Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology Copyright 1985 by the American Psychological Association, Inc.

1985, Vol. 53, No. 5, 693-697 0022-006X/85/$00.75

Life Stress, Current Problems, Problem Solving, and

Depressive Symptoms: An Integrative Model
A r t h u r M. N e z u a n d G e o r g e F. R o n a n
Fairleigh Dickinson University

Research focusing on the relation of stressful life events to depression has increased
considerably over the past few decades. Whereas substantial documentation exists
indicating that stressful life events are strongly associated with the occurrence of
depression, this simple relation tends to account for approximately only 10% of the
variance concerning its prediction. The present article focused on expanding this
simple stress--dysfunction paradigm by including variables that have previously
been found to be associated with depression. More specifically, a model was pos-
tulated that included level of current problems and social problem solving. This
model was then tested using path analytic techniques, with results from 205 un-
dergraduate subjects generally supporting its conceptual utility. Furthermore, the
model accounted for 42% of the variance associated with the prediction of depressive
symptoms. Implications for current theory and future research are discussed.

During the past few decades, research fo- This article addressed some of the issues just
cusing on the relation of stressful life events to mentioned by examining a model, via path
depressive symptomatology has increased analysis, that incorporates life stress, current
substantially (Billings & Moos, 1982). What problems, problem solving, and depressive
originally appeared to be an intuitively symptoms.
straightforward approach to understanding
this relation has instead been fraught with both Stress Model
conceptual and methodological problems
(Monroe, 1982). For example, correlations Illustrated in Figure 1 is our suggested con-
between stressful events and disorder onset re- ceptual model outlining the interrelation be-
ported in the literature tend to center around tween these variables. Specifically, we suggest
.30, thus accounting for less than 10% of the that negative life events can influence depres-
variance in predicting depression level as a sion directly as well as indirectly through their
consequence of life stress (Christensen, 1981). impact on the frequency of current problems
Additionally, research findings have clearly and level of problem-solving ability. Further-
shown that some individuals, even under se- more, c u r r e n t p r o b l e m s are portrayed as hav-
verely stressful circumstances, do not neces- ing both a direct and indirect (via problem
sarily experience depressive symptoms (Sara- solving) impact on level of depressive symp-
son, Johnson, & Siegel, 1978). Collectively, toms. Last, proBlem-solving coping is also seen
these issues suggest the need to expand on this as influencing the severity of depressive symp-
simple stress-dysfunction paradigm and to toms in a direct fashion.
develop more conceptually based models. To date, much of the research conducted
on the effects of depressive level have defined
stress in terms of major life events. Although
for m a n y individuals an important source of
This project was funded in part by a grant awarded to
the first author by Fairleigh Dickinson Universitywhile he stress emanates from dramatic life change
was affiliated with the Division of PsychologicalServices. events, (e.g., divorce or death of a family
George Ronan is now at Alfred University. member), for others daily problematic situa-
The authors wish to extend their appreciationto Chris- tions may serve to produce significant levels
tine M. Nezu for her helpful comments concerningan ear- of stress. Within our conceptual model, we
lier draft of this article.
Requests for reprints should be sent to Arthur M. Nezu, suggest that experiencing a major life event of-
who is now at the Department of Psychology, Fairleigh ten results in the increase of current daily
Dickinson University,Teaneck,New Jersey 07666. problems that may function as microstressors.
693
694 ARTHUR M. NEZU AND GEORGE E RONAN
NLS
X1
~-'~'~P41
P21
I CP
X2
Figure 1. Conceptualmodel indicating relationsbetween negativelife stress (NLS), current problems (CP),
problem solving(PS), and depression(DEP) within a path analytic framework.
For example, getting fired from a job may re-
sult in a myriad of consequences, such as
looking for another job, managing daily fi-
nances, and finding ways to use free time. The
extent to which a major life event results in
an increase in such current problems may be
a finer analysis of the influence of major stress
on depression. In line with this, Nezu (1984)
found that assessment of life events and current
problems each predicted a level of depressive
symptoms, but the influence of both sources
of stress taken together was greater and a better
predictor than either variable considered alone.
Therefore, within the present model, we hy-
pothesized that a strong association would exist
between level of current problems and de-
pressive symptoms in a direct fashion (i.e., the
more problems an individual has, the higher
•the likelihood she or he will experience de-
pressive symptomatology).
In reaction to such stress, we suggest that
the degree to which individuals engage in ef-
fective problem solving as a means of coping
also determines to a large extent the severity
of their consequent depressive symptoms.
Problem solving refers to the process by which
people discover or identify effective means of
coping with problematic situations encoun-
tered in daily living (D'Zurilla & Nezu, 1982).
With specific regard to depression, recent re-
search has indicated that depressed individuals
evidence deficits in their ability to effectively
resolve interpersonal and social problems
DEP
X4
(Gotlib & Asarnow, 1979; Nezu & Ronan, in
press). Other studies have found problem solv-
ing to be an effective coping strategy in buff-
ering the effects of life stress regarding conse-
quent depressive reactions (Billings & Moos,
1982; Nezu, Nezu, Saraydarian, & Kalmar,
1984). Thus, we hypothesize a direct associa-
tion between problem solving and depressive
symptomatology, as well as an indirect asso-
ciation between current problems and depres-
sive symptoms via problem solving.
To provide for an empirical illustration of
this conceptual framework, data concerning
these variables were gathered from a popula-
tion of undergraduate students. Path analytic
techniques were used to evaluate the tenability
of this model. This procedure provides one
with a means of decomposing the effects of a
variable into its direct and indirect effects (A1-
win & Hauser, 1975), thus allowing for a com-
prehensive examination of a model.
Method
Subjects
Participants in this study included 205 undergraduate
students (108 men and 97 women)who were enrolled in
variousintroductorypsychologycoursesat a northeastern
university.Their agesrangedfrom 18 to 28 yearsold, with
a mean age of 22.9 yearsold. The study was conductedin
group sessionsof 15 to 30 individuals,during which sub-
jects were asked to complete each of the followingfour
inventories.
 STRESS AND DEPRESSION
Measures
Depressive symptoms were measured by the Beck
Depression Inventory (BDI; Beck, Ward, Mendelson,
Mock, & Erbaugh, 1961). Estimates of reliability and va-
lidity (psychiatric criteria estimates) have been found to
be .78 and .77, respectively, within a university population
(Bumberry, Oliver, & McClure, 1978; Oliver & Burkham,
1979).
The Problem-Solving Inventory (PSI; Heppner & Pe-
tersen, 1982) is a 32-item self-report measure that assesses
personal problem-solving behavior and attitudes, where low
scores are reflective of effective problem resolution. PSI
scores have been found to be significantly correlated with
observational ratings of problem-solving behavioral com-
petence (Heppner, Hibel, Neal, Weinstein, & Rabinowitz,
1982). Test-retest reliability has been estimated to range
from .83 to .89.
The Problem Checklist (PCL) was developed for a pre-
vious study (Nezu, 1985) and comprises a list of 15 areas
of living within which problems may occur for the average
person (e.g., relationships with friends, living conditions,
finances, job, and school). For each area, subjects are asked
to rate the frequency of current problems that they are
exeriencing along a 7-point Likert-type scale. Higher scores
indicate a greater frequency of problems across areas. Test-
retest reliability over a l-month period has been estimated
to be .67.
Life stress was measured by the Life Experiences Survey
(LES; Sarason ct al., 1978), which requires subjects to in-
dicate both the incidence and stressful impact of various
important life change events. Subjects were asked to report
only those events that occurred during the past 6 months
because previous research has suggested that recall of life
events over longer periods of time tend to be highly inac-
curate (Monroe, 1982). Reliability estimates range from
.63 to .88 (Sarason et ai., 1978).
Results
Path Analysis
In order to provide estimates of the model
illustrated in Figure 1, an initial series of
regression analyses were performed) The
equations representing each of these analyses
are as follows:
X2 = P21Xz + e2;
X3 = P31XI + P32X2 + e3;
)(4 = P41XI + P42X2 +/743)(3 + e4;
where XI = negative life stress; X2 = frequency
o f current problems; X3 = problem solving;
)(4 = depressive symptomatology; and e2, e3,
and e4 are random error terms. Within each
equation, Pe represents the standardized
regression coefficient known as the path coef-
ficient, which indicates the direct effects of that
variable (e.g., P21 in Figure 1 represents the
695
Table 1
Zero-Order Correlations Between Variables,
Means, and Standard Deviations for All Measures
Measure 2 3 4 M SD
1. NLES .402** .176" .404** 10.36 8.77
2. PCL .335** .553** 42.77 15.79
3. PSI .452** 88.82 21.87
4. BDI 8.72 6.14
Note. NLES = (Negative) Life Experiences Survey; PCL =
Problem Checklist; PSI = Problem-Solving Inventory;
BDI = Beck Depression Inventory.
* p < . 0 5 . ** p < .001.
direct effect of negative life stress on the fre-
quency of current problems). Indirect effects
represent the effect of one variable on a second
as moderated by a third variable. For example,
the indirect effects of negative life events (X0
on depressive symptoms (X4), as mediated by
current problems (X2), is represented as P42P21•
Total effects, as represented by q~j, are defined
as the sum of the direct effect and any indirect
effects via intervening variables (e.g., q42 =
P42 + P43P32). Table 1 contains the means,
standard deviations, and zero-order correla-
tions for the four measures.
Relation Between Negative Life Stress,
Current Problems, and Problem Solving
The path analysis initially indicated a non-
significant relation of negative life stress to
problem solving, P31 = .049, whereas a signif-
icant association appeared between negative
life stress and current problems, P21 = .402
(p < .001). This suggests that increased levels
of life stress do not directly impact on level of
problem solving but are associated with in-
creases in the frequency of current problems.
Additionally, the significant path coefficient,
P32 = .315 (p < .001), suggests a relation of
the frequency of current problems to the level
of problem solving. Remembering that the PSI
is scored such that higher values are reflective
Because an initial multivariate analysis of variance
found no differences between men and women on any of
the measures, a single path analysis was conducted on their
combined data. Whereas previous research has indicated
the presence of certain depression-associated sex differ-
ences, these have usually not been found among college
populations (cf. Chevron, Quinlan, & Blatt, 1978). Thus,
the lack of sex differences in this study was not surprising.
696 ARTHUR M. NEZU AND GEORGE E RONAN
of ineffective problem solvers, this association
indicates that poorer problem solving is as-
sociated with greater frequencies of current
problems.
Relation to Depressive S y m p t o m s
Table 2 contains the direct, indirect, and to-
tal effects of negative life stress, current prob-
lems, and problem solving on depressive
symptomatology. Examination of the direct ef-
fect path coefficients indicates that each of
these variables is significantly related to de-
pressive symptomatology. With respect to the
effect of negative life events on depression, it
can be seen that additional exacerbating effects
exist when considering the indirect effects via
current problems. Whereas the additional in-
direct effects from current problems via prob-
lem solving are small (but still significant), re-
call that a greater frequency of current prob-
lems was found to be related to ineffective
problem solving, which in turn is associated
with higher levels of depressive symptoms.
Furthermore, the direct effect of problem
solving on depressive symptoms is significant,
suggesting that poorer problem solving is also
associated with higher levels of depressive
symptomatology. In total, the effects due to
these three variables (negative life stress, cur-
rent problems, and problem solving) account
for 42% of the variance in predicting depressive
level, which was found to be significant, F(3,
201) = 48.56, p < .001.
Discussion
We originally presented a conceptual model
that expanded on a simple stress-dysfunction
paradigm and incorporated negative life stress,
current problems, problem-solving coping,
and depressive symptomatology. Specifically,
we postulated the following causal relation be-
tween these variables: (a) experiencing negative
life events often results in an increase in cur-
rent problems; (b) the degree to which an in-
dividual effectively copes with these problems
is a function of his or her problem-solving
ability; and (c) effectively resolving problems
will decrease the likelihood of experiencing
depressive symptoms.
In general, results from the path analysis
support this model. 2 It was found that negative
life stress was associated with depressive
Table 2
Direct, Indirect, and Total Effects on Depression
Variable Coefficients
Negative life events
Direct effects (P41) .203**
Indirect effects via
Current problems ~42/~2~) .150*
Problem solving (P4~O30 .014
Both (P43P32P2~) .036
Total effects (q41) .403***
Current problems
Direct effect(P42) .374***
Indirect effectvia
Problem solving(P4aP32) .092*
Total effects(q42) .466***
Problem solving
Direct or total effect(P43or q43) .291"*
Adjusted R 2 .414**
* p < .05. ** p < .01. *** p < . 0 0 1 .
symptoms in both a direct fashion and an in-
direct manner via level of current problems.
Furthermore, current problems had a signifi-
cant direct impact on depressive symptoms as
well as an indirect influence via problem solv-
ing. Finally, problem solving itself was seen to
have a significant direct influence on level o f
depressive symptoms.
Examination of Table 2, however, further
indicates that level of current problems has a
stronger direct association with BDI scores
than does negative life events. This suggests
that the degree to which major life events are
associated with consequent problems influ-
ences the level of depressive symptoms an in-
dividual would eventually experience. The
present model, thus, is able to further specify
2Within a path analyticframeworkincorporatingmore
than two variables, it is possible to generate a multitude
of models,wherebyvariablescan be placedwithin different
sequential relations to each other. To test the validity of
any givenmodel,the specificrelationshouldbe theoretically
sound and should meet certain statistical criteria. One ma-
jor assumption involvesthe consistency of the data with
the model, such that the followingrelations are met (Ped-
hazer, 1982): rl3 = P31 + p32r12;r23 = p3tr12 + P32; rl4 =
P41 + P42rt2 + Pi3r13; r24 = P41r12 + P42 + p43r23; r ~ =
p41r~3+ P42r23+ P43. The data from this study were used
to test these assumptionsand were found to be consistent
with our model.
 STRESS AND DEPRESSION
the m a n n e r in which negative life stress has
differing influences on psychological health.
More important, the model tested provided for
an aggregate 42% o f the variance accounted
for in predicting depressive symptoms, in con-
trast to the 16% that was reflected in the basic
relation o f negative life events to depression
scores for subjects in this study.
Whereas the results o f our investigation are
consistent with the model we originally pro-
posed, some limitations should be noted. First,
our cross-sectional design prohibits a rigorous
test o f the hypotheses put forth concerning the
direction o f causality. Second, because the
measures used in this study were self-report,
social desirability factors c a n n o t be totally
ruled out. Thus, we suggest that future research
should incorporate behavioral indexes o f
depression and stress in order to provide for
external validation o f the present findings.
A third limitation stems from the fact that
university students were used as subjects in this
study, and as such, the results may not be gen-
eralizable to a clinically depressed population.
However, the basic premise o f this study was
to test a model that may have relevance for
depression as a clinical disorder. As such, the
results provide for potential avenues o f future
research. These include investigations that
might focus on evaluation o f these hypotheses
with a clinically depressed group, identification
o f specific problem-solving skills that may be
involved as buffers o f the effects o f stress, iden-
tification o f the type o f problems most related
to depression, evaluation o f the interaction be-
tween problem solving and other coping skills
in relation to depression, the identification o f
the types o f problems m o r e readily buffered
by problem-solving attempts, and sex differ-
ences regarding the relevance o f this model to
both m e n and women.
Additionally, the present model has impli-
cations relevant to treatment and prevention
issues. For example, interventions based on
problem-solving skills m a y prove fruitful in
reducing the vulnerability to depression that
stress m a y create (Nezu et al., 1984). We are
currently engaged in such an o u t c o m e study
with clinically depressed patients.
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Received October 23, 1984
Revision received April 19, 1985 •