Fine motor skills: involve the usage of smaller muscles associates with movements of

precision.
Gross motor skills: involves the usage of larger muscle groups focusing less on precision
Discrete movements: have an obvious start and end
Serial movements: several discrete skills performed in a sequence
Continuous movements: have no definite start and ending point
Blocked practice: involves repetitively performing the same performance
Massed practice: Longer, less frequent training sessions with less time to rest throughout
Random practice: performing a number of different skills together
Distribute practice: shorter more frequent training sessions.
Intrinsic feedback: individual uses their own sense to judge performance
Closed motor skills: Where the performer has greatest control over the movement; external
factors are controlled, are performed in a predictable manner.
Open motor skills: As opposed to controlled motor skills the performer has little to no
control over the environment and it may be constantly changing.
Individual constraints:
 Body size; height and weight
 Fitness level including aerobic capacity, speed and agility
Environment constraints:
 Weather
 Environment in which an individual has grown up
Task based constraints:
 Team size and number of players
 Rules/game of the sport

Biomechanics:
– Biomechanics is the study of the mechanical movements that govern human
movement
Kinetics:
– Is the study the of forces that cause motion
Kinematics:
– Is the description of motion
Motion:
– Refers to the change of the position of a body in relation to time
Linear motion:
– The motion that occurs either in a straight line or a curved line
Angular motion:
– Takes place when a body move through a circular path
Mass:
 Is the quantity of matter found within a particular body
Inertia:
 Is the resistance of a body to change its state of motion
Velocity:
 Rate of speed an object moves in position
Force:
 Product of mass and acceleration
Momentum:
  Is the product of mass and velocity; for example, a body with greater mass moving
faster will have greater momentum than a lighter object moving with a slower
momentum
Conservation of mass:
 Whenever two bodies collide the momentum of the two bodies is conserved

 Think; Transference of momentum from one body to another

 Greater mass and velocity, results in higher conservation of momentum

Force summation:
 Correct timing and sequence of a body segment and muscle through its range of
motion
 Think; coordination correct sequence and timing of bodies segment will allow the
greatest transference of force
 Follow through can increase the force of a projectile motion
Simultaneous force summation:
 IS the use of multiple body parts together to produce force
 Combining groups of muscles together increases over momentum and force
Sequential force summation:
 Is the activation of body that are used in a sequence to produce force
 Allows someone to follow through increasing momentum
 Larger to smaller muscle groups increasing momentum
 Transference of force summation from
Moment of inertia:
 Is a measure of resistance of a body to move through it rate of roatation
Newton’s first law:
 States that an object will stay at rest or remain in motion, in a constant speed and
the same direction unless impacted by an external force
Moment of inertia is dependent on:
 Essential to remember angular momentum is a product of moment of inertia
 The length of the object mass from the axis of rotation
 The mass of the object
 Modifying techniques and equipment can also increase moment of inertia, for
example someone who is in the cognitive stage of learning may potential hold a bat
with a higher grip, potentially reducing the axis of rotation distance from the mass of
an object increasing moment of inertia
Moment of inertia can be decreased by:
 When a diver tucks in his/body closer to the midline of the body it reduces the
moment of inertia
Newton’s Second law:
 State that acceleration is proportional to the force applied in the same direction as
the force was applied
Newton’s third law of motion:
 States that for every action there is an equal and opposite reaction
Impulse:
 Is the product of force over time
Displacement:
  Is the difference between between an objects initial starting point and were it ends
Speed:
 Refers to the rate of motion
Angular speed and velocity:
 The total distance covered dived by time on a curved line
Linear acceleration:
 The rate of an objects change of velocity over time
Angular acceleration:
 The rate of change of a velocity over time on a curved line
Projectile motion:
 As soon as an object or person is released into the air it becomes a projectile and can
immediately be impacted by two external forces: air resistance and gravity.
Projectile tile motion can be influenced by:
 Velocity, the higher the velocity the greater the air resistance
 Mass, the lower the mass the greater the air resistance
 Greater surface area equals more air resistance; think of a parachute, which is
influenced significantly by air resistance, due to its large surface area
 Nature of an object; smoother objects tend to decrease drag, therefore have a
reduction in air resistance; for example planes or cars
Speed of release:
 The force applied to an object will have a large impact on its motion
 All factors factors excluded; greater force means greater distance an object will
travel
 By increasing the amount of muscle groups used force can be increase, not always
poor coordination and sequence of force summation can mean more muscle groups
does not result in force
Angle of release:
 In most sporting examples where there is a desired need for maximal distance opf a
projectile there is a need of an optimal angle of release, to minimise air resistance
and gravity
Height of release:
 If the angle of speed of release is constant, than an object released from a higher
point will travel futher
 This is advantageous in the sporting arena
Levers:
 Are rigid structure that rotate around an axis
 First class levers have the axis at the middle point
 2 class levers have the resistance as the central component
 Third class levers have the force as the middle component
Using lever systems:
 If the force arm is greater than the resistance arm it can be said the mechanical
advantage is greater than 1, where the force need to carry the load is less than the
resistance
Static equilibrium:
 State of which the body has zero velocity and zero acceleration. A body is in
equilibrium when the sum of all forces and the sum of all moments acting on the
body are equal to zero
Dynamic equilibrium:
 Is the state of which a body is in motion with a constant velocity
Equilibrium:
 Refers to when there is balances in forces or influences in opposition to each other
Centre of gravity:
 Central point of an object
Tips to increase stability and balance:
 Widening an objects base of support
 Lowering an objects centre of gravity
 Increasing the mass of an object
Tips for reducing stability and balance to promote agility:
 Raising an objects centre of gravity
 Shifting the line of gravity outside the base of support
 Narrowing the base of support
 Decreasing the mass of an object

Coaching And Instruction:

Explicit:
 Learning that takes place as a result of direct instruction, where the performer is told
what to do and when to do it
Direct approach:
 The learner is focused on the coach’s commands towards prescribed learning
outcomes
Indirect:
 Allows the learner to discovery effective skills and performance strategies for them.
Constraints based approach:
 The constraints-based approach allows the learner to develop effective techniques
and performance strategies within short-sided modified games
Implicit:
 Learning is learning through doing. Participants learns through completing a task
Perception-action coupling:
 Describes the relationship between perception and action
Environmental constraints:
 These are the characteristics of the environment in which the performance takes
place
 Think, weather conditions, indoors or outdoors, influence of peers
Task Constraints:
 Task constraints explain the facilities and equipment used
 Could be length of activity, amount of players, court size, oval size
Advantages of constraints based approach:
 Practice closely replicates game environment, facilitates the development of more
applicable skills
 Learning is implicit
 Implicit learners make better problem solver and are less likely to choke at times of
stress
Game Sense:
  Is a method of teaching practical awareness and effective skill performance using
guiding open ended questions game constraints modification
 Usually involves the use of drills
The core elements of game sense:
 Designating short, sided games stimulate the decision making and movement skills
demand found within the relevant sport
 Coach uses questions to guide the learning process
 Establishing an environment where learning occurs through problem solving
 Constraints are manipulated to emphasis a particular learning goal regarding
tactical/strategical awareness and skill application
 Target games – sports can be grouped on the same category for example invasion
games like soccer, whilst it does involve kicking off the ground the idea of invasion is
highly similar and compatible with sports such as netball
 In a game sense approach coaches still have obligations to fix techniques, however
this occurs within the game sense situation
 Sports are classified into four categories
 Invasion games ( netball and soccer)
 Striking field games ( cricker and basketball)
 Net/court games (tennis and badminton)
 Target games ( archery and shooting
Stages of learning:
The skill learner’s pathway from complete beginner to expert performer is characterised by
three distinct stages of learning. Each stage of learning requires different practice and
instructional strategies to ensure further skill development.
 Cognitive (complete beginner)
 Associative ( practice stage)
 Autonomous (expert stage)
Cognitive stage of learning:
 The initial stage of learning a motor skill where the emphasis is on conscious
understanding of the requirements
 Attention is given to understanding the skill
 Complete beginner
 Lots of errors made
Coaching the cognitive stage of learning:
 Since the learner’s attention is drawn to understanding how to perform the skill, it is
crucial that the coach does not overload the learner, and uses simple, only provides
the learner with 1 or more pieces of information
 Performance in cognitive stage benefits greatly from watching effective use of a skill
being performed
 Verbal instruction should be clear and concise
 The coach should provide feedback on relative success on the performance as well
as provide the learner with strategies to address faults
Associative stage of learning:
 Once the learner has progressed to consistently performing the basics of a skill with
relatively few mistakes, it is said they are in the associative stage of learning
 Consistent performance of the basic mechanics of a skill
  Learner concentrates on skill refinement
 Improved ability to detect and improve error’s
Autonomous stage:
 The skill becomes automatic
 Learner is able to recognise errors in skill performance and correct them
 Able to adjust skills to game environment
 Very few error’s
Sociocultural factors:
 Refer to the specific social and cultural practices, beliefs and traditions within a
community that encourage or discourage involvement in sport
Social cultural influences:
 Are the combination of social and cultural factors that influence an indiivdual’s
opportunity to participate in particular sports or recreational activities and, in turn
develop the relevant movement skill
Family:
 Parents facilitate their children’s involvement in sports by driving them to practice
and buying them sports uniform and equipement
Cultural norms, traditions and beliefs:
 Did culture identify with different sports
 Increased prevalence of sports can impact on skill development
Barriers to involvements in sports:
 Cultural and religious beliefs can also act as a barrier to sports participation and
potentially skill development
 Language barriers in accessing important information
 Lack of culturally appraoiate venues and facilities
Gender stereotypes:
 Girls and boys will be socialised into different sports this can impact skill
development as girl less inclined to engage in a particular sport will not have the
opportunity to improve the necessary skill development
Barriers to involvement in sports:
 Lack of accessible, affordable and acceptable facilities, not having female change
rooms
 Lack of role models of that gender decreases likelihood of people being inclined to
engage within that sport
 Lack of media coverage once again prevents individuals likelihood of wanting to
engage in that sport
Socioeconomic status:
 Socioeconomic status describes the social economic status of a person or the
parents includes education, income and occupation
 Socioeconomic impact can have a huge effect on the types of sport an individual
chooses to play and therefore their skill development
 The cost of uniforms, equipment and participation may be a deterrent for those who
are economically challenge, therefore limiting skill development
Local community:
 Local community facilities impact sporting development via access to safe sporting
facilities, role models, access to high quality facilities and safe and accessible access
via transportation
  Urban sporting facilities have to cater for larger populations, for example there is no
use in having swimming pools which cannot cater for the demand of children, which
is often the case
Practice and feedback:
Amount of practice:
 It is generally accepted that the amount of practice will increase the development of
a skill
Maximising practice time:
 The general recommendation to maximise skill development is by to allow the
learner to spend as much time possible in meaningful practice
 For example a 45 minute session should not focus on long winded instruction , but
engaging in blocked practice to increase the learning of the essential skill
Time spent on task:
 Coaches must make on-balance decisions about how long they spend on tasks.
 A coach can’t afford to take a perfectionist approach about mastering skills, but
should be pragmatic to ensure the learner can learn a range of skills in time demands
Diminishing returns:
 Coaches should also be aware of the principle of diminishing returns
 Diminishing returns states that a learner will initially improve rapidly in response to
learning. However, as the performer becomes more competent and progresses to
the latter stages of learning, their rate of improvement in response to practising
decreases
Practice distribution:
 Refers to the ratio between time spent practicing and time spent resting during a
practice session
Massed practice:
 Is a practice where there is little to no rest between repeat performances of a skill
Distributed practice:
 Smaller practice time intervals are interspersed with rest periods
 Recommended in learning a new skill
 Learning a complex skill
 The skill being rehearsed is physically or mentally fatiguing
Variability:
 Refers to the amount of change and uncertainty or in the performance of a skill
Blocked practice:
 Is a type of practice in which a skill is practised repeatedly as an independent block
Serial practice:
 Is a form of practice that involves rehearsing different skills, but in a fix and relatively
predictable sequence
Early performance:
Is the participation of a single sport at a very young age
 General rule is that there should be less variability of a skill in the early stage of
learning
 The physical and cognitive demands of a skills should mirror the physical and
cognitive skills of the game scenario
Feedback:
  Any form of information learner receive about their skill performance
 Motivates the learner by providing information on the progress of skill learning
 Feedback highlights skill errors and allows the learner to make appropriate
connections
 Feedback also provides positive reinforcement, confirming when the skill is being
performed properly
Intrinsic feedback:
 Is sensory information the learner receives directly from skill execution
Augmented feedback:
 Information about a skill that comes from an external source
Knowledge of performance:
 Is feedback regarding the performance of skill; assessing performance on basis of
process and skill technique
Knowledge of results:
 Is information about the outcome of skill performance; information about the
relative success or failure in regard to the intended goal of the movement skill
Correct versus incorrect feedback:
 Incorrect feedback focuses on the learner skill errors, whereas correct feedback
focuses on the what the learner is doing well
Precision of feedback; qualitative vs quantitative:
 Qualitative data provides general feedback about movement skill performance,
whereas quantitative data focuses on precise data containing numerical numbers
that indicate performance
Feedback frequency:
 Provides how often an external source gives feedback to the learner
 Feedback should be provided frequently to facilitate skill acquisition
 Provide more feedback in the early stage of feedback and less in the later stage of
feedback
Summary feedback:
 Allows a coach to provide feedback after numerous attempts of a skill, allows coach
to provide lots of feedback and focus on significant aspects to improve performance
Faded feedback:
 Feedback is high at the beginning of a practice session but is progressively reduced
towards the end of the session
Bandwidth feedback:
 Coach and performer agree on an effective bandwidth of performance or margin of
error
Performer regulated feedback:
 Is feedback provided at the athlete’s request
Coach regulated feeback:
 Is feedback provided when the coach deems it necessary and pertinent information
to facilitate skill correction
Timing of feedback:
 Refers to when feedback is provided to the learner in relation to performance
Terminal feedback:
 Information given on the completion of a skill
  Advantage is terminal feedback enables the learner to give their full attention to the
coach and effectively listen and then implement his change in skill performance
Concurrent feedback:
 Is information given during the skill performance
 Can have immediate impact on skill performance
 Provides greater opportunity to receive
Energy systems And Interplay Of Energy systems:
Adenosine triphosphate (ATP):
 Is the chemical energy currency of all body cells
Anerobic metabolism:
 Is when ATP resynthesis occurs via energy pathways the require the presence of
oxygen
Anaerobic Metabolism:
 Is when ATP resynthesis occurs via energy pathways that do not require the
presence of oxygen
Creatine phosphate:
 Is a chemical substance found in muscle cells that is capable of storing and releasing
energy that can be used to resynthesis ATP to ADP and Pie
Glycaemic index:
 A ranking of carbohydrates on a scale or 1-100 to the extent of which the raise the
blood glucose levels after eating
Glucose:
 Is the simplest form of a carbohydrate and the basic ingredient for anerobic
glycolysis and aerobic resynthesis
Glycogen:
 Is the storage form of glucose found in muscles and large amounts in the liver
Triglycerides:
 Are the stored form of fat found in adipose tissue and skeletal muscle

Carbohydrates:
 Carbohydrates are the most versatile fuel source
 Carbohydrates in the form of glycogen can supply energy for ATP resynthesis
Yield:
 Total amount of ATP that is resynthesised during exercise
Acute Physiological responses To Exercise:
Anticipatory response:
 When the heart rate rises above resting value just before exercise
Stroke volume:
 The amount of blood pumped away from the ventricle per beat
 Males tend to have larger strokes volumes than femals
 Trained athletes tend to have larger stroke volume
Vasodilation:
 Is the process by which blood vessels increase their internal diameter as response for
an increase demand of oxygen delivery to the muscle tissues
Cardiac output:
  Is the amount of blood ejected from the left ventricle of the heart per minute
Blood pressure:
 the pressure exerted by the heart against the arterial walls as its forced through the
circulatory system by the action of the heart
systolic:
 the pressure of exerted by the heart on the arterial walls during the contraction
stage of heartbeat
diastolic:
 the pressure exerted by the heart on the arterial walls during during the relaxation
stage of a heart beat
systemic blood flow:
 the blood flow around the body
vasoconstriction:
 is the process where blood vessels narrow or constrict as a result of increased
oxygen demand form the muscle tissues
respiratory frequency:
 Is the number of breaths taken per minute
Tidal volume:
 Is the amount of air breathed in and out in one breath
 Depth of breaths increases during exercise to increase the amount of oxygen to
meet the supply within exercise
Ventilation:
 The amount of air inspired and expired per minute by the lungs
Increased pulmonary diffusion:
 Is the process whereby oxygen is taken in via the lungs to the blood and carbon
dioxide is diffused from the blood to the lungs
 Where gaseous exchange takes place within the lungs
 To remove carbon dioxide from returning to venous blood preventing against
increase acidity within the blood
Oxygen uptake:
 Is the amount of oxygen transport, used by the body and its system and and utilised
for energy production?
 Oxygen uptake increases within the increase demand in exercise
 Oxygen supply equals oxygen demand, steady state oxygen demand occurs when
oxygen increase in exercise intensity is met and the body can maintain a steady state
of oxygen consumption
Maximum oxygen uptake:
 Is the maximum amount of oxygen per minute that can be breathed in, transported
and turned into energy
Factors affecting oxygen uptake:
 Body size: larger the body size more oxygen needed for energy
 Training status: the higher the training status the less demand for oxygen in steady
state cardio
Oxygen uptake:
Oxygen uptake is proportional to energy demands.
Oxygen deficit:
Occurs due to the initial disparity of oxygen uptake and exercise intensity, going from no
exercise to sprinting is going to increase the need of oxygen initially. Until the body can
catch up to meet this demand the point of steady state oxygen consumption.
 Adjustments required for increased oxygen supply:
 Increased respiratory frequency
 Increased tidal volume
 Increased heart rate
 Increased stroke volume
Excess post-oxygen consumption:
 After completion of exercise high oxygen intake is still occurring, to ensure the body
can reach a normal resting level of oxygen uptake
Factors responsible for elevated EPOC:
 Temperature
 Increased atp production
Increase motor unit and muscle fibre recruitment:
 During physical activity an increase in motor unit recruitment must take place so that
more muscular fibres are activated to produce the highest and quickest muscular
contractions
Increase muscle enzyme activity:
 Enzyme activity increase during exercise to produce the increased amounts of ATP
required by the muscles. Enzyme’s are involved in all of the chemical processes that
produce energy via the three pathways.

Data collection:
 Process of collecting information

Simple direct observation:

 how the athlete moves around the playing area
 where they move to
 Intensity of sprint to play
Skill frequency tables:
 Give an estimation of the predominant fitness component
Movement patterns:
 Reveal typical activities completed by a performer during a game or an athlete
 Fitness component and energy systems
GPS Trackers:
 Are used for activity analysis at an elite level

Heart rate telemeter:

 A heart rete telemeter is a device used to measure a individual’s heart rate I
response to physical activity
 Heart rate monitors provide important information about energy system, due to
linear association of heart rate data. For example, an intensity over 85% max heart
rate would suggest the individual is using predominately the anaerobic glycolysis
system
  Heart rate telemeter measure linear correlation of heart beats, which is used to tell
the participant what energy system they are using
 One major limitation is the heart rate telemeter must be calibrated to each
individual
Work to rest ratio:
 Is a summary of the time an athlete spends physically working compared to time
spent resting or recovering