Assignment 2:

Q1) What is pinch voltage?

Soln 1) "Pinch voltage" usually refers to a phenomenon related to electrical wiring and safety in
electrical systems, particularly in buildings. It is the voltage drop that occurs in the electrical wiring
due to the resistance of the conductor when a heavy load is connected or when the circuit
experiences a high current flow. This can happen in situations where there is inadequate wiring, poor
connections, or other factors that increase the resistance of the electrical path.

In some cases, pinch voltage can be problematic because it may not be accurately measured by
standard voltage testing equipment. This is because the voltage at the point of contact (where
someone touches a conductor) can be significantly lower than the voltage measured at the power
source due to the voltage drop along the conductor.

To prevent dangerous situations related to pinch voltage, proper electrical system design,
installation, and maintenance are crucial. This includes using appropriate wire sizes, ensuring proper
connections, and following safety standards and regulations to minimize the risks of electric shock
and other electrical hazards.

Q2) What is a source pull?

Soln 2) "Source pull" is a term commonly used in RF (radio frequency) and microwave engineering. It
refers to a measurement or characterization technique used to analyze and optimize the
performance of active devices like transistors, amplifiers, and oscillators. In a source pull
measurement, the active device is typically mounted on a test fixture, and its input (source) and
output (load) terminations are adjusted dynamically to determine how the device responds to
different impedance conditions. The goal is to find the optimum impedance conditions that maximize
the desired performance parameters, such as output power, efficiency, gain, or linearity. Source pull
measurements are often performed using automated test equipment (ATE) or vector network
analyzers (VNAs) to sweep through various source and load impedances while monitoring the
device's performance. The results are usually presented on Smith charts or other graphical
representations, allowing engineers to visualize the regions of impedance that yield optimal
performance. In summary, "source pull" is a technique used in RF engineering to optimize the
performance of active devices by varying their input and output impedance conditions and observing
how these changes affect their behavior.

Q3) What is load pull?

Soln 3) "Load pull" is a measurement and characterization technique commonly used in RF (radio
frequency) and microwave engineering. It is a complementary technique to "source pull" and is used
to analyze and optimize the performance of active devices like transistors, amplifiers, and
oscillators.In a load pull measurement, the active device is mounted on a test fixture, and the
impedance of the load (output) is adjusted dynamically while keeping the source impedance
constant. The purpose is to determine how the device performs under different load impedance
conditions and to identify the optimum load impedance that maximizes the desired performance
parameters, such as output power, efficiency, gain, or linearity.Load pull measurements are essential
in RF and microwave circuit design because the impedance matching of active devices, particularly at
the output stage, can significantly affect their performance. By understanding how the device
operates under various load impedance conditions, engineers can design matching networks and
other components to achieve the desired specifications and maximize overall system efficiency.In
summary, "load pull" is a technique used in RF engineering to optimize the performance of active
devices by varying the load impedance and observing how these changes impact the device's
behavior and performance characteristics.

Q4) What is HEMT? Explain it’s working.

Soln 4) A High Electron Mobility Transistor (HEMT) is a type of field-effect transistor (FET) that is
commonly used in microwave and high-frequency electronic applications. It's designed to provide
high-speed, high-power, and low-noise performance in these applications.HEMTs are particularly
popular in RF (radio frequency) and microwave circuits due to their unique design and properties.
The key feature of a HEMT is its high electron mobility channel, which allows for faster electron
movement within the device compared to traditional metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect
transistors (MOSFETs). This high mobility leads to better performance at high frequencies.

Here are some characteristics and features of HEMTs:

Materials: HEMTs are often made using compound semiconductor materials like gallium arsenide
(GaAs), indium phosphide (InP), or gallium nitride (GaN). These materials have excellent electronic
properties that make them suitable for high-frequency applications.

Structure: A HEMT consists of a heterojunction, which is formed by combining layers of different

semiconductor materials with varying bandgaps. This creates an energy barrier that enhances
electron mobility and allows for high-speed operation.

Operation: HEMTs operate based on the principle of controlling the flow of electrons between the
source and drain terminals using an electric field. The gate terminal is used to modulate this electric
field, effectively controlling the conductivity of the channel.

Advantages: HEMTs offer several advantages, including high electron mobility, low noise
performance, high output power, and the ability to operate at high frequencies. These characteristics
make them suitable for applications such as amplifiers, mixers, oscillators, and more.

Applications: HEMTs are commonly used in microwave and millimeter-wave circuits for
telecommunications, radar systems, satellite communication, and other high-frequency applications
where high-speed and high-power performance are critical.

A High-Electron Mobility Transistor (HEMT), also known as a HFET (Heterostructure Field-Effect

Transistor), is a type of field-effect transistor that is commonly used in high-frequency and high-
speed electronic applications, such as microwave amplifiers, RF (radio frequency) switches, and
communication systems. HEMTs are known for their high electron mobility and low noise
characteristics, which make them suitable for these demanding applications.
Here's how a HEMT works:

Basic Structure: A HEMT consists of a semiconductor heterostructure, typically made from

compound semiconductors like Gallium Arsenide (GaAs) or Indium Phosphide (InP). The basic
structure includes two semiconductor layers - a high-electron mobility layer (usually made from
AlGaAs or InGaAs) and a low-bandgap layer (typically GaAs) which acts as the barrier layer.

Gate Terminal: The structure has a gate electrode on top of the high-electron mobility layer. This gate
controls the flow of electrons between the source and drain terminals.

Source and Drain Terminals: The high-electron mobility layer acts as the channel between the source
and drain terminals. When a voltage is applied between these terminals, an electric field is created in
the channel, controlled by the gate voltage.

Electron Movement: The heterostructure in a HEMT creates a 2-dimensional electron gas (2DEG) at
the interface between the high-electron mobility layer and the barrier layer. This 2DEG has
significantly higher electron mobility compared to traditional MOSFETs (Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor
Field-Effect Transistors). The high mobility means that electrons can move through the channel with
less resistance, resulting in higher electron velocities and better high-frequency performance.

Operation: When a positive voltage is applied to the gate terminal, an electric field is created in the
channel. This field influences the movement of electrons within the 2DEG. By varying the gate
voltage, the width of the conductive channel can be controlled, modulating the current flow
between the source and drain terminals.

Advantages: HEMTs have several advantages, such as high electron mobility, low noise
characteristics, and excellent high-frequency performance. They can operate at high speeds and are
commonly used in microwave and RF applications where fast switching and high-frequency
amplification are crucial.

Applications: HEMTs find applications in various fields, including wireless communication systems,
radar systems, satellite communication, high-speed digital circuits, and more. They are particularly
useful in situations where high-frequency operation and low noise are critical requirements.
Following is a diagram of HEMT:

Q5) What is power dissipation?

Soln 5) Power dissipation, often referred to simply as "power loss" or "heat generation," is the
process by which electrical energy is converted into heat energy and dissipated into the surrounding
environment in an electronic component or circuit. When current flows through a component or
circuit, some of the electrical energy is transformed into other forms of energy, primarily heat, due to
the inherent resistance and inefficiencies in the components.

In electronics, power dissipation is a critical consideration because excessive heat can damage
components, reduce their efficiency, and lead to performance degradation or even failure. Here are
some key points about power dissipation:

Ohm's Law and Power Dissipation: According to Ohm's Law (V = I * R), the voltage across a
component (V) is equal to the product of the current flowing through it (I) and its resistance (R).
When current flows through a resistor or any other component with resistance, energy is lost in the
form of heat. The power dissipated (P) can be calculated using the formula: P = I^2 * R or P = V^2 / R.

Active and Passive Components: Active components like transistors, integrated circuits, and diodes
can dissipate power when they are operating in their active states. Passive components like resistors,
capacitors, and inductors can also dissipate power due to the electrical energy lost as heat.

Heat Sink and Cooling: In many cases, components that generate significant heat are equipped with
heat sinks—thermal conductive devices designed to efficiently dissipate heat into the surrounding
air. Heat sinks can consist of metal fins, pipes, or other designs that increase the surface area
exposed to the air, enhancing heat dissipation. Cooling mechanisms such as fans or liquid cooling can
further aid in heat removal.
Power Dissipation Ratings: Components are designed with specified power dissipation ratings that
indicate the maximum amount of power they can handle without risking damage. Exceeding these
ratings can result in overheating, which can degrade performance, affect reliability, and even cause
component failure.

Efficiency Considerations: In electronic circuits, power dissipation contributes to inefficiencies. For

example, in power supplies or amplifiers, some of the input electrical energy is converted into heat
instead of being utilized for the intended purpose. Minimizing power dissipation is crucial for
improving overall circuit efficiency.

Design Considerations: When designing electronic systems, engineers carefully consider power
dissipation to ensure components operate within safe temperature ranges. This might involve
selecting components with appropriate power handling capabilities, optimizing circuit layouts for
heat dissipation, and implementing thermal management solutions.

Signal generator (9 KHz to 20 GHz)

Company name – Keysight

EXG Analog generator

Specification

1. Frequency Range: 9 KHz to 20 KHz

2. Phase Noise: 10 GHz and 20 KHz offset:- 101dbc/Hz
3. Output power(at 20 GHz): +20 dbm
4. High stability: +/- 5x+10-10 per day
5. Modulation and: AM, FM, Narrow pulse
6. Automation and communication interface:- 1000 Base T LAN, LX1, USB 2.0, AND GPIB
SCPI,IVI-COM,MATLAB DEVICES
7. Pulse train generator; 10 MHz multifuction

Digital step and list sweep modes with L600 microsecond switching speed

Backward compatible with all ESG, MXG, PSG and 8648x signal generator

SIGNAL ANALYSER

Company- Keysight

N9010B Signal Analyser

Specification:

1. Frequency range:- 10Hz to 44 GHz

 2. Display Average Noise Level:- Typically- 148 dBm to 1 GHz3. Phase Noise: -128 dbc at 10
KHz offset at 1 GHz carrier
3. Phase Noise: -128dbc/Hz at 10 KHz offset 1 GHz carrier
4. Amplitude Accuracy:- +0.19 db
5. Third order intercept:- =18 dbm at 1 GHz
6. Sweep speed:- 7.5 ms full span
7. Resolution Bandwidth(RBW) :- 1 Hz to 5 MHz
8. Video Bandwidth:- 1Hz to 5 MHz(in 1-3-10 sequence)
9. Dynamic range: 166 db

Input and Output Functionalities:

Input:

1. RF Input: It has high frequency RF input port, that allows you to connect the device under
test (DUT) or signal source you want to analyze.
2. Input attenuation:- You can adjust the setting to control the signal level ensuring accurate
measurement
3. External trigger: It enables you to synchronize measurement with external events or signal

OUTPUT:

1. Display:- It shows measurement results spectra, waveforms

2. Measurement Results:- It provides numerical results for various paramters such as frequency
power
3. Data output: You can export measurement data and results in different formats, including
CSV, TXT or graphical formats

POWER METER

COMPANY:- Rande and Swhwarz MRPz

Specifications:

1. Test frequency range:- 0Hz to 110 GHz

2. Power measuring range:- -67 dbm to 45 dbm
3. Measurement linearity:- Typical within + 0.5% to + 2% pf reading
4. Measurement speed:- Fast measurement speed, typically ranging from 50 to 1000 readings
per second
5. Measurement resolution:- Typically 0.01 db or better
6. Connector types: various sensor modules are available with different types of RF conectors
to match
7. Display: Built in Display for real time measurement
8. Calibration:- can be calibrated to provide accurate power measurement
9. Supported UNITS:- Measurement can be displayed in dbm, mw, dbmV, db A, dbmA and more

Q) Explain Direction coupler, working and diagram.

Soln) A directional coupler is a passive electronic device used in radio frequency (RF) and microwave
systems to split or combine electromagnetic signals. It has four ports: one input port, one coupled
port, and two output ports. The primary purpose of a directional coupler is to provide isolation
between the input and output ports while allowing a portion of the input signal to be coupled to the
coupled port and then transmitted to one of the output ports.

There are different types of directional couplers, including:

1. Single-Section Coupler: This is the simplest type of directional coupler and is based on the
principle of electromagnetic wave propagation. It consists of a main transmission line and a
secondary transmission line that runs parallel to it. A portion of the input signal couples to
the secondary line, and the remaining signal is transmitted to the output port. The amount
of coupling can be controlled by the physical spacing between the two transmission lines.
2. Two-Section Coupler: This type of coupler improves the isolation between the input and
output ports by using two coupled transmission lines separated by a length of transmission
line with a different characteristic impedance. This design provides better directivity and
higher isolation.
3. Three-Section Coupler: This type of coupler further enhances the performance by adding a
third coupled line section. It achieves even better directivity and isolation, making it suitable
for more demanding applications.
4. Multisection Coupler: This type of coupler consists of more than three coupled sections and
is designed for specialized applications that require very high directivity and isolation.

The working principle of a directional coupler involves the interaction of electromagnetic waves in
transmission lines. Let's take a closer look at how a basic single-section directional coupler works:

1. Input Signal: The directional coupler has four ports: an input port (usually referred to as Port
1), an output port for the main signal (Port 2), an output port for the coupled signal (Port 3),
and a termination port (Port 4) that is typically internally terminated to absorb any reflected
signals.
2. Wave Propagation: The input signal is applied to Port 1 of the coupler. This signal travels
along the main transmission line (also known as the through-line) towards Port 2, which is
the desired output port for the main signal.
3. Coupling to Secondary Line: The coupler also includes a secondary transmission line, often
referred to as the coupled line or the coupled port (Port 3). The main transmission line and
the coupled line run parallel to each other and are separated by a certain distance.
4. Signal Coupling: As the input signal travels along the main transmission line, a portion of its
energy couples to the secondary line due to the proximity of the two lines. This coupled
signal then propagates along the secondary line towards Port 3.
5. Output Ports: At Port 2 (the main output port), the majority of the input signal continues
along the main transmission line and exits the coupler. At Port 3 (the coupled output port),
the portion of the input signal that coupled to the secondary line is available as an output.
This portion is typically weaker than the main output and is often referred to as the "coupled
signal."
6. Isolation and Directivity: One of the key features of a directional coupler is the isolation it
provides between the input and output ports. Ideally, any signal reflected back from Port 2
should be absorbed by the termination at Port 4, preventing it from affecting the input
signal. Additionally, the design of the coupler ensures that minimal energy couples from the
main line to the coupled line, resulting in good directivity.
7. Applications: Directional couplers are used in various applications. For example, in RF and
microwave communication systems, they can be used to sample signals for monitoring,
measurement, or feedback purposes without significantly affecting the main signal path.
They are also used in test setups to measure the power level of a signal, calibrate
instruments, or separate incident and reflected waves.