Modern Marketing Research Concepts

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Chapter 4: Causal Designs and Marketing Experiments

TRUE/FALSE

1. Deterministic causation is the scientific notion that the effect always follows the cause.

ANS: F
The notion of deterministic causation is that the effect follows the cause; probabilistic causation is the
scientific notion that the effect is only probable.

PTS: 1 DIF: Moderate REF: pg 188

2. The common sense notion talks of proving that X causes Y; the scientific notion holds that we can
only infer causality without proving it.

ANS: T
From a scientific standpoint, causality can be inferred but never really proven.

PTS: 1 DIF: Easy REF: pg 188

3. Due to relationships among variables caused by other factors, such as reverse causation, omitted
variables, and insufficient variation, concomitant variation is not sufficient to make valid causal
inferences.

ANS: T
Just because variables display a high level of correlation does not mean one caused the other.

© 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a pub-
licly accessible website, in whole or in part.
 PTS: 1 DIF: Moderate REF: pg 189

4. For causation to occur, the cause must occur prior to the effect.

ANS: F
The cause can also occur simultaneously with the effect, as well as before the effect.

PTS: 1 DIF: Challenging REF: pg 189

5. The measures taken on the test units are the independent variables in an experiment.

ANS: F
The measures are the dependent variables; the treatments are the independent variables.

PTS: 1 DIF: Challenging REF: pg 190-191

6. Randomizing treatments to test units is not an effective method of handling extraneous variables,
because it does not in any way control extraneous variables.

ANS: F
Randomization is important for controlling extraneous variables in experimental design.

PTS: 1 DIF: Moderate REF: pg 191

7. If physical control, randomization, and research design features do not eliminate the differential effects
of extraneous variables among treatment groups, the experiment is said to be confounded.

ANS: T
When the effects of extraneous variables cannot be eliminated, then the experiment is confounded and
no causation can be assumed.

PTS: 1 DIF: Easy REF: pg 192

8. An experimental design involves the specification of treatments to be manipulated, test units to be

used, and independent variables to be measured.

ANS: F
An experimental design must specify treatments to be manipulated (i.e., the independent variables),
test units to be used, the dependent variables to be measured, and procedures for dealing with
extraneous variables.

PTS: 1 DIF: Challenging REF: pg 192

9. External validity is concerned with whether the experimental results can be generalized.

ANS: T
External validity is concerned with whether the results can be generalized.

PTS: 1 DIF: Easy REF: pg 192

10. Extraneous variables need to be controlled to ensure that the experiment is externally valid.

ANS: F
Controlling extraneous variables will assure researchers of internal validity, not external validity.

© 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a pub-
licly accessible website, in whole or in part.
 PTS: 1 DIF: Moderate REF: pg 192

11. The R in X-O-R syntax stands for “reference,” which are the test units being observed.

ANS: F
R indicates that individuals have been assigned at random to separate treatment group.

PTS: 1 DIF: Easy REF: pg 193

12. In experiments, the greater the time between observations (O1 and O2), the greater the chance of a
history or maturation effect confounding the experiment.

ANS: T
Time between observations increases the possibility of both history effect and maturation effect.

PTS: 1 DIF: Easy REF: pg 194

13. The reactive (or interactive) testing effect occurs when the first observation affects the second
observation.

ANS: F
This is direct (or main) testing effect, not reactive or interactive testing effects.

PTS: 1 DIF: Challenging REF: pg 194

14. Test unit mortality refers to instances where researchers exceed the treatment and observation
deadlines specified in the experimental design.

ANS: F
Test unit mortality refers to test units withdrawing from the experiment while it is in progress.

PTS: 1 DIF: Easy REF: pg 195

15. The one-group pre-test-post-test design is represented symbolically by “O1 X O2.”

ANS: T
This pre-experimental design uses a pre-test before the treatment and a post-test after the treatment.

PTS: 1 DIF: Moderate REF: pg 196

16. A true experimental design is one where the researcher is able to eliminate all extraneous variables as
competitive hypotheses to the treatment, at least in theory.

ANS: T
True experimental designs, at least in theory, rule out all of the threats to internal validity.

PTS: 1 DIF: Easy REF: pg 197

17. In true experimental designs, extraneous variables must never be present in the treatment group(s),
although they can be present in control group(s) if properly controlled.

ANS: F

© 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a pub-
licly accessible website, in whole or in part.
 Extraneous variables can be present as long as they operate equally on all treatment and control
groups. Confounding results occur when extraneous variables operate differently among treatment and
control groups.

PTS: 1 DIF: Moderate REF: pg 197

18. In a Solomon four-group experimental design, all extraneous variables and the interactive testing
effect can be controlled, but their effects cannot be measured.

ANS: F
Not only can extraneous variables and the interactive testing effect be controlled, they can also be
isolated and measured.

PTS: 1 DIF: Challenging REF: pg 198-199

19. A time-series experiment undertakes periodic measurement on dependent variables for test units. The
treatment is then introduced, or occurs naturally, and the periodic measurements continue on the same
test units to monitor the effects of the treatment.

ANS: T
This is the definition of a time-series experiment.

PTS: 1 DIF: Easy REF: pg 200

20. The primary difference between the time-series experimental design and the multiple time-series
design is the randomization of the test units to the treatment group in the multiple time-series design.

ANS: F
The primary difference is the presence of a control group with the multiple time-series design.

PTS: 1 DIF: Moderate REF: pg 202

21. Only experimental and quasi-experimental designs can identify causal relationships.

ANS: T
Unfortunately, descriptive studies are often used to argue causal relationships, but only experimental
or quasi-experimental designs can rigorously and reliably separate cause and effect.

PTS: 1 DIF: Moderate REF: pg 203

22. Laboratory settings generally offer lower control over confounding variables than other studies, but the
results are more able to be generalized.

ANS: F
It is the reverse: laboratory settings generally offer greater control over confounding variables than
other studies, but the results are less able to be generalized.

PTS: 1 DIF: Moderate REF: pg 203-204

23. In a completely randomized design, treatments are randomly assigned to groups of test units based on
an external criterion variable.

ANS: F

© 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a pub-
licly accessible website, in whole or in part.
 In a completely randomized design, treatments are assigned to test units in an entirely random manner.
In a randomized block design, test units are combined into blocks based on an external criterion
variable and then treatments are randomly assigned to those groups. By definition, random assignment
can not be based on an external criterion variable.

PTS: 1 DIF: Challenging REF: pg 208

24. In a randomized block design, the dependent variable must be of at least ordinal scale.

ANS: F
In a randomized block design, blocks are nominally scaled.

PTS: 1 DIF: Challenging REF: pg 209

25. In the Latin square (LS) design, each row and column category defines a block situation, which means
that each treatment must appear once in each row and once in each column.

ANS: T
Although treatments must be assigned randomly, they must satisfy this restriction of only one per row
and one per column.

PTS: 1 DIF: Moderate REF: pg 209-210

MULTIPLE CHOICE

1. Under which conditions can researchers claim a causal inference?

a. concomitant variation
b. high level of correlation between variables
c. time order of occurrence of variables
d. elimination of other possible causal factors
e. a, b, and c only
f. a, c, and d only
ANS: F
Causal inferences require establishing concomitant variation, time order of occurrence of variables,
and elimination of other causal factors. A high level of correlation between variables does not
necessarily imply causation.

PTS: 1 DIF: Challenging REF: pg 188

2. The extent to which a cause, X, and an effect, Y, occur together or vary together in the way predicted
by a hypothesis under consideration is
a. concomitant variation d. interaction effect
b. convergent variation e. time occurrence of variables
c. deterministic causation
ANS: A
By definition, concomitant variation is the extent two variables occur together or vary together as
hypothesized.

PTS: 1 DIF: Moderate REF: pg 188

3. In addition to causation, the other types of relationships possible among correlated variables include all
of the following except

© 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a pub-
licly accessible website, in whole or in part.
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