The sum of one and 2 is three,”
which is clearly a declarative sentence. So it is a proposition. The truth value is true.
5. I am telling the truth.
Answer: Although it is a declarative sentence, it is not
6. What is the range of the function?
Answer: It is not a proposition because it is an interrogative sentence.
GENERAL MATHEMATICS

Simple and Compound Proposition

Simple Proposition/ Atomic Propositions: it contains only one idea
Compound Proposition/ Complex Propositions: composed of at least two
simple propositions joined together by logical connectives.

Note: Use upper case letters as propositional variables.

Example: Let P be the proposition: “The Earth is flat.”
Types of Logical Operator Symbolic Form Read as
Compound
Propositions
Negation Not ~𝑃 Not 𝑃

Conjunction And 𝑃˄𝑄 𝑃 and 𝑄

Disjunction Or 𝑃˅𝑄 𝑃 𝑜𝑟 𝑄

Conditional If … then 𝑃→𝑄 𝐼𝑓 𝑃, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑄

Biconditional If and only if 𝑃↔𝑄 𝑃 𝑖𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑖𝑓 𝑄

A. Negation (~) = states the exact opposite of a given statement

➢ In some other references, they use ¬, or ! as the symbol of negation. However, in
our discussion, we will use the tilde (~).

Table 1: Truth Table for the Operator Not

𝑷 ~𝑷
T F
F T
Example:
1. Today is Monday. Let’s say this is False (F)
Negation: Today is not Monday. True (T)
2. Let E: 𝑒 represents an irrational number. (T)
Negation:
➢ 𝑒 does not represent an irrational number. (F)
➢ It is not the case that 𝑒 represents an irrational number.
(F)
➢ It is false that 𝑒 represents an irrational number. (F)

B. Conjunction (˄) : is a compound proposition of the form P and Q which is true when both
P and Q are true
• Other forms of connectives: and, but, also, moreover, furthermore
GENERAL MATHEMATICS

Table 2: Truth Table for Conjunction

P Q 𝑷˄𝑸
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F F
Example:
1. There are 12 months in a year and Christmas is in December.
P Q
2. The English alphabet has five vowels, furthermore, the letter m is a vowel.
P Q
3. The earth is flat and geology involves the study of the earth.
P Q
4. (6 − 2) ≠ 4 𝑏𝑢𝑡 9 = 7 − 3
Let 𝑃: (6 − 2) and 𝑄: 9 = 7 − 3
The table below is the truth value table of the examples above. Let us use P for the first simple
proposition and Q for the second simple proposition. Always base your conclusion on the truth
table. That is why it is imperative to memorize or know by heart the truth tables.

P Q 𝑷˄𝑸

1 T T T

2 T F F

3 F T F

4 F F F

C. Disjunction (𝑷˅𝑸) = is a compound proposition of the form 𝑃 𝑜𝑟 𝑄, which is true when at

least one of the two propositions P, Q is true.
- Aside from “or,” “unless” is another word used for the disjunction.
Table 3: Truth Table for Disjunction
P Q 𝑷˅𝑸
T T T
T F T
F T T
F F F
GENERAL MATHEMATICS

Illustration: Different ways a disjunction can be expressed in sentence form.

1. 𝑎 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑏 = 0.
2. 𝑎 = 0 𝑢𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑏 = 0.
3. 𝐸𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑎 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑏 = 0.
Examples:
1. There are eight days in a week or there are twelve months in a year.
Let: D: There are eight days in a week.
M: There are twelve months in a year.
2. The Yen is the Philippine currency or the dollar is the English currency.
Y D
3. Oil floats on water or stones sink in water.
O S
Truth Values of the examples above
1. D M 𝑫˅𝑴

F T T

2. Y D 𝒀˅𝑫

F F F

3. O S 𝑶˅𝑺

T T T

Exercise 1:
A. Write a negation of each of the following propositions.

1. Virtue is its own reward.

___________________________________________________________________

2. Five is an even number.

___________________________________________________________________

3. (9 − 3) = 5
__________________________________________________________________

4. (22 − 6) = 4
___________________________________________________________________

5. Rowena Cruz is a first year AB English student.

___________________________________________________________________
GENERAL MATHEMATICS

B. Form the a.) conjunction and the b.) disjunction of each of the following
pairs of the propositions in Symbols. Decide the c.) truth value of each
compound proposition.

1. B: Bitoy is a great American writer.

A: Fernando Amorsolo is a great Filipino painter.

2. P: Perpendicular lines form right angles.

T: A triangle can have two right angles.

3. H: Numbers ending in 3 are exactly divisible by 3.

V: Numbers ending in 5 are exactly divisible by 5.
Note: The key answers are found at the end of Unit 2

D. Conditional Proposition/ Implications = an implication or a conditional is a compound

proposition of a form “𝒊𝒇 𝑷 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒏 𝑸“ where 𝑃 is called the antecedent (hypothesis) and 𝑄
the consequent (conclusion).

The implication has many phrasings in English.

• if P then Q
• P implies Q
• P is sufficient for Q
• Q is necessary for P
• Q, if P
• P only if Q

Example: All squares are rectangles

The different forms of this implication are listed below.
✓ If it is a square then it is a rectangle.
✓ Being a square implies it is a rectangle.
✓ It is a square only if it is a rectangle.
✓ Being a square is sufficient for it to be a rectangle.
✓ It is a rectangle, if it is a square.
✓ Being a rectangle is necessary for it to be square.

NOTE: In symbolic logic the implication 𝑃 → 𝑄 (often called material implication) may connect any
two propositions. Irrespective of the relevance between P and Q. We are concerned with the
truth-value properties of proposition and not with their meanings. Thus, this conditional
If 11 is an odd number, then rice is a staple food of the Filipinos,
T T =T
is acceptable in symbolic logic.
GENERAL MATHEMATICS

The following statements illustrate the different ways an implication can be expressed in sentence
form:
1. If I saved some money, then I will buy some of the things I need.
2. I will buy some of the things I need only if I saved some money.
Symbolic form: 𝑺 → 𝑩

Where: 𝑺 : I saved some money (Antecedent)

𝑩 : I will buy some of the things I need (Consequent)

Table 4: Truth Value of the Operator if… then

P Q 𝑷→𝑸
Antecedent Consequent
T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T

Illustrations:
Using the truth table make a conclusion of the following implication.
1. If 8 is an even number, then (8+1) is an odd number.
Let E: 8 is an even number (True=T)
O: (8+1) is an odd number (T)
𝑬→𝑶
T T
∴𝑻

2. If 4 = 22 , then 9 = 33

Let F: 4 = 22 (T)
N: 9 = 33 (False= F)
𝑭→𝑵
T F
∴𝑭

3. If birds cannot fly, then birds can chirp.

Let F : Birds cannot fly.
C : Birds can chirp.

𝑭→𝑪
F T
∴𝑻
GENERAL MATHEMATICS

4. If triangles are rectangles, then circles are squares.

Let R: Triangles are rectangles.

S : Circles are squares.
𝑹→𝑺
F F
∴𝑻

Different forms of Conditional Proposition

Related Implications (𝑃 → 𝑄)

1. Converse (𝑄 → 𝑃)
2. Inverse (~𝑃 → ~𝑄)
3. Contrapositive (~𝑄 → ~𝑃)

Example: 𝑯 → 𝑻
If you are honest, then you deserve a thumbs-up.
Antecedent consequent
a. Converse: If you deserve a thumbs-up, then you are honest. (𝑇 → 𝐻)
b. Inverse: If you are not honest, then you do not deserve a thumbs-up. (~𝐻 → ~𝑇)
c. Contrapositive: If you do not deserve a thumbs-up, then you are not honest. (~𝑇 →
~𝐻)
Groupings: If Peter wins the race, then Mary and John will buy presents.
In symbolic logic: 𝑃 → (𝑀 ˄ 𝐽)
Where: P= Peter wins the race.
M= Mary will buy presents.
J= John will buy presents.
Notice the position of the parenthesis ( ); it is crucial to know where to place the
parenthesis because misplacing it will denote a different meaning.

E. Biconditional Proposition
• (Iff: If and only if) (𝑃 ↔ 𝑄)
If 𝑃 ↔ 𝑄 is true, you say that 𝑃 and 𝑄 are logically equivalent. That is, they will be true under
exactly the same circumstances.
Examples:
• 𝑥 > 0 if and only if 𝑥 is positive.
• The alarm goes off iff a burglar breaks in.
• You will pass Gen. Math iff you study harder.
GENERAL MATHEMATICS

Note: iff is the short cut of “if and only if”

Other English equivalents for 𝑃 ↔ 𝑄 are:

➢ 𝑃 implies 𝑄 and 𝑄 implies 𝑃.
➢ If 𝑃 then 𝑄, and conversely.
➢ 𝑃 is a necessary and sufficient condition for 𝑄.
Table 5: Truth Table for Biconditional
P Q 𝑷↔𝑸

T T T

T F F

F T F

F F T

Let P: Today is cold; Q: Today is hot ; and R: Today is windy. Write the following propositions
using P, Q, R.
a) Today is hot if and only if not windy. Answer: 𝑸 ↔ ~𝑹
b) Either today is cold or not cold. Answer: 𝑷˅~𝑷
c) If today is not windy then it is not hot. Answer: ~𝑹 → ~𝑸
d) Today is neither cold nor windy. Answer: ~𝑷˅~𝑹
e) If today is windy then either it is hot or cold. Answer: 𝑹 → (𝑸˅𝑷)

Some examples are given below for you to understand better.

In translating statements to symbolic form, first, you have to represent each
of the components of propositions in capital letters. If necessary, rewrite
the statements in standard form.

Illustrations:
1. Upon announcement of Public Storm Warning Signal No. 3, classes in all levels should be
suspended and children should stay inside sturdy buildings.
𝑃: There is a Public Storm Warning Signal No. 3
𝐶: Classes in all levels are suspended.
𝑆: Children should stay inside sturdy buildings
Answer: 𝑷 → (𝑪˄𝑺) 𝒐𝒓 𝑷 → 𝑪˄𝑺
2. Two lines P and Q are parallel if and only if they are coplanar and P and Q do not intersect.
𝑃: Two lines 𝑃 and 𝑄 are parallel.
𝐶: 𝑃 and 𝑄 are coplanar.
𝐼: 𝑃 and 𝑄 intersect.
Answer: 𝑷 ↔ (𝑪˄~𝑰) or 𝑷 ↔ 𝑪˄~𝑰
GENERAL MATHEMATICS

3. If you are interested in becoming a volunteer, you should fill-up the application form and
submit it to our headquarters or at any of our local offices.

𝑉: You are interested in becoming a volunteer.

𝐹: You should fill- up the application form.
𝐻: You should submit it to our headquarters.
𝐿: You should submit it to any of our local offices.
Answer: 𝑽 → [𝑭˄(𝑯˅𝑳)]
4. Let 𝑃, 𝑄, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑅 be propositions such that 𝑃 is false, 𝑄 is true, and 𝑅 is false. Decide the truth
value of (~𝑃˅~𝑄) → {(𝑃˅𝑅)˄(~𝑃˅~𝑅)}
P Q R ~𝑃 ~𝑄 ~𝑅 (~𝑃˅~𝑄) 𝑃˅𝑅 (~𝑃˅~𝑅) (𝑃˅𝑅)˄(~𝑃˅~𝑅) (~𝑃˅~𝑄)
→ {(𝑃˅𝑅)˄(~𝑃˅~𝑅)}
F T F T F T T F T F F

Hence, the truth value of (~𝑃˅~𝑄) → {(𝑃˅𝑅)˄(~𝑃˅~𝑅)} is FALSE (F).

❖ The next topic will be constructing a truth table, which is similar to example
number 4 above. The difference is that there is no particular truth value of a
given variable. So we have to list all the possible truth values.
❖ ” If there are two primitive/ simple propositions, the number of rows will be four
(22 = 4). Where the base (2) is constant, and the exponent (2) is the number
of primitive/ simple propositions or the number of letters representing
propositions.
❖ Please read your book on page 221 for more detailed examples.
❖ Please watch Video: Truth Tables (part 1) and (part II)

Constructing Truth table:

1. Let P and Q be propositions. Construct the truth table of the compound proposition
(𝑃 → 𝑄)˄(𝑄 → 𝑃).
Solution
1st step
P Q Note: If there are two primitive propositions like P and Q, the truth
T T table should have four rows (22 = 4), which consist of all possible
T F truth values combination of P and Q.
F T
F F
2nd Step: In the next two columns, we encode the truth values of these conditionals
(𝑃 → 𝑄)𝑎𝑛𝑑 (𝑄 → 𝑃).
3rd Step: Then add another column (final column) for (𝑃 → 𝑄)˄(𝑄 → 𝑃) using all the
discussed definitions.

P Q 𝑃→𝑄 𝑄→𝑃 (𝑃 → 𝑄)˄(𝑄 → 𝑃)

T T T T T
T F F T F
F T T F F
F F T T T
GENERAL MATHEMATICS

➢ From the table above, it only shows that when P and Q are true, then
(𝑃 → 𝑄)˄(𝑄 → 𝑃) must be True (T). When P is true and Q is false, then
(𝑃 → 𝑄)˄(𝑄 → 𝑃) must be False (F) and so on.

2. Consider the compound proposition [(𝑃 → 𝑅)˄(𝑄 → 𝑅)] → [(𝑃˅𝑄) → 𝑅]. Construct its truth
table.

Solution: The given proposition is a conditional with the propositions (𝑃 → 𝑅)˄(𝑄 → 𝑅)

and (𝑃˅𝑄) → 𝑅 as hypothesis and conclusion, respectively. As there are three primitive
propositions P, Q, and R involved, its corresponding truth table should have 23 = 8 rows.
The three columns will be for the propositions P, Q, and R, and on these columns, we
encode all the possible truth-value combinations of P, Q, and R.

P Q R (𝑃 → 𝑅) (𝑄 → 𝑅) (𝑃 → 𝑅)˄(𝑄 → 𝑅) (𝑃˅𝑄) (𝑃˅𝑄) → 𝑅 [(𝑃 → 𝑅)˄(𝑄 → 𝑅)] → [(𝑃˅𝑄) → 𝑅]

T T T T T T T T T
T T F F F F T F T
T F T T T T T T T
T F F F T F T F T
F T T T T T T T T
F T F T F F T F T
F F T T T T F T T
F F F T T T F T T

Definition.

A tautology is a proposition that is always true. While the proposition that

is always false is called a contradiction.
➢ The example number 2 above is an illustration of a tautology.
Notice the end result or the last column; all the values are true.

Example of a contradiction:
Given (𝑃˄~𝑄)˄(𝑃˄𝑄), construct the truth table.
P Q ~𝑄 (𝑃˄~𝑄) (𝑃˄𝑄) (𝑃˄~𝑄)˄(𝑃˄𝑄)
T T F F T F
T F T T F F
F T F F F F
F F T F F F

CONTRADICTION
Exercise 2:
Construct the truth table of the given proposition (𝑅 → 𝑆)˅(𝑆 → 𝑅)
Note: Answers are at the end of Unit 2.
GENERAL MATHEMATICS

For you to have mastery, practice on the following exercises. After

answering, refer at the end of Unit 2 to find the answers.
A. Let S: I studied hard for my Math exam.
M: I got a high score on my Math exam
In reasonable English, express the proposition represented by:
1.) 𝑆˄𝑀 =
2.) S˅𝑀 =
3.) ~𝑆 =
4.) ~𝑆˄𝑀 =
5.) ~𝑀 → ~𝑆 =
6.) 𝑆 ↔ 𝑀 =

B. Let H: Twenty-four is an integer.

P: Twenty-four is the product of two integers.

Represent each of the given proposition symbolically.

1. Either 24 is an integer or 24 is the product of two integers.

2. Twenty-four is an integer; moreover, 24 is the product of two integers.

3. Twenty-four is not an integer and is not the product of two integers.

C. Let 𝑃, 𝑄, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑅 be propositions such that 𝑃 is false, 𝑄 is true, and 𝑅 is false. Decide the
truth value of each of the following:
1.) 𝑃˄𝑄
2.) (𝑄˅𝑅) ↔ 𝑃
3.) (𝑃˅~𝑄)˅𝑅
4.) 𝑄˅(𝑃˅𝑅)

5.) (𝑃˄𝑄) → (𝑄˄𝑅)

6.) (~𝑃˅~𝑄)˄{(𝑃˅𝑅)˄(~𝑃˅~𝑅)}
7.) (𝑃 → 𝑄) ↔ 𝑅

8.) (𝑃˅𝑅) → 𝑄
D. Translate the given statement in symbolic form. Use capital letters to represent each of
the component propositions. Rewrite the statements in standard form.
▪ If Marie gets up and goes to school, then she is no longer sick, but if she does not
get up, then she is still sick.
E. Construct a truth table for the given proposition.
(𝑃˄𝑄) → (𝑃˅𝑄)