Test Bank for Essentials of Terrorism Concepts and Controversies 4th Edition by Martin

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Chapter 2: Historical Perspectives and Ideological Origins

Essay

Describe the ideology of the extreme right wing. What are the sources of their ideology? What
is their terrorist activity like? How would you describe their international presence?

Describe the ideology of the extreme left wing. What are the sources of their ideology? What is
their terrorist activity like? How would you describe their international presence?

What was the general profile of European left-wing terrorism in the latter quarter of the twentieth
century?

How did the September 11, 2001 attacks symbolize the New Era of terrorism?

Behavior that we now define as terrorism is historically ancient. However, examples from the
French Revolution and 19th-century Europe were arguably immediate precedents for modern
terrorism. If you agree with this assessment, how so? If you disagree, how not? Explain your
answer.

Compare and contrast leftist and rightist extremist movements. Describe the characteristics of
their underground networks and the kinds of people who participated in these networks.

Discuss the significance of the Just War Doctrine in the era of the New Terrorism.

Discuss the significance of the classical ideological continuum for the analysis of political
extremism in the modern world. Is this continuum useful for evaluating the nature of the New
Terrorism? If so, how so? If not, how not?

Short Answer

Compare and contrast the fringe left and the fringe right.

In your opinion, why has the fringe right rarely produced sustained terrorist environments similar
to fringe left movements (other than paramilitary violence)?
Briefly explain the significance of propaganda by the deed.

Briefly discuss the significance of historical perspectives in understanding the modern era of
terrorism.

Why have reactionary rightist groups been relatively less prolific and less viable in comparison
to radical leftist groups?

Briefly discuss terrorism in antiquity.

Briefly discuss the threat from radical leftist ideologies.

True-False

The Just War doctrine condemns the use of violence for any reason. (ANS: False)

Terrorism is a recent phenomenon in human history. (ANS: False)

Guy Fawkes attempted to bomb Congress. (ANS: False)

Total war during World War II was practiced by the Nazis and Japanese, and opposed by the
Allies. (ANS: False)

“The Terror” during the French Revolution was considered to be acceptable and necessary.
(ANS: True).

European terrorists during the 19th Century launched indiscriminate against civilian targets.
(ANS: False)

Leftist extremists tend to champion their self-defined “oppressed of the world.” (ANS: True)

Class struggle is at the center of rightist ideology. (ANS: False)

The New Terrorism is clearly explained by the Classical Ideological Continuum. (ANS: False)

Marxists traditionally believed that the demise of capitalism is historically inevitable. (ANS:
True)

Fascists traditionally believe in equality for all members of society. (ANS: False)

Right-wing terrorist movements have been common and long-lasting. (ANS: False)

Left-wing terrorist movements were predominant during the 1970s and 1980s. (ANS: True)

The proletariat represents the middle class. (ANS: False)

In medieval Europe, behavior which the modern world considers to be terrorism was common to
warfare. (ANS: True)

Multiple Choice

The New Terrorism is characterized by which of the following? (ANS: d)

a. Asymmetrical tactics.
b. The threat of weapons of mass destruction.
c. Indiscriminate targeting.
d. All of the above.

The “Old Terrorism” is characterized by which of the following? (ANS: d)

a. Use of conventional weapons.
b. Use of ideological or nationalist justifications for revolutionary violence.
c. Relatively “surgical” selection of targets.
d. All of the above.

The New Terrorism is characterized by which of the following? (ANS: d)

a. Loose, cell-based networks with minimal lines of command and control.
b. Politically vague, religious, or mystical motivations.
c. Skillful use of the Internet and manipulation of the media.
d. All of the above.

During the Roman Age, the empire (ANS: d)

a. Practiced what we would now call state terrorism.
b. Engaged in demonstrations of terror against those who did not submit to Roman
authority.
c. Experienced frequent incidents of regicide.
d. All of the above.

The term “zealot” is derived from which of the following? (ANS: a)

a. Jewish religious rebels.
b. Incidents during the French Revolution.
c. Roman use of excessive force.
d. Nineteenth Century Europe.

The Reign of Terror (ANS: c)

a. Occurred during unrest in 19th Century Europe.
b. Was the result of oppression by the Romans.
c. Is a good example of state terrorism carried out to further the goals of a revolutionary
ideology.
d. None of the above.

English workers who engaged in industrial sabotage were known as (ANS: d)

a. Sicarii.
b. The Reign of Terror.
c. People’s Will.
d. Luddites.
Which terrorist movement was formed in the 19th Century by young Russian students? (ANS: a)
a. People’s Will.
b. The Luddites.
c. The Sicarii.
d. None of the above.

Prior to the end of the Cold War, left-wing terrorism (ANS: b)

a. Was rare and random.
b. Occurred frequently in Western democracies.
c. Occurred frequently in the Soviet Union.
d. Was primarily religious in nature.

Which of the following best describes left-wing extremism? (ANS: b)

a. It is nostalgic, seeking to restore a past system or environment that has been “stolen.”
b. It is future oriented, seeking to reform or destroy an existing system prior to building
a new society.
c. It is essentially reactionary in nature.
d. None of the above.

Which of the following best describes right-wing extremism? (ANS: a)

a. It is a reaction against perceived threats to a group’s value system, its presumption of
superiority, or its sense of specialness.
b. It is future oriented, seeking to reform or destroy an existing system prior to building
a new society.
c. It is essentially radical in nature.
d. None of the above.

The classical ideological continuum represents which of the following? (ANS: c)

a. Religious extremism in the modern era.
b. Radical nationalism in the modern era.
c. The political spectrum from the fringe left to the fringe right.
d. The continuum of types of national leaders.

The ideology of the extreme right wing is often characterized by which of the following? (ANS:
c)
a. Calls for cooperation among people of all nationalities, races, and religions.
b. Exhortations for working class revolution.
c. Belief systems that promote racial and national superiority over non-members of the
group.
d. Campaigns for positive reform through democratic process.

The ideology of the extreme left wing is often characterized by which of the following? (ANS: b)
a. Calls for cooperation among people of all nationalities, races, and religions.
b. Exhortations for working class revolution.
c. Belief systems that promote racial and national superiority over non-members of the
group.
d. Campaigns for positive reform through democratic process.
Terrorist activity conducted by the fringe right wing is often characterized by which of the
following? (ANS: a)
a. Apparently indiscriminate violence that often results in civilian casualties.
b. The use of high-yield weapons and weapons of mass destruction.
c. Relatively “surgical” attacks against defined targets that result in relatively few
civilian casualties.
d. Asymmetrical warfare, such as the use of suicide bombings.

Terrorist activity conducted by the fringe left wing is often characterized by which of the
following? (ANS: c)
a. Apparently indiscriminate violence that often results in civilian casualties.
b. The use of high-yield weapons and weapons of mass destruction.
c. Relatively “surgical” attacks against defined targets that result in relatively few
civilian casualties.
d. Asymmetrical warfare, such as the use of suicide bombings.

Which of the following statements best summarizes a central tenet of revolutionary anarchism?
(ANS: a)
a. Propaganda is best made through violent “propaganda by the deed.”
b. Revolution is necessary to build a democratic future.
c. A revolutionary party is necessary for leading the people and the creation of a
revolutionary environment.
d. Ideally, there must be a disciplined political party, a charismatic leader, glorification
of the military, and an organized elite.

Which of the following statements best summarizes a central tenet of revolutionary Marxism?
(ANS: c)
a. Propaganda is best made through violent “propaganda by the deed.”
b. Revolution is necessary to build a democratic future.
c. A revolutionary party is necessary for leading the people and the creation of a
revolutionary environment.
d. Ideally, there must be a disciplined political party, a charismatic leader, glorification
of the military, and an organized elite.

Which of the following statements best summarizes a central tenet of fascism? (ANS: d)
a. Propaganda is best made through violent “propaganda by the deed.”
b. Revolution is necessary to build a democratic future.
c. A revolutionary party is necessary for leading the people and the creation of a
revolutionary environment.
d. Ideally, there must be a disciplined political party, a charismatic leader, glorification
of the military, and an organized elite.

Marxists traditionally believe that the demise of capitalism (ANS: c)

a. Cannot occur without democratic reform.
b. Will inevitably occur after democratic reform.
c. Is historically inevitable.
d. Both “a” and “b”.
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she had suffered. He confined her also in a lonely castle, and after he
had taken every precaution to prevent a discovery, he returned to
Thrace, and he told Procne that Philomela had died by the way, and
that he had paid the last offices to her remains. Procne, at this sad
intelligence, put on mourning for the loss of Philomela; but a year
had scarcely elapsed before she was secretly informed that her sister
was not dead. Philomela, during her captivity, described on a piece of
tapestry her misfortunes and the brutality of Tereus, and privately
conveyed it to Procne. She was then going to celebrate the orgies of
Bacchus when she received it; she disguised her resentment, and as,
during the festivals of the god of wine, she was permitted to rove
about the country, she hastened to deliver her sister Philomela from
her confinement, and she concerted with her on the best measures of
punishing the cruelty of Tereus. She murdered her son Itylus, who
was in the sixth year of his age, and served him up as food before her
husband during the festival. Tereus, in the midst of his repast, called
for Itylus, but Procne immediately informed him that he was then
feasting on his flesh, and that instant Philomela, by throwing on the
table the head of Itylus, convinced the monarch of the cruelty of the
scene. He drew his sword to punish Procne and Philomela, but as he
was going to stab them to the heart, he was changed into a hoopoe,
Philomela into a nightingale, Procne into a swallow, and Itylus into a
pheasant. This tragical scene happened at Daulis in Phocis; but
Pausanias and Strabo, who mention the whole of the story, are silent
about the transformation; and the former observes that Tereus, after
this bloody repast, fled to Megara, where he destroyed himself. The
inhabitants of the place raised a monument to his memory, where
they offered yearly sacrifices, and placed small pebbles instead of
barley. It was on this monument that the birds called hoopoes were
first seen; hence the fable of his metamorphosis. Procne and
Philomela died through excess of grief and melancholy, and as the
nightingale’s and swallow’s voice is peculiarly plaintive and
mournful, the poets have embellished the fable by supposing that the
two unfortunate sisters were changed into birds. Apollodorus, bk. 3,
ch. 14.—Pausanias, bk. 1, ch. 42; bk. 10, ch. 4.—Hyginus, fable 45.
— ♦ Strabo, bk. 9.—Ovid, Metamorphoses, bk. 6, fables 9 & 10.—
Virgil, Georgics, bk. 4, lis. 15 & 511.――A daughter of Actor king
of the Myrmidons.

♦ ‘Stabo’ replaced with ‘Strabo’

Philomēlum, a town of Phrygia. Cicero, Letters to Atticus, bk. 5, ltr. 20;
Against Verres, bk. 3, ch. 83.

Philomēlus, a general of Phocis, who plundered the temple of Delphi,

and died B.C. 354. See: Phocis.――A rich musician. Martial, bk. 4,
ltr. 5.

Philon, a general of some Greeks, who settled in Asia. Diodorus, bk. 18.

Philonides, a courier of Alexander, who ran from Sicyon to Elis, 160

miles, in nine hours, and returned the same journey in 15 hours.
Pliny, bk. 2, ch. 71.

Philonis, a name of Chione daughter of Dædalion, made immortal by

Diana.

Philonoe, a daughter of Tyndarus king of Sparta by Leda daughter of

Thestius. Apollodorus.――A daughter of Iobates king of Lycia, who
married Bellerophon. Pliny, bk. 2.

Philonŏme, a daughter of Nyctimus king of Arcadia, who threw into the

Erymanthus two children whom she had by Mars. The children were
preserved, and afterwards ascended their grandfather’s throne.
Plutarch, Pericles.――The second wife of Cycnus the son of
Neptune. She became enamoured of Tennes, her husband’s son by his
first wife Proclea the daughter of Clytius, and when he refused to
gratify her passion, she accused him of attempts upon her virtue.
Cycnus believed the accusation, and ordered Tennes to be thrown
into the sea, &c. Pausanias, bk. 10, ch. 14.

Philonŏmus, a son of Electryon king of Mycenæ by Anaxo.

Apollodorus, bk. 2.

Philonus, a village of Egypt. Strabo.

Philopător, a surname of one of the Ptolemies, king of Egypt. See:

Ptolemæus.

Philophron, a general who, with 5000 soldiers, defended Pelusium

against the Greeks who invaded Egypt. Diodorus, bk. 16.
Philopœmen, a celebrated general of the Achæan league, born at
Megalopolis. His father’s name was Grangis. His education was
begun and finished under Cassander, Ecdemus, and Demophanes,
and he early distinguished himself in the field of battle, and appeared
fond of agriculture and a country life. He proposed himself
Epaminondas for a model, and he was not unsuccessful in imitating
the prudence and the simplicity, the disinterestedness and activity, of
this famous Theban. When Megalopolis was attacked by the
Spartans, Philopœmen, then in the 30th year of his age, gave the
most decisive proofs of his valour and intrepidity. He afterwards
assisted Antigonus, and was present in the famous battle in which the
Ætolians were defeated. Raised to the rank of chief commander, he
showed his ability to discharge that important trust, by killing with
his own hand Mechanidas the ♦ tyrant of Sparta; and if he was
defeated in a naval battle by Nabis, he soon after repaired his losses
by taking the capital of Laconia, B.C. 188, and by abolishing the
laws of ♠ Lycurgus, which had flourished there for such a length of
time. Sparta, after its conquest, became tributary to the Achæans, and
Philopœmen enjoyed the triumph of having reduced to ruins one of
the greatest and the most powerful of the cities of Greece. Some time
after the Messenians revolted from the Achæan league, and
Philopœmen, who headed the Achæans, unfortunately fell from his
horse, and was dragged to the enemy’s camp. ♣ Dinocrates the
general of the Messenians treated him with great severity; he was
thrown into a dungeon, and obliged to drink a dose of poison. When
he received the cup from the hand of the executioner, Philopœmen
asked him how his countrymen had behaved in the field of battle; and
when he heard that they had obtained the victory, he drank the whole
with pleasure, exclaiming that this was comfortable news. The death
of Philopœmen, which happened about 183 years before the christian
era, in his 70th year, was universally lamented, and the Achæans, to
revenge his fate, immediately marched to Messenia, where
Dinocrates, to avoid their resentment, killed himself. The rest of his
murderers were dragged to his tomb, where they were sacrificed; and
the people of Megalopolis, to show further their great sense of his
merit, ordered a bull to be yearly offered on his tomb, and hymns to
be sung in his praise, and his actions to be celebrated in a panegyrical
oration. He had also statues raised to his memory, which some of the
Romans attempted to violate, and to destroy, to no purpose, when
Mummius took Corinth. Philopœmen has been justly called by his
countrymen the last of the Greeks. Plutarch, Lives.—Justin, bk. 32,
ch. 4.—Polybius.――A native of Pergamus, who died B.C. 138.
 ♦ ‘tyant’ replaced with ‘tyrant’

♠ ‘Lyturgus’ replaced with ‘Lycurgus’

♣ ‘Dioncrates’ replaced with ‘Dinocrates’

Phĭlostrătus, a famous sophist born at Lemnos, or, according to some, at

Athens. He came to Rome, where he lived under the patronage of
Julia the wife of the emperor Severus, and he was entrusted by the
empress with all the papers which contained some account or
anecdotes of Apollonius Thyanæus, and he was ordered to review
them, and with them to compile a history. The life of Apollonius is
written with elegance, but the improbable accounts, the fabulous
stories, and the exaggerated details which it gives, render it
disgusting. There is, besides, another treatise remaining of his
writings, &c. He died A.D. 244. The best edition of his writings is
that of Olearius, folio, Lipscomb, 1709.――His nephew, who lived
in the reign of Heliogabalus, wrote an account of sophists.――A
philosopher in the reign of Nero.――Another in the age of Augustus.

Philōtas, a son of Parmenio, distinguished in the battles of Alexander,

and at last accused of conspiring against his life. He was tortured and
stoned to death, or, according to some, struck through with darts by
the soldiers, B.C. 330. Curtius, bk. 6, ch. 11.—Plutarch.—
Arrian.――An officer in the army of Alexander.――Another, who
was made master of Cilicia, after Alexander’s death.――A physician
in the age of Antony. He ridiculed the expenses and the extravagance
of this celebrated Roman. Plutarch.

Philotĕra, the mother of Mylo, &c. Polyænus, bk. 8.

Philotĭmus, a freedman of Cicero. Cicero, De Divinatione, bk. 3, ch. 9.

Philōtis, a servant-maid at Rome, who saved her countrymen from

destruction. After the siege of Rome by the Gauls, the Fidenates
assembled an army, under the command of Lucius Posthumius, and
marched against the capital, demanding all the wives and daughters
in the city, as the conditions of peace. This extraordinary demand
astonished the senators, and when they refused to comply, Philotis
 advised them to send all their female slaves disguised in matron’s
clothes, and she offered to march herself at the head. Her advice was
followed, and when the Fidenates had feasted late in the evening, and
were quite intoxicated, and fallen asleep, Philotis lighted a torch as a
signal for her countrymen to attack the enemy. The whole was
successful, the Fidenates were conquered, and the senate, to reward
the fidelity of the female slaves, permitted them to appear in the
dress of the Roman matrons. Plutarch, Romulus.—Varro, de Lingua
Latina, bk. 5.—Ovid, de Ars Amatoria, bk. 2.

Philoxĕnus, an officer of Alexander, who received Cilicia, at the general

division of the provinces.――A son of Ptolemy, who was given to
Pelopidas as a hostage.――A dithyrambic poet of Cythera, who
enjoyed the favour of Dionysius tyrant of Sicily for some time, till he
offended him by seducing one of his female singers. During his
confinement, Philoxenus composed an allegorical poem, called
Cyclops, in which he had delineated the character of the tyrant under
the name of Polyphemus, and represented his mistress under the
name of Galatæa, and himself under that of Ulysses. The tyrant, who
was fond of writing poetry, and of being applauded, removed
Philoxenus from his dungeon, but the poet refused to purchase his
liberty, by saying things unworthy of himself, and applauding the
wretched verses of Dionysius, and therefore he was sent to the
quarries. When he was asked his opinion at a feast about some verses
which Dionysius had just repeated, and which the courtiers had
received with the greatest applause, Philoxenus gave no answer, but
he ordered the guards that surrounded the tyrant’s table to take him
back to the quarries. Dionysius was pleased with his pleasantry and
with his firmness, and immediately forgave him. Philoxenus died at
Ephesus, about 380 years before Christ. Plutarch.――A celebrated
musician of Ionia.――A painter of Eretria, who made for Cassander
an excellent representation of the battle of Alexander with Darius. He
was pupil to Nicomachus. Pliny, bk. 31, ch. 10.――A philosopher,
who wished to have the neck of a crane, that he might enjoy the taste
of his aliments longer, and with more pleasure. Aristotle, Eudemian
Ethics, bk. 3.

Philyllius, a comic poet. Athenæus.

Phily̆ra, one of the Oceanides, who was met by Saturn in Thrace. The
god, to escape from the vigilance of Rhea, changed himself into a
horse, to enjoy the company of Philyra by whom he had a son, half a
man and half a horse, called Chiron. Philyra was so ashamed of
giving birth to such a monster, that she entreated the gods to change
her nature. She was metamorphosed into the linden tree, called by
her name among the Greeks. Hyginus, fable 138.――The wife of
Nauplius.

Philyres, a people near Pontus.

Phily̆rĭdes, a patronymic of Chiron the son of Philyra. Ovid, Ars

Amatoria.—Virgil, Georgics, bk. 3, li. 550.

Phineus, a son of Agenor king of Phœnicia, or, according to some, of

Neptune, who became king of Thrace, or, as the greater part of the
mythologists support, of Bithynia. He married Cleopatra the daughter
of Boreas, whom some call Cleobula, by whom he had Plexippus and
Pandion. After the death of Cleopatra, he married Idæa the daughter
of Dardanus. Idæa, jealous of Cleopatra’s children, accused them of
attempts upon their father’s life and crown, or, according to some, of
attempts upon her virtue, and they were immediately condemned by
Phineus to be deprived of their eyes. This cruelty was soon after
punished by the gods. Phineus suddenly became blind, and the
Harpies were sent by Jupiter to keep him under continual alarm, and
to spoil the meats which were placed on his table. He was some time
after delivered from these dangerous monsters by his brothers-in-law
Zetes and Calais, who pursued them as far as the Strophades. He also
recovered his sight by means of the Argonauts, whom he had
received with great hospitality, and instructed in the easiest and
speediest way by which they could arrive in Colchis. The causes of
the blindness of Phineus are a matter of dispute among the ancients,
some supposing that this was inflicted by Boreas, for his cruelty to
his grandson, whilst others attribute it to the anger of Neptune,
because he had directed the sons of Phryxus how to escape from
Colchis to Greece. Many, however, think that it proceeded from his
having rashly attempted to develop futurity, while others assert that
Zetes and Calais put out his eyes on account of his cruelty to their
nephews. The second wife of Phineus is called by some Dia, Eurytia,
Danae, and Idothea. Phineus was killed by Hercules. Argonautica,
 bk. 2.—Apollodorus, bk. 1, ch. 9; bk. 3, ch. 15.—Diodorus, bk. 4.—
Hyginus, fable 19.—Orpheus.—Flaccus.――The brother of
Cepheus king of Æthiopia. He was going to marry his niece
Andromeda, when her father Cepheus was obliged to give her up to
be devoured by a sea monster, to appease the resentment of Neptune.
She was, however, delivered by Perseus, who married her by the
consent of her parents, for having destroyed the sea monster. This
marriage displeased Phineus; he interrupted the ceremony, and, with
a number of attendants, attacked Perseus and his friends. Perseus
defended himself, and turned into stone Phineus and his companions,
by showing them the Gorgon’s head. Apollodorus, bk. 2, chs. 1 & 4.
—Ovid, Metamorphoses, bk. 5, fables 1 & 2.—Hyginus, fable
64.――A son of Melas.――A son of Lycaon king of Arcadia.――A
son of Belus and Anchinoe.

Phinta, a king of Messenia, &c. Pausanias, bk. 4, ch. 4.

Phinthias, a fountain where it is said nothing could sink. Pliny, bk. 31,
ch. 2.

Phintia, a town of Sicily, at the mouth of the Himera. Cicero, Against

Verres, bk. 3, ch. 83.

Phintias, called also Pithias, Pinthias, and Phytias, a man famous for his
unparalleled friendship for Damon. See: Damon. Cicero, de Officiis,
bk. 3, bk. 10; Tusculanæ Disputationes, bk. 5, ch. 22.—Diodorus,
bk. 6.――A tyrant of Agrigentum, B.C. 282.

Phinto, a small island between Sardinia and Corsica, now Figo.

Phla, a small island in the lake Tritonis. Herodotus, bk. 4, ch. 178.

Phlegelas, an Indian king beyond the Hydaspes, who surrendered to

Alexander. Curtius, bk. 9, ch. 1.

Phlegĕthon, a river of hell, whose waters were burning, as the word

φλεγεθω, from which the name is derived, seems to indicate. Virgil,
Æneid, bk. 6, li. 550.—Ovid, Metamorphoses, bk. 15, li. 532.—
Seneca, Thyestes Hippolytus.—Silius Italicus, bk. 13, li. 564.

Phlegias, a man of Cyzicus when the Argonauts visited it, &c. Flaccus.
Phlegon, a native of Tralles in Lydia, one of the emperor Adrian’s
freedmen. He wrote different treatises on the long-lived, on
wonderful things, besides an historical account of Sicily, 16 books on
the olympiads, an account of the principal places in Rome, three
books of fasti, &c. Of these some fragments remain. His style was
not elegant, and he wrote without judgment or precision. His works
have been edited by Meursius, 4to, Leiden, 1620.――One of the
horses of the sun. The word signifies burning. Ovid, Metamorphoses,
bk. 2.

Phlegra, or Phlegræus Campus, a place of Macedonia, afterwards

called Pallene, where the giants attacked the gods and were defeated
by Hercules. The combat was afterwards renewed in Italy, in a place
of the same name near Cumæ. Silius Italicus, bk. 8, li. 538; bk. 9,
li. 305.—Strabo, bk. 5.—Diodorus, bks. 4 & 5.—Ovid,
Metamorphoses, bk. 10, li. 151; bk. 12, li. 378; bk. 15, li. 532.—
Statius, bk. 5, Sylvæ, poem 3, li. 196.

Phlegyæ, a people of Thessaly. Some authors place them in Bœotia.

They received their name from Phlegyas the son of Mars, with whom
they plundered and burned the temple of Apollo at Delphi. Few of
them escaped to Phocis, where they settled. Pausanias, bk. 9, ch. 36.
—Homer, Iliad, bk. 13, li. 301.—Strabo, bk. 9.

Phlegyas, a son of Mars by Chryse daughter of Halmus, was king of the

Lapithæ in Thessaly. He was father of Ixion and Coronis, to whom
Apollo offered violence. When the father heard that his daughter had
been so wantonly abused, he marched an army against Delphi, and
reduced the temple of the god to ashes. This was highly resented.
Apollo killed Phlegyas and placed him in hell, where a huge stone
hangs over his head, and keeps him in continual alarms, by its
appearance of falling every moment. Pausanias, bk. 9, ch. 36.—
Apollodorus, bk. 3, ch. 5.—Pindar, Pythian, bk. 3.—Ovid,
Metamorphoses, bk. 5, li. 87.—Servius, Commentary on the Aeneid
of Vergil, bk. 6, li. 618.

Phlias, one of the Argonauts, son of Bacchus and Ariadne. Pausanias,

bk. 2, ch. 12.

Phliasia, a country of Peloponnesus, near Sicyon, of which Phlius was

the capital.
Phlius, (genitive, untis), a town in Peloponnesus, now Staphlica, in the
territory of Sicyon.――Another, in Elis.――Another, in Argolis,
now Drepano.

Phlœus, a surname of Bacchus, expressive of his youth and vigour.

Plutarch, Quæstiones Convivales, bk. 5, qu. 8.

Phobētor, one of the sons of Somnus, and his principal minister. His
office was to assume the shape of serpents and wild beasts, to inspire
terror into the minds of men, as his name intimates (φοβεω). The
other two ministers of Somnus were Phantasia and Morpheus. Ovid,
Metamorphoses, bk. 11, li. 640.

Phobos, son of Mars, and god of terror among the ancients, was
represented with a lion’s head, and sacrifices were offered to him to
deprecate his appearance in armies. Plutarch, Amatorius.

Phocæa, now Fochia, a maritime town of Ionia, in Asia Minor, with two
harbours, between Cumæ and Smyrna, founded by an Athenian
colony. It received its name from Phocus the leader of the colony, or
from phocæ, sea calves, which are found in great abundance in the
neighbourhood. The inhabitants, called Phocæi and Phocæenses,
were expert mariners, and founded many cities in different parts of
Europe. They left Ionia, when Cyrus attempted to reduce them under
his power, and they came after many adventures into Gaul, where
they founded Massilia, now Marseilles. The town of Marseilles is
often distinguished by the epithet of Phocaica, and its inhabitants
called Phocæenses. Phocæa was declared independent by Pompey,
and under the first emperors of Rome it became one of the most
flourishing cities of Asia Minor. Livy, bk. 5, ch. 34; bk. 37, ch. 31;
bk. 38, ch. 39.—Mela, bk. 1, ch. 17.—Pausanias, bk. 7, ch. 3.—
Herodotus, bk. 1, ch. 165.—Strabo, bk. 14.—Horace, epode 16.—
Ovid, Metamorphoses, bk. 6, li. 9.—Pliny, bk. 3, ch. 4.

Phocenses and Phocĭci, the inhabitants of Phocis in Greece.

Phocilides, a Greek poet and philosopher of Miletus, about 540 years

before the christian era. The poetical piece now extant called
νουθετικον, and attributed to him, is not of his composition, but of
another poet who lived in the reign of Adrian.
Phocion, an Athenian, celebrated for his virtues, private as well as
public. He was educated in the school of Plato and Xenocrates, and
as soon as he appeared among the statesmen of Athens, he
distinguished himself by his prudence and moderation, his zeal for
the public good, and his military abilities. He often checked the
violent and inconsiderate measures of Demosthenes, and when the
Athenians seemed eager to make war against Philip king of
Macedonia, Phocion observed that war should never be undertaken
without the strongest and most certain expectations of success and
victory. When Philip endeavoured to make himself master of Eubœa,
Phocion stopped his progress, and soon obliged him to relinquish his
enterprise. During the time of his administration he was always
inclined to peace, though he never suffered his countrymen to
become indolent, and to forget the jealousy and rivalship of their
neighbours. He was 45 times appointed governor of Athens, and no
greater encomium can be passed upon his talents as a minister and
statesman, than that he never solicited that high, though dangerous,
office. In his rural retreat, or at the head of the Athenian armies, he
always appeared barefooted, and without a cloak, whence one of his
soldiers had occasion to observe, when he saw him dressed more
warmly than usual during a severe winter, that since Phocion wore
his cloak it was a sign of the most inclement weather. If he was the
friend of temperance and discipline, he was not a less brilliant
example of true heroism. Philip, as well as his son Alexander,
attempted to bribe him, but to no purpose; and Phocion boasted in
being one of the poorest of the Athenians, and in deserving the
appellation of the Good. It was through him that Greece was saved
from an impending war, and he advised Alexander rather to turn his
arms against Persia, than to shed the blood of the Greeks, who were
either his allies or his subjects. Alexander was so sensible of his
merit and of his integrity, that he sent him 100 talents from the spoils
which he had obtained from the Persians, but Phocion was too great
to suffer himself to be bribed; and when the conqueror had attempted
a second time to oblige him, and to conciliate his favour, by offering
him the government and possession of five cities, the Athenian
rejected the presents with the same indifference, and with the same
independent mind. But not totally to despise the favours of the
monarch, he begged Alexander to restore to their liberty four slaves
that were confined in the citadel of Sardis. Antipater, who succeeded
in the government of Macedonia after the death of Alexander, also
attempted to corrupt the virtuous Athenian, but with the same success
as his royal predecessor; and when a friend had observed to Phocion,
that if he could so refuse the generous offers of his patrons, yet he
should consider the good of his children, and accept them for their
sake, Phocion calmly replied, that if his children were like him they
could maintain themselves as well as their father had done, but if
they behaved otherwise he declared that he was unwilling to leave
them anything which might either supply their extravagancies, or
encourage their debaucheries. But virtues like these could not long
stand against the insolence and fickleness of an Athenian assembly.
When the Piræus was taken, Phocion was accused of treason, and
therefore, to avoid the public indignation, he fled for safety to
Polyperchon. Polyperchon sent him back to Athens, where he was
immediately condemned to drink the fatal poison. He received the
indignities of the people with uncommon composure; and when one
of his friends lamented his fate, Phocion exclaimed, “This is no more
than what I expected; this treatment the most illustrious citizens of
Athens have received before me.” He took the cup with the greatest
serenity of mind, and as he drank the fatal draught, he prayed for the
prosperity of Athens, and bade his friends to tell his son Phocus not
to remember the indignities which his father had received from the
Athenians. He died about 318 years before the christian era. His body
was deprived of a funeral by order of the ungrateful Athenians, and if
it was at last interred, it was by stealth, under a hearth, by the hand of
a woman who placed this inscription over his bones: Keep inviolate,
O sacred hearth, the precious remains of a good man, till a better
day restores them to the monument of their forefathers, when Athens
shall be delivered of her frenzy, and shall be more wise. It has been
observed of Phocion, that he never appeared elated in prosperity, or
dejected in adversity, he never betrayed pusillanimity by a tear, nor
joy by a smile. His countenance was stern and unpleasant, but he
never behaved with severity; his expressions were mild, and his
rebukes gentle. At the age of 80 he appeared at the head of the
Athenian armies like the most active officer, and to his prudence and
cool valour in every period of life his citizens acknowledged
themselves much indebted. His merits were not buried in oblivion;
the Athenians repented of their ingratitude, and honoured his
memory by raising him statues, and putting to a cruel death his guilty
accusers. Plutarch & Cornelius Nepos, Lives.—Diodorus, bk. 16.
Phocis, a country of Greece, bounded on the east by Bœotia, and by
Locris on the west. It originally extended from the bay of Corinth to
the sea of Eubœa, and reached on the north as far as Thermopylæ,
but its boundaries were afterwards more contracted. Phocis received
its name from Phocus, a son of Ornytion, who settled there. The
inhabitants were called Phocenses, and from thence the epithet of
Phocicus was formed. Parnassus was the most celebrated of the
mountains of Phocis, and Delphi was the greatest of its towns. Phocis
is rendered famous for a war which it maintained against some of the
Grecian republics, and which has received the name of the Phocian
war. This celebrated war originated in the following circumstances:
—When Philip king of Macedonia had, by his intrigues and well-
concerted policy, fomented divisions in Greece, and disturbed the
peace of every republic, the Greeks universally became discontented
in their situation, fickle in their resolutions, and jealous of the
prosperity of the neighbouring states. The Amphictyons, who were
the supreme rulers of Greece, and who at that time were subservient
to the views of the Thebans, the inveterate enemies of the Phocians,
showed the same spirit of fickleness, and, like the rest of their
countrymen, were actuated by the same fears, the same jealousy and
ambition. As the supporters of religion, they accused the Phocians of
impiety for ploughing a small portion of land which belonged to the
god of Delphi. They immediately commanded that the sacred field
should be laid waste, and that the Phocians, to expiate their crime,
should pay a heavy fine to the community. The inability of the
Phocians to pay the fine, and that of the Amphictyons to enforce their
commands by violence, gave rise to new events. The people of
Phocis were roused by the eloquence and the popularity of
Philomelus, one of their countrymen, and when this ambitious
ringleader had liberally contributed the great riches he possessed for
the good of his countrymen, they resolved to oppose the
Amphictyonic council by force of arms. He seized the rich temple of
Delphi, and employed the treasures which it contained to raise a
mercenary army. During two years hostilities were carried on
between the Phocians and their enemies, the Thebans and the people
of Locris, but no decisive battles were fought; and it can only be
observed, that the Phocian prisoners were always put to an
ignominious death, as guilty of the most abominable sacrilege and
impiety, a treatment which was liberally retaliated on such of the
army of the Amphictyons as became the captives of the enemy. The
defeat, however, and death of Philomelus for a while checked their
successes; but the deceased general was soon succeeded in the
command by his brother, called Onomarchus, his equal in boldness
and ambition, and his superior in activity and enterprise.
Onomarchus rendered his cause popular, the Thessalians joined his
army, and the neighbouring states observed at least a strict neutrality,
if they neither opposed nor favoured his arms. Philip of Macedonia,
who had assisted the Thebans, was obliged to retire from the field
with dishonour, but a more successful battle was fought near
Magnesia, and the monarch, by crowning the head of his soldiers
with laurel, and telling them that they fought in the cause of Delphi
and heaven, obtained a complete victory. Onomarchus was slain, and
his body exposed on a gibbet; 6000 shared his fate, and their bodies
were thrown into the sea, as unworthy of funeral honours, and 3000
were taken alive. This fatal defeat, however, did not ruin the
Phocians; Phayllus, the only surviving brother of Philomelus, took
the command of their armies, and doubling the pay of his soldiers, he
increased his forces by the addition of 9000 men from Athens,
Lacedæmon, and Achaia. But all this numerous force at last proved
ineffectual; the treasures of the temple of Delphi, which had long
defrayed the expenses of the war, began to fail; dissensions arose
among the ringleaders of Phocis; and when Philip had crossed the
straits of Thermopylæ, the Phocians, relying on his generosity,
claimed his protection, and implored him to plead their cause before
the Amphictyonic council. His feeble intercession was not attended
with success, and the Thebans, the Locrians, and the Thessalians,
who then composed the Amphictyonic council, unanimously decreed
that the Phocians should be deprived of the privilege of sending
members among the Amphictyons. Their arms and their horses were
to be sold, for the benefit of Apollo; they were to pay the annual sum
of 60,000 talents till the temple of Delphi had been restored to its
ancient splendour and opulence; their cities were to be dismantled,
and reduced to distinct villages, which were to contain no more than
60 houses each, at the distance of a furlong from one another, and all
the privileges and the immunities of which they were stripped, were
to be conferred on Philip king of Macedonia, for his eminent services
in the ♦ prosecution of the Phocian war. The Macedonians were
ordered to put these cruel commands into execution. The Phocians
were unable to make resistance, and 10 years after they had
undertaken the sacred war, they saw their country laid desolate, their
 walls demolished, and their cities in ruins, by the wanton jealousy of
their enemies, and the inflexible cruelty of the Macedonian soldiers,
B.C. 348. They were not, however, long under this disgraceful
sentence; their well-known valour and courage recommended them
to favour, and they gradually regained their influence and
consequence by the protection of the Athenians, and the favours of
Philip. Livy, bk. 32, ch. 18.—Ovid, bk. 2, Amores, poem 6, li. 15;
Metamorphoses, bk. 5, li. 276.—Demosthenes.—Justin, bk. 8, &c.—
Diodorus, bk. 16, &c.—Plutarch, Demosthenes, Lysander, Pericles,
&c.—Strabo, bk. 5.—Pausanias, bk. 4, ch. 5.

♦ ‘prosetion’ replaced with ‘prosecution’

Phocus, son of Phocion, was dissolute in his manners and unworthy of

the virtues of his great father. He was sent to Lacedæmon to imbibe
there the principles of sobriety, of temperance, and frugality. He
cruelly revenged the death of his father, whom the Athenians had put
to death. Plutarch, Phocion & Apophthegmata Laconica.――A son
of Æacus by Psamathe, killed by Telamon. Apollodorus, bk. 3,
ch. 12.――A son of Ornytion, who led a colony of Corinthians into
Phocis. He cured Antiope, a daughter of Nycteus, of insanity, and
married her, and by her became father of Panopeus and Crisus.
Pausanias, bk. 2, ch. 4.

Phocylides, an ancient poet. See: Phocilides.

Phœbas, a name applied to the priestess of Apollo’s temple at Delphi.

Lucan, bk. 5, li. 128, &c.

Phœbe, a name given to Diana, or the moon, on account of the

brightness of that luminary. She became, according to Apollodorus,
mother of Asteria and Latona. See: Diana.――A daughter of
Leucippus and Philodice, carried away, with her sister Hilaira, by
Castor and Pollux, as she was going to marry one of the sons of
Aphareus. See: Leucippides. Apollodorus, bk. 2, ch. 10.—Pausanias,
bk. 2, ch. 22.

Phœbeum, a place near Sparta.

Phœbĭdas, a Lacedæmonian general sent by the Ephori to the assistance
of the Macedonians against the Thracians. He seized the citadel of
Thebes; but though he was disgraced and banished from the
Lacedæmonian army for this perfidious measure, yet his countrymen
kept possession of the town. He died B.C. 377. Cornelius Nepos,
Pelopidas.—Diodorus, bk. 14, &c.

Phœbigĕna, a surname of Æsculapius, &c., as being descended from

Phœbus. Virgil, Æneid, ♦bk. 7, li. 773.

♦ book reference omitted in text

Phœbus, a name given to Apollo, or the sun. This word expresses the
brightness and splendour of that luminary (φοιβος). See: Apollo.

Phœmos, a lake of Arcadia.

Phœnīce, or Phœnīcia, a country of Asia, at the east of the

Mediterranean, whose boundaries have been different in different
ages. Some suppose that the names of Phœnicia, Syria, and Palestine
are indiscriminately used for one and the same country. Phœnicia,
according to Ptolemy, extended on the north as far as the Eleutherus,
a small river which falls into the Mediterranean sea, a little below the
island of Aradus, and it had Pelusium or the territories of Egypt as its
more southern boundary, and Syria on the east. Sidon and Tyre were
the most capital towns of the country. The inhabitants were naturally
industrious; the invention of letters is attributed to them, and
commerce and navigation were among them in the most flourishing
state. They planted colonies on the shores of the Mediterranean,
particularly Carthage, Hippo, Marseilles, and Utica; and their
manufactures acquired such a superiority over those of other nations,
that among the ancients, whatever was elegant, great, or pleasing,
either in apparel, or domestic utensils, received the epithet of
Sidonian. The Phœnicians were originally governed by kings. They
were subdued by the Persians, and afterwards by Alexander, and
remained tributary to his successors and to the Romans. They were
called Phœnicians, from Phœnix son of Agenor, who was one of their
kings, or, according to others, from the great number of palm trees
(θοινικες) which grow in the neighbourhood. Herodotus, bk. 4,
ch. 42; bk. 5, ch. 58.—Homer, Odyssey, bk. 15.—Mela, bk. 1, ch. 11;
 bk. 2, ch. 7.—Strabo, bk. 16.—Apollodorus, bk. 3, ch. 1.—Lucretius,
bk. 2, li. 829.—Pliny, bk. 2, ch. 47; bk. 5, ch. 12.—Curtius, bk. 4,
ch. 2.—Virgil, Æneid, bk. 1, &c.—Ovid, Metamorphoses, bk. 12,
li. 104; bk. 14, li. 345; bk. 15, li. 288.

Phœnīce, a town of Epirus. Livy, bk. 22, ch. 12.

Phœnīcia. See:, Phœnice.

Phœnīcus, a mountain of Bœotia.――Another in Lycia, called also

Olympus, with a town of the same name.――A port of Erythræ.
Livy, bk. 56, ch. 45.

Phœnicŭsa, now Felicudi, one of the Æolian islands.

Phœnissa, a patronymic given to Dido, as a native of Phœnicia. Virgil,

Æneid, bk. 4, li. 529.

Phœnix, son of Amyntor king of Argos by Cleobule, or Hippodamia,

was preceptor to young Achilles. When his father proved faithless to
his wife, on account of his fondness for a concubine called Clytia,
Cleobule, jealous of her husband, persuaded her son Phœnix to
ingratiate himself into the favours of his father’s mistress. Phœnix
easily succeeded, but when Amyntor discovered his intrigues, he
drew a curse upon him, and the son was soon after deprived of his
sight by divine vengeance. According to some, Amyntor himself put
out the eyes of his son, which so cruelly provoked him, that he
meditated the death of his father. Reason and piety, however,
prevailed over passion, and Phœnix, not to become a parricide, fled
from Argos to the court of Peleus king of Phthia. Here he was treated
with tenderness. Peleus carried him to Chiron, who restored to him
his eyesight, and soon after he was made preceptor to Achilles, his
benefactor’s son. He was also presented with the government of
many cities, and made king of the Dolopes. He accompanied his
pupil to the Trojan war, and Achilles was ever grateful for the
instructions and precepts which he had received from Phœnix. After
the death of Achilles, Phœnix, with others, was commissioned by the
Greeks to return to Greece, to bring to the war young Pyrrhus. This
commission he performed with success, and after the fall of Troy, he
returned with Pyrrhus, and died in Thrace. He was buried at Æon, or,
according to Strabo, near Trachinia, where a small river in the
 neighbourhood received the name of Phœnix. Strabo, bk. 9.—
Homer, Iliad, bk. 9, &c.—Ovid, Ibis, li. 259.—Apollodorus, bk. 2,
ch. 7.—Virgil, Æneid, bk. 2, li. 762.――A son of Agenor, by a
nymph who was called Telephassa, according to Apollodorus and
Moschus, or, according to others, Epimedusa, Perimeda, or Agriope.
He was, like his brothers Cadmus and Cilix, sent by his father in
pursuit of his sister Europa, whom Jupiter had carried away under the
form of a bull, and when his inquiries proved unsuccessful, he settled
in a country which, according to some, was from him called
Phœnicia. From him, as some suppose, the Carthaginians were called
Pœni. Apollodorus, bk. 3.—Hyginus, fable 178.――The father of
Adonis, according to Hesiod.――A Theban, delivered to Alexander,
&c.――A native of Tenedos, who was an officer in the service of
Eumenes.

Pholoe, one of the horses of Admetus.――A mountain of Arcadia, near

Pisa. It received its name from Pholus the friend of Hercules, who
was buried there. It is often confounded with another of the same
name in Thessaly, near mount Othrys. Pliny, bk. 4, ch. 6.—Lucan,
bk. 3, li. 198; bk. 6, li. 388; bk. 7, li. 449.—Ovid, bk. 2, Fasti,
li. 273.――A female servant, of Cretan origin, given with her two
sons to Sergestus by Æneas. Virgil, Æneid, bk. 5, li. 285.――A
courtesan in the age of Horace. Horace, bk. 1, ode 33, li. 7.

Pholus, one of the Centaurs, son of Silenus and Melia, or, according to
others, of Ixion and the cloud. He kindly entertained Hercules when
he was going against the boar of Erymanthus, but he refused to give
him wine, as that which he had belonged to the rest of the Centaurs.
Hercules, upon this, without ceremony, broke the cask and drank the
wine. The smell of the liquor drew the Centaurs from the
neighbourhood to the house of Pholus, but Hercules stopped them
when they forcibly entered the habitation of his friend, and killed the
greatest part of them. Pholus gave the dead a decent funeral, but he
mortally wounded himself with one of the arrows which were
poisoned with the venom of the hydra, and which he attempted to
extract from the body of one of the Centaurs. Hercules, unable to
cure him, buried him when dead, and called the mountain where his
remains were deposited by the name of Pholoe. Apollodorus, bk. 1.
—Pausanias, bk. 3.—Virgil, Georgics, bk. 2, li. 456; Æneid, bk. 8,
li. 294.—Diodorus, bk. 4.—Silius Italicus, bk. 1.—Lucan, bks. 3, 6
 & 7.—Statius Thebaid, bk. 2.――One of the friends of Æneas, killed
by Turnus. Virgil, Æneid, bk. 12, li. 341.

Phorbas, a son of Priam and Epithesia, killed during the Trojan war by
Menelaus. The god Somnus borrowed his features when he deceived
Palinurus, and threw him into the sea near the coast of Italy. Virgil,
Æneid, bk. 5, li. 842.――A son of Lapithus, who married Hyrmine
the daughter of Epeus, by whom he had Actor. Pelops, according to
Diodorus, shared his kingdom with Phorbas, who also, says the same
historian, established himself at Rhodes, at the head of a colony from
Elis and Thessaly, by order of the oracle, which promised, by his
means only, deliverance from the numerous serpents which infested
the island. Diodorus, bk. 2.—Pausanias, bk. 5, ch. 1.――A shepherd
of Polybus king of Corinth.――A man who profaned Apollo’s
temple, &c. Ovid, Metamorphoses, bk. 11, li. 414.――A king of
Argos.――A native of Cyrene, son of Methion, killed by Perseus.
Ovid, Metamorphoses, bk. 5, fable 3.

Phorcus, or Phorcys, a sea deity, son of Pontus and Terra, who married
his sister Ceto, by whom he had the Gorgons, the dragon that kept
the apples of the Hesperides, and other monsters. Hesiod, Theogony.
—Apollodorus.――One of the auxiliaries of Priam, killed by Ajax
during the Trojan war. Homer, Iliad, bk. 17.――A man whose seven
sons assisted Turnus against Æneas. Virgil, Æneid, bk. 10, li. 328.

Phormio, an Athenian general, whose father’s name was Asopicus. He

impoverished himself to maintain and support the dignity of his
army. His debts were some time after paid by the Athenians, who
wished to make him their general, an office which he refused, while
he had so many debts, observing that it was unbecoming an officer to
be at the head of an army, when he knew that he was poorer than the
meanest of his soldiers.――A general of Crotona.――A peripatetic
philosopher of Ephesus, who once gave a lecture upon the duties of
an officer, and a military profession. The philosopher was himself
ignorant of the subject which he treated, upon which Hannibal the
Great, who was one of his auditors, exclaimed that he had seen many
doting old men, but never one worse than Phormio. Cicero, de
Natura Deorum, bk. 2.――An Athenian archon.――A disciple of
Plato, chosen by the people of Elis to make a reformation in their
government and their jurisprudence.
Phormis, an Arcadian who acquired great riches at the court of Gelon
and Hiero in Sicily. He dedicated the brazen statue of a mare to
Jupiter Olympius in Peloponnesus, which so much resembled nature,
that horses came near it, as if it had been alive. Pausanias, bk. 5,
ch. 27.

Phŏrōneus, the god of a river of Peloponnesus of the same name. He

was son of the river Inachus by Melissa, and he was the second king
of Argos. He married a nymph called Cerdo, or Laodice, by whom he
had Apis, from whom Argolis was called Apia, and Niobe, the first
woman of whom Jupiter became enamoured. Phoroneus taught his
subjects the utility of laws, and the advantages of a social life and of
friendly intercourse, whence the inhabitants of Argolis are often
called Phoronæi. Pausanias relates that Phoroneus, with the
Cephisus, Asterion, and Inachus, were appointed as umpires in a
quarrel between Neptune and Juno, concerning their right of
patronizing Argolis. Juno gained the preference, upon which
Neptune, in a fit of resentment, dried up all the four rivers, whose
decision he deemed partial. He afterwards restored them to their
dignity and consequence. Phoroneus was the first who raised a
temple to Juno. He received divine honours after death. His temple
still existed at Argos, under Antoninus the Roman emperor.
Pausanias, bk. 2, ch. 15, &c.—Apollodorus, bk. 2, ch. 1.—Hyginus,
fable 143.

Phorōnis, a patronymic of Io the sister of Phoroneus. Ovid,

Metamorphoses, bk. 1, li. 625.

Phorōnium, a town of Argolis, built by Phoroneus.

Photīnus, a eunuch who was prime minister to Ptolemy king of Egypt.

When Pompey fled to the court of Ptolemy, after the battle of
Pharsalia, Photinus advised his master not to receive him, but to put
him to death. His advice was strictly followed. Julius Cæsar some
time after visited Egypt, and Photinus raised seditions against him,
for which he was put to death. When Cæsar triumphed over Egypt
and Alexandria, the pictures of Photinus, and of some of the
Egyptians, were carried in the procession at Rome. Plutarch.

Photius, a son of Antonina, who betrayed to Belisarius his wife’s

debaucheries.――A patrician in Justinian’s reign.
Phoxus, a general of the Phocæans, who burnt Lampsacus, &c.
Polyænus, bk. 8.――A tyrant of Chalcis, banished by his subjects,
&c. Aristotle, Politics, bk. 5, ch. 4.

Phraates I., a king of Parthia, who succeeded Arsaces III., called also
Phriapatius. He made war against Antiochus king of Syria, and was
defeated in three successive battles. He left many children behind
him, but as they were all too young, and unable to succeed to the
throne, he appointed his brother Mithridates king, of whose abilities
and military prudence he had often been a spectator. Justin, bk. 41,
ch. 5.

Phraates II., succeeded his father Mithridates as king of Parthia; and

made war against the Scythians, whom he called to his assistance
against Antiochus king of Syria, and whom he refused to pay, on the
pretence that they came too late. He was murdered by some Greek
mercenaries, who had been once his captives, and who had enlisted
in his army, B.C. 129. Justin, bk. 42, ch. 1.—Plutarch, Pompey.

Phraates III., succeeded his father Pacorus on the throne of Parthia, and
gave one of his daughters in marriage to Tigranes the son of Tigranes
king of Armenia. Soon after he invaded the kingdom of Armenia, to
make his son-in-law sit on the throne of his father. His expedition
was attended with ill success. He renewed a treaty of alliance which
his father had made with the Romans. At his return in Parthia, he was
assassinated by his sons Orodes and Mithridates. Justin.

Phraates IV., was nominated king of Parthia by his father Orodes, whom
he soon after murdered, as also his own brothers. He made war
against Marcus Antony with great success, and obliged him to retire
with much loss. Some time after he was dethroned by the Parthian
nobility, but he soon regained his power, and drove away the usurper,
called Tiridates. The usurper claimed the protection of Augustus the
Roman emperor, and Phraates sent ambassadors to Rome to plead his
cause, and gain the favour of his powerful judge. He was successful
in his embassy: he made a treaty of peace and alliance with the
Roman emperor, restored the ensigns and standards which the
Parthians had taken from Crassus and Antony, and gave up his four
sons with their wives as hostages, till his engagements were
performed. Some suppose that Phraates delivered his children into
 the hands of Augustus to be confined at Rome, that he might reign
with greater security, as he knew his subjects would revolt as soon as
they found any one of his family inclined to countenance their
rebellion, though at the same time they scorned to support the interest
of any usurper who was not of the royal house of the Arsacidæ. He
was, however, at last murdered by one of his concubines, who placed
her son called Phraatices on the throne. Valerius Maximus, bk. 7,
ch. 6.—Justin, bk. 42, ch. 5.—Dio Cassius, bk. 51, &c.—Plutarch,
Antonius, &c.—Tacitus, Annals, bk. 6, ch. 32.

Phraates, a prince of Parthia in the reign of Tiberius.――A satrap of

Parthia. Tacitus, Annals, bk. 6, ch. 42.

Phraatices, a son of Phraates IV. He, with his mother, murdered his
father, and took possession of the vacant throne. His reign was short;
he was deposed by his subjects, whom he had offended by cruelty,
avarice, and oppression.

Phradates, an officer in the army of Darius at the battle of Arbela.

Phragrandæ, a people of Thrace. Livy, bk. 26, ch. 25.

Phrahates, the same as Phraates. See: Phraates.

Phranicates, a general of the Parthian armies, &c. Strabo, bk. 16.

Phraortes, succeeded his father Deioces on the throne of Media. He

made war against the neighbouring nations, and conquered the
greatest part of Asia. He was defeated and killed in a battle by the
Assyrians, after a reign of 22 years, B.C. 625. His son Cyaxares
succeeded him. It is supposed that the Arphaxad mentioned in Judith
is Phraortes. Pausanias.—Herodotus, bk. 1, ch. 102.――A king of
India, remarkable for his frugality. Philostratus.

Phrasĭcles, a nephew of Themistocles, whose daughter Nicomacha he

married. Plutarch, Themistocles.

Phrasimus, the father of Praxithea. Apollodorus.

Phrasius, a Cyprian soothsayer, sacrificed on an altar by Busiris king of

Egypt.
Phrataphernes, a general of the Massagetæ, who surrendered to
Alexander. Curtius, bk. 8.――A satrap who, after the death of
Darius, fled to Hyrcania, &c. Curtius.

Phriapatius, a king of Parthia, who flourished B.C. 195.

Phricium, a town near Thermopylæ. Livy, bk. 36, ch. 13.

Phrixus, a river of Argolis. There is also a small town of that name in

Elis, built by the Minyæ. Herodotus, bk. 4, ch. 148.

Phronĭma, a daughter of Etearchus king of Crete. She was delivered to a

servant to be thrown into the sea, by order of her father, at the
instigation of his second wife. The servant was unwilling to murder
the child, but as he was bound by an oath to throw her into the sea, he
accordingly let her down into the water by a rope, and took her out
again unhurt. Phronima was afterwards in the number of the
concubines of Polymnestus, by whom she became mother of Battus
the founder of Cyrene. Herodotus, bk. 4, ch. 154.

Phrontis, son of Onetor, pilot of the ship of Menelaus, after the Trojan
war, was killed by Apollo just as the ship reached Sunium. Homer,
Odyssey, bk. 3, li. 282.—Pausanias, bk. 10, ch. 25.――One of the
Argonauts. Apollodorus, bk. 1.

Phruri, a Scythian nation.

Phryges, a river of Asia Minor, dividing Phrygia from Caria, and falling
into the Hermus. Pausanias.

Phrygia, a country of Asia Minor, generally divided into Phrygia Major

and Minor. Its boundaries are not properly or accurately defined by
ancient authors, though it appears that it was situate between
Bithynia, Lydia, Cappadocia and Caria. It received its name from the
Bryges, a nation of Thrace, or Macedonia, who came to settle there,
and from their name, by corruption, arose the word Phrygia. Cybele
was the chief deity of the country, and her festivals were observed
with the greatest solemnity. The most remarkable towns, besides
Troy, were Laodice, Hierapolis, and Synnada. The invention of the
pipe of reeds, and of all sorts of needlework, is attributed to the
inhabitants, who are represented by some authors as stubborn, but
 yielding to correction (hence Phryx verberatus melior), as imprudent,
effeminate, servile, and voluptuous; and to this Virgil seems to
allude. Æneid, bk. 9, li. 617. The Phrygians, like all other nations,
were called barbarians by the Greeks; their music (Phrygii cantus)
was of a grave and solemn nature, when opposed to the brisker and
more cheerful Lydian airs. Mela, bk. 1, ch. 19.—Strabo, bk. 2, &c.—
Ovid, Metamorphoses, bk. 13, li. 429, &c.—Cicero, bk. 7, Letters to
his Friends, ltr. 18.—Flaccus, bk. 27.—Dio Cassius, bk. 1, ch. 50.—
Pliny, bk. 1, ch. 4.—Horace, bk. 2, ode 9, li. 16.—Pausanias, bk. 5,
ch. 25.—Herodotus, bk. 7, ch. 73.――A city of Thrace.

Phryne, a celebrated prostitute who flourished at Athens about 328 years

before the christian era. She was mistress to Praxiteles, who drew her
picture. See: Praxiteles. This was one of his best pieces, and it was
placed in the temple of Apollo at Delphi. It is said that Apelles
painted his Venus Anadyomene after he had seen Phryne on the sea-
shore naked, and with dishevelled hair. Phryne became so rich by the
liberality of her lovers, that she offered to rebuild, at her own
expense, Thebes, which Alexander had destroyed, provided this
inscription was placed on the walls: Alexander diruit, sed meretrix
Phryne refecit. This was refused. Pliny, bk. 34, ch. 8.――There was
also another of the same name who was accused of impiety. When
she saw that she was going to be condemned, she unveiled her
bosom, which so influenced her judges, that she was immediately
acquitted. Quintilian, bk. 2, ch. 15.

Phrynĭcus, a general of Samos, who endeavoured to betray his country

to the Athenians, &c.――A flatterer at Athens.――A tragic poet of
Athens, disciple to Thespis. He was the first who introduced a female
character on the stage. Strabo, bk. 14.――A comic poet.

Phrynis, a musician of Mitylene, the first who obtained a musical prize

at the Panathenæa at Athens. He added two strings to the lyre, which
had always been used with seven by all his predecessors, B.C. 438. It
is said that he was originally a cook at the house of Hiero king of
Sicily.――A writer in the reign of Commodus, who made a
collection, in 36 books, of phrases and sentences from the best Greek
authors, &c.

Phryno, a celebrated general of Athens, who died B.C. 590.

Phryxus, a son of ♦ Athamas king of Thebes by Nephele. After the
repudiation of his mother, he was persecuted with the most inveterate
fury by his stepmother Ino, because he was to sit on the throne of
Athamas, in preference to the children of a second wife. He was
apprised of Ino’s intentions upon his life by his mother Nephele, or,
according to others, by his preceptor; and the better to make his
escape, he secured part of his father’s treasures, and privately left
Bœotia, with his sister Helle, to go to their friend and relation Æetes
king of Colchis. They embarked on board a ship, or, according to the
fabulous account of the poets and mythologists, they mounted on the
back of a ram whose fleece was of gold, and proceeded on their
journey through the air. The height to which they were carried made
Helle giddy, and she fell into the sea. Phryxus gave her a decent
burial on the sea-shore, and after he had called the place Hellespont
from her name, he continued his flight, and arrived safe in the
kingdom of Æetes, where he offered the ram on the altars of Mars.
The king received him with great tenderness, and gave him his
daughter Chalciope in marriage. She had by him Phrontis, Melias,
Argos, Cylindrus, whom some call Cytorus, Catis, Lorus, and Hellen.
Some time after he was murdered by his father-in-law, who envied
him the possession of the golden fleece; and Chalciope, to prevent
her children from sharing their father’s fate, sent them privately from
Colchis to Bœotia, as nothing was to be dreaded there from the
jealousy or resentment of Ino, who was then dead. The fable of the
flight of Phryxus to Colchis on a ram has been explained by some,
who observe that the ship on which he embarked was either called by
that name, or carried on her prow the figure of that animal. The
fleece of gold is explained by recollecting that Phryxus carried away
immense treasures from Thebes. Phryxus was placed among the
constellations of heaven after death. The ram which carried him to
Asia is said to have been the fruit of Neptune’s amour with
Theophane the daughter of Altis. This ram had been given to
Athamas by the gods, to reward his piety and religious life, and
Nephele procured it for her children, just as they were going to be
sacrificed to the jealousy of Ino. The murder of Phryxus was some
time after amply revenged by the Greeks. It gave rise to a celebrated
expedition which was achieved under Jason and many of the princes
of Greece, and which had for its object the recovery of the golden
fleece, and the punishment of the king of Colchis for his cruelty to
the son of Athamas. Diodorus, bk. 4.—Herodotus, bk. 7, ch. 197.—
 Apollodorus, Argonautica.—Orpheus.—Flaccus.—Strabo.—
Apollodorus, bk. 1, ch. 9.—Pindar, Pythian, poem 4.—Hyginus,
fables 14, 188, &c.—Ovid, Heroides, poem 18; Metamorphoses,
bk. 4.――A small river of Argolis.

♦ ‘Athmas’ replaced with ‘Athamas’

Phthia, a town of Phthiotis, at the east of mount Othrys in Thessaly,

where Achilles was born, and from which he is often called Phthius
heros. Horace, bk. 4, ode 6, li. 4.—Ovid, Metamorphoses, bk. 13,
li. 156.—Mela, bk. 2, ch. 3.—Propertius, bk. 2, poem 14, li. 38.—
Cicero, Tusculanæ Disputationes, bk. 1, ch. 10.――A nymph of
Achaia, beloved by Jupiter, who, to seduce her, disguised himself
under the shape of a pigeon. Ælian, Varia Historia, bk. 1,
ch. 15.――A daughter of Amphion and Niobe, killed by Diana.
Apollodorus.

Phthiōtis, a small province of Thessaly, between the Pelasgicus sinus,

and the Maliacus sinus, Magnesia, and mount Œta. It was also called
Achaia. Pausanias, bk. 10, ch. 8.

Phya, a tall and beautiful woman of Attica, whom Pisistratus, when he

wished to re-establish himself a third time in his tyranny, dressed like
the goddess Minerva, and led to the city on a chariot, making the
populace believe that the goddess herself came to restore him to
power. The artifice succeeded. Herodotus, bk. 1, ch. 59.—Polyænus,
bk. 1, ch. 40.

Phycus (untis), a promontory near Cyrene, now called Ras-al-sem.

Lucan, bk. 9.

Phylăce, a town of Thessaly, built by Phylacus. Protesilaus reigned

there, from whence he is often called Phylacides. Lucan, bk. 6,
li. 252.――A town of Arcadia. Pausanias, bk. 1, ch. 34.――A town
of Epirus. Livy, bk. 45, ch. 26.

Phylăcus, a son of Deion king of Phocis. He married Clymene the

daughter of Mynias, and founded Phylace. Apollodorus.
Phylarchus, a Greek biographer, who flourished B.C. 221. He was
accused of partiality by Plutarch, Aratus.

Phylas, a king of Ephyre, son of Antiochus and grandson of Hercules.

Phyle, a well-fortified village of Attica, at a little distance from Athens.

Cornelius Nepos, Thrasybulus.

Phyleis, a daughter of Thespius. Apollodorus.

Phylēus, one of the Greek captains during the Trojan war.――A son of
Augeas. He blamed his father for refusing to pay Hercules what he
had promised him for cleaning his stables. He was placed on his
father’s throne by Hercules.

Phylĭra. See: Philyra.

Phylla, the wife of Demetrius Poliorcetes, and mother of Stratonice the

wife of Seleucus.

Phyllalia, a part of Arcadia.――A place in Thessaly.

Phylleius, a mountain, country, and town of Macedonia. Apollonius,

Argonautica, bk. 1.

Phyllis, a daughter of Sithon, or, according to others, of Lycurgus king of

Thrace, who hospitably received Demophoon the son of Theseus,
who, at his return from the Trojan war, had stopped on her coasts.
She became enamoured of him, and did not find him insensible to her
passion. After some months of mutual tenderness and affection,
Demophoon set sail for Athens, where his domestic affairs recalled
him. He promised faithfully to return as soon as a month was
expired; but either his dislike for Phyllis, or the irreparable situation
of his affairs, obliged him to violate his engagement, and the queen,
grown desperate on account of his absence, hanged herself, or,
according to others, threw herself down a precipice into the sea, and
perished. Her friends raised a tomb over her body, where there grew
up certain trees, whose leaves at a particular season of the year,
suddenly became wet, as if shedding tears for the death of Phyllis.
According to an old tradition mentioned by Servius, Virgil’s
commentator, Phyllis was changed by the gods into an almond tree,
 which is called Phylla by the Greeks. Some days after this
metamorphosis, Demophoon revisited Thrace, and when he heard of
the fate of Phyllis, he ran and clasped the tree, which, though at that
time stripped of its leaves, suddenly shot forth and blossomed, as if
still sensible of tenderness and love. The absence of Demophoon
from the house of Phyllis has given rise to a beautiful epistle of Ovid,
supposed to have been written by the Thracian queen, about the
fourth month after her lover’s departure. Ovid, Heroides, poem 2; De
Ars Amatoria, bk. 2, li. 353; Tristia, bk. 2, li. 437.—Hyginus, fable
59.――A country woman introduced in Virgil’s eclogues.――The
nurse of the emperor Domitian. Suetonius, Domitian, ch. 17.――A
country of Thrace, near mount Pangæus. Herodotus, bk. 7, ch. 13.

Phyllius, a young Bœotian, uncommonly fond of Cygnus the son of

Hyria, a woman of Bœotia. Cygnus slighted his passion, and told him
that, to obtain a return of affection, he must previously destroy an
enormous lion, take alive two large vultures, and sacrifice on
Jupiter’s altars a wild bull that infested the country. This he easily
effected by means of artifice, and by the advice of Hercules he forgot
his partiality for the son of Hyria. Ovid, Metamorphoses, bk. 7,
li. 372.—Nicander, Heteroeumena, bk. 3.――A Spartan remarkable
for the courage with which he fought against Pyrrhus king of Epirus.

Phyllŏdŏce, one of Cyrene’s attendant nymphs. Virgil, Georgics, bk. 4,

li. 336.

Phyllos, a country of Arcadia.――A town of Thessaly near Larissa,

where Apollo had a temple.

Phyllus, a general of Phocis during the Phocian or sacred war against the
Thebans. He had assumed the command after the death of his
brothers Philomelus and Onomarchus. He is called by some Phayllus.
See: Phocis.

Physcella, a town of Macedonia. Mela, bk. 2, ch. 3.

Physcion, a famous rock of Bœotia, which was the residence of the

Sphinx, and against which the monster destroyed himself, when his
enigmas were explained by Œdipus. Plutarch.
Physcoa, a woman of Elis, mother of Narcæus by Bacchus. Pausanias,
bk. 5, ch. 16.

Physcon, a surname of one of the Ptolemies, king of Egypt, from the

great prominency of his belly (φνοκη, venter). Athenæus, bk. 2,
ch. 23.

Physcos, a town of Caria, opposite Rhodes. Strabo, bk. 14.

Physcus, a river of Asia falling into the Tigris. The 10,000 Greeks
crossed it on their return from Cunaxa.

Phytălĭdes, the descendants of Phytalus, a man who hospitably received

and entertained Ceres, when she visited Attica. Plutarch, Theseus.

Phyton, a general of the people of Rhegium, against Dionysius the tyrant

of Sicily. He was taken by the enemy and tortured, B.C. 387, and his
son was thrown into the sea. Diodorus, bk. 14.

Phyxium, a town of Elis.

Pia, or Pialia, festivals instituted in honour of Adrian, by the Emperor

Antoninus. They were celebrated at Puteoli, on the second year of the
Olympiads.

Piăsus, a general of the Pelasgi. Strabo, bk. 13.

Picēni, the inhabitants of Picenum, called also Picentes. They received

their name from picus, a bird by whose auspices they had settled in
that part of Italy. Silius Italicus, bk. 8, li. 425.—Strabo, bk. 5.—
Mela, bk. 2, ch. 4.

Picentia, the capital of the Picentini.

Picentīni, a people of Italy between Lucania and Campania on the

Tuscan sea. They are different from the Piceni or Picentes, who
inhabited Picenum. Silius Italicus, bk. 8, li. 450.—Tacitus, Histories,
bk. 4, ch. 62.

Picēnum, or Picēnus ager, a country of Italy near the Umbrians and

Sabines, on the borders of the Adriatic. Livy, bk. 21, ch. 6; bk. 22,
 ch. 9; bk. 27, ch. 43.—Silius Italicus, bk. 10, li. 313.—Horace, bk. 2,
satire 3, li. 272.—Martial, bk. 1, ltr. 44.

Picra, a lake of Africa, which Alexander crossed when he went to

consult the oracle of Ammon. Diodorus.

Pictæ, or Picti, a people of Scythia, called also Agathyrsæ. They

received this name from their painting their bodies with different
colours, to appear more terrible in the eyes of their enemies. A
colony of these, according to Servius, Virgil’s commentator,
emigrated to the northern parts of Britain, where they still preserved
their name and their savage manners, but they are mentioned only by
later writers. Marcellinus, bk. 27, ch. 18.—Claudian, de Consulatu
Honorii, li. 54.—Pliny, bk. 4, ch. 12.—Mela, bk. 2, ch. 1.

Pictāvi, or Pictŏnes, a people of Gaul in the modern country of Poictou.

Cæsar, bk. 7, Gallic War, ch. 4.

Pictăvium, a town of Gaul.

Fabius Pictor, a consul under whom silver was first coined at Rome,
A.U.C. 485.

Picumnus and Pilumnus, two deities at Rome, who presided over the
auspices that were required before the celebration of nuptials.
Pilumnus was supposed to patronize children, as his name seems, in
some manner, to indicate, quod pellat mala infantiæ. The manuring
of lands was first invented by Picumnus, from which reason he is
called Sterquilinius. Pilumnus is also invoked as the god of bakers
and millers, as he is said to have first invented how to grind corn.
Turnus boasted of being one of his lineal descendants. Virgil, Æneid,
bk. 9, li. 4.—Varro.

Picus, a king of Latium, son of Saturn, who married Venilia, who is also
called Canens, by whom he had Faunus. He was tenderly loved by
the goddess Pomona, and he returned a mutual affection. As he was
one day hunting in the woods, he was met by Circe, who became
deeply enamoured of him, and who changed him into a woodpecker,
called by the name of picus among the Latins. His wife Venilia was
so disconsolate when she was informed of his death, that she pined
away. Some suppose that Picus was the son of Pilumnus, and that he