Test Bank for Psychology From Inquiry to Understanding Canadian

3rd Edition Lilienfeld Lynn Namy Woolf Cramer Schmaltz

0134379098 9780134379098
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Chapter 2: RESEARCH METHODS

Critical Thinking Questions

1) Describe how the use of research designs protects us from heuristics and cognitive
biases.

Answer: Answers will vary but should contain the following information for full
credit.

--Student should mention that research requires that we make our predictions
beforehand so that the hindsight bias does not lead us to exaggerate our abilities to
correctly understand a complex world.

--The research studies use techniques that focus on recording or gathering information
so that our intuitions are not allowed to bias the results (such as avoiding availability
and representativeness heuristics).

--Designs themselves have limitations so that further research is needed to establish the
reliability and validity of our findings.

Question ID: Lil 3ce 2.5-1

Diff: 2
Type: ES
Page Ref: 45–46
Topic: How We Can Be Fooled: Two Modes of Thinking
Skill: Applied/Conceptual

2) Use your knowledge of the case study and naturalistic observation to show why they
are better devices for identifying important topics for further study rather than being
designs that allow for theory building and testing.

Answer: Answers will vary but should contain the following for full credit.
--Both are examples of descriptive research designs (identifying and organizing
information about general patterns of behaviours) rather than examples of either
predictive (i.e., correlational) or causal (i.e., experimental) designs.

--Both lack important elements of more complex designs that allow theory testing (lack
of controls, inability in most cases to separate elements to allow greater understanding
of what is necessary and what is not for a behaviour to occur, studying a few people
that may not be representative of larger population).

--Direct interaction by researcher with people may strongly influence the data they
provide to us (which is often minimized by other methods).

Question ID: Lil 3ce 2.5-2

Copyright © 2015 Pearson Canada Inc.

2-1
Lilienfeld et al., Psychology, From Inquiry to Understanding, 3ce, DSM-5 Update Edition

Diff: 3
Type: ES
Page Ref: 47–49
Topic: Naturalistic Observation: Studying Humans “In the Wild” & Case Study
Designs: Getting to Know You
Skill: Applied/Conceptual

3) Discuss why researchers need to be familiar with both descriptive and inferential
statistics.

Answer: Answers will vary but should contain the following ideas for full credit.

--Student needs to mention that each gives a different kind of information because each
has differing goals (organization and summarization for descriptive and generalization
for inferential).

--Techniques in each can be misused in different ways to make effects appear that
really are not accurate or appropriate.

--Often both are used in conjunction by the researcher rather than being two types that
are chosen between (e.g., using the means of the groups to help see the statistically
significant group differences).

Question ID: Lil 3ce 2.5-3

Diff: 3
Type: ES
Page Ref: 70–72
Topic: Descriptive Statistics: What’s What? & Inferential Statistics: Testing
Hypotheses
Skill: Applied/Conceptual

Copyright © 2017 Pearson Canada Inc., Toronto, Ontario.

2-2
2-3
Chapter 2: RESEARCH METHODS
Essay Questions

1) Why is it necessary for psychologists to have so many different research designs

to study human behaviour?

Answer: Answers will vary but should contain the following points for full credit.

--Each research design has its own important limitations. Student should identify at
least two examples from two different designs to earn full credit.

--The goals of research differ (some focus on description, others on predictions,

and others on establishing causation).

--If different methods produce similar results, this increases our confidence in
our understanding of a particular phenomenon (idea of convergence).

Question ID: Lil 3ce 2.4-1

Diff: 3
Type: ES
Page Ref: 47–66
Topic: The Scientific Method: Toolbox of Skills
Skill: Applied/Conceptual

2) Distinguish between the different types of reliability and validity, and what are
the main differences between them.

Answer: Answers will vary but should contain the following points for full credit.

--Reliability: consistency of measurement (subtypes test–retest reliability: scores over a

period of time; interrater: scores/coding done by raters on the same data)

--Validity: measuring what you are claiming to measure (related to internal and
external validity)

Question ID: Lil 3ce 2.4-8

Diff: 2
Type: ES
Page Ref: 51–52
Topic: Self-Report Measures and Surveys: Asking People about Themselves and
Others
Skill: Factual

3) Compare and contrast the differences between a correlational and experimental design.

Copyright © 2017 Pearson Canada Inc., Toronto, Ontario.

2-2
2-4
Answer: Answers will vary but should contain the following points for full credit.

Copyright © 2017 Pearson Canada Inc., Toronto, Ontario.

2-2
2-5
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random and unrelated content:
 Save de cargo dat we can,
De sails and rigging too;
Den down to Key West we soon vill go,
When quickly our salvage we shall know;
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Our money down to us it is told.

Den one week’s cruize we’ll have on shore,

Before we do sail again,
And drink success to de sailor lads
Dat are ploughing of de main.
And when you are passing by dis way,
On the Florida Reef should you chance to stray,
Why, we will come to you on de shore,
Amongst de rocks where de breakers roar.

Great emphasis was laid upon particular words by the singer, who
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unpleasant effect.
 THE MALLARD.

A B ,L .

PLATE CCXXI. M F .

Although it is commonly believed that the Mallard is found

abundantly everywhere in the United States, I have received sufficient
proof to the contrary. If authors had acknowledged that they state so on
report, or had said that in the tame state the bird is common, I should not
have blamed them. According to my observation, and I may be allowed
to say that I have had good opportunities, this valuable species is
extremely rare in the wild state, in the neighbourhood of Boston in
Massachusetts; and in this assertion, I am supported by my talented and
amiable friend Mr N , who has resided there for many years.
Farther eastward, this bird is so rare that it is scarcely known, and not
one was seen by myself or my party beyond Portland in Maine. On the
western coast of Labrador none of the inhabitants that we conversed with
had ever seen the Mallard, and in Newfoundland the people were equally
unacquainted with it, the species being in those countries replaced by the
Black Duck, Anas fusca. From New York southward, the Mallards
become more plentiful, and numbers of them are seen in the markets of
Philadelphia, Baltimore, Richmond in Virginia, and other towns.
Although they are very abundant in the Carolinas and Floridas, as well as
in Lower Louisiana, they are much more so in the Western Country. The
reason of this is merely that the Mallard, unlike the sea ducks, is rarely
seen on salt water, and that its course from the countries where it chiefly
breeds is across the interior of the continent. From our great lakes, they
spread along the streams, betake themselves to the ponds, wet meadows,
submersed savannahs, and inland swamps, and are even found in the
thick beech woods, in early autumn, and indeed long before the males
have acquired the dark green colour of the head. Many of them proceed
beyond the limits of the United States.

It would be curious to know when this species was first

domesticated; but, Reader, the solution of such a question is a task on
which I shall not venture. In the domestic state every body knows the
Mallard. When young it affords excellent food, and when old lays eggs.
A bed made of its feathers is far preferable to the damp earth of the camp
of an American woodsman, or the plank on which the trained soldier lays
his wearied limbs at night. You may find many other particulars if you
consult in chronological order all the compilers from A to
the present day.

Be not startled, good Reader, when I tell you that many of these
ducks are bred in the lakes near the Mississippi, nay even in some of the
small ponds in the low lands or bottoms of the States of Kentucky,
Indiana and Illinois; for in many parts of those districts I have surprised
the females on their eggs, have caught the young when their mother was
cautiously and with anxiety leading them for greater safety to some
stream, and have shot many a fat one before the poor thing could fly, and
when it was so plump, tender, and juicy, that I doubt much whether, you,
like myself, should not much prefer them to the famed Canvass-backed
Duck.

Look at that Mallard as he floats on the lake; see his elevated head
glittering with emerald-green, his amber eyes glancing in the light! Even
at this distance, he has marked you, and suspects that you bear no good
will towards him, for he sees that you have a gun, and he has many a
time been frightened by its report, or that of some other. The wary bird
draws his feet under his body, springs upon them, opens his wings, and
with loud quacks bids you farewell.

Now another is before you, on the margin of that purling streamlet.

How brisk are all his motions compared with those of his brethren that
waddle across your poultry-yard! how much more graceful in form and
neat in apparel! The duck at home is the descendant of a race of slaves,
and has lost his native spirit: his wings have been so little used that they
can hardly raise him from the ground. But the free-born, the untamed
duck of the swamps,—see how he springs on wing, and hies away over
the woods.

The Mallards generally arrive in Kentucky and other parts of the

Western Country, from the middle of September to the first of October,
or as soon as the acorns and beech-nuts are fully ripe. In a few days they
are to be found in all the ponds that are covered with seed-bearing
grasses. Some flocks, which appear to be guided by an experienced
leader, come directly down on the water with a rustling sound of their
wings that can be compared only to the noise produced by an Eagle in
the act of stooping upon its prey, while other flocks, as if they felt uneasy
respecting the safety of the place, sweep around and above it several
times in perfect silence, before they alight. In either case, the birds
immediately bathe themselves, beat their bodies with their wings, dive
by short plunges, and cut so many capers that you might imagine them to
be stark mad. The fact, however, seems to be, that all this alacrity and
gaiety only shews the necessity they feel of clearing themselves of the
insects about their plumage, as well as the pleasure they experience on
finding themselves in a milder climate, with abundance of food around
them, after a hard journey of perhaps a day and a night. They wash
themselves and arrange their dress, before commencing their meal; and
in this other travellers would do well to imitate them.

Now, towards the grassy margins they advance in straggling parties.

See how they leap from the water to bend the loaded tops of the tall
reeds. Woe be to the slug or snail that comes in their way. Some are
probing the mud beneath, and waging war against the leech, frog, or
lizard, that is within reach of their bills; while many of the older birds
run into the woods, to fill their crops with beech-nuts and acorns, not
disdaining to swallow also, should they come in their way, some of the
wood-mice that, frightened by the approach of the foragers, hie towards
their burrows. The cackling they keep up would almost deafen you, were
you near them; but it is suddenly stopped by the approach of some
unusual enemy, and at once all are silent. With heads erected on out-
stretched necks, they anxiously look around. It is nothing, however, but a
bear, who being, like themselves, fond of mast, is ploughing up the
newly fallen leaves with his muzzle, or removing an old rotting log in
search of worms. The ducks resume their employment. But another
sound is now heard, one more alarming. The bear raises himself on his
hind legs, snuffs the air, and with a loud snort gallops off towards the
depths of his cane-brake. The ducks retreat to the water, betake
themselves to the centre of the pool, and uttering half-stifled notes await
the sight of the object they dread. There the enemy cunningly advances
first covered by one tree, then by another. He has lost his chance of the
bear, but as he is pushed by hunger, a Mallard will do for the bullet of his
rusty rifle. It is an Indian, as you perceive by his red skin and flowing
black hair, which, however, has been cut close from the sides of his head.
In the centre of his dearly purchased blanket, a hole has been cut,
through which he has thrust his bare head, and the ragged garment, like a
horse’s netting, is engaged as it were in flapping off the last hungry
musquitoes of the season that are fast sucking the blood from his limbs.
Watch him, Mallard, Nay, wait no longer, for I see him taking aim; better
for you all to fly! No—well, one of you will certainly furnish him with a
repast. Amid the dark wood rises the curling smoke, the report comes on
my ear, the ducks all rise save a pair, that, with back downwards and feet
kicking against the air, have been hit by the prowler. The free son of the
forest slowly approaches the pool, judges at a glance of the depth of the
mire, and boldly advances, until with a cane he draws the game towards
him. Returning to the wood, he now kindles a little fire, the feathers fill
the air around; from each wing he takes a quill, to clean the touch-hole of
his gun in damp weather; the entrails he saves to bait some trap. In a
short time the ducks are ready, and the hunter enjoys his meal, although
brief time does he take in swallowing the savoury morsels. Soon, the
glimmering light of the moon will see him again on his feet, and lead
him through the woods, as he goes in pursuit of other game.

The Mallards that remain with us during the whole year, and breed
on the banks of the Mississippi or Lake Michigan, or in the beautiful
meadows that here and there border the Schuylkil in Pennsylvania, begin
to pair in the very heart of winter; and although ducks are quite destitute
of song, their courtships are not devoid of interest. The males, like other
gay deceivers, offer their regards to the first fair one that attracts their
notice, promise unremitting fidelity and affection, and repeat their offers
to the next they meet. See that drake, how he proudly shews, first the
beauty of his silky head, then the brilliancy of his wing-spots, and, with
honeyed jabberings, discloses the warmth of his affection. He plays
around this one, then around another, until the passion of jealousy is
aroused in the breasts of the admired and flattered. Bickerings arise; the
younger duck disdains her elder sister, and a third, who conceives herself
a coquette of the first order, interposes, as if to ensure the caresses of the
feathered beau. Many tricks are played by ducks, good Reader, but ere
long, the females retire in search of a safe place in which they may
deposit their eggs and rear their young. They draw a quantity of weed
around them, and form an ill-arranged sort of nest, in which from seven
to ten eggs are laid. From their bodies they pluck the softest down, and
placing it beneath the eggs, begin the long process of incubation, which
they intermit only for short periods, when it becomes absolutely
necessary to procure a little sustenance.

At length, in about three weeks, the young began to cheep in the

shell, from which, after a violent struggle, they make their escape. What
beautiful creatures! See how, with their little bills, they dry their downy
apparel! Now in a long line, one after another, they follow their glad
mother to the water, on arriving at which they take to swimming and
diving, as if elated with joy for having been introduced into existence.
The male, wearied and emaciated, is far away on some other pond. The
unnatural barbarian cares nothing about his progeny, nor has a thought
arisen in his mind respecting the lonely condition of his mate, the
greatness of her cares, or the sadness that she may experience under the
idea that she has been utterly forsaken by him who once called her his
only and truly beloved. No, Reader, not a thought of this kind has he
wasted on her whom he has left alone in charge of a set of eggs, and now
of a whole flock of innocent ducklings, to secure which from danger, and
see them all grow up apace, she manifests the greatest care and anxiety.
She leads them along the shallow edges of grassy ponds, and teaches
them to seize the small insects that abound there, the flies, the
musquitoes, the giddy beetles that skim along the surface in circles and
serpentine lines. At the sight of danger they run as it were on the water,
make directly for the shore, or dive and disappear. In about six weeks,
those that have escaped from the ravenous fishes and turtles have
attained a goodly size; the quills appear on their wings; their bodies are
encased with feathers; but as yet none are able to fly. They now procure
their food by partial immersions of the head and neck in the manner of
the old bird. At this period they are already fit for the table, and delicate
as well as savoury food they afford. By the time that the leaves are
changing their hues, the young Mallards take freely to their wings, and
the old males join the congregated flocks.

The Squatters of the Mississippi raise a considerable number of

Mallards, which they catch when quite young, and which, after the first
year, are as tame as they can wish. These birds raise broods which are
superior even to those of the wild ones, for a year or two, after which
they become similar to the ordinary ducks of the poultry-yard. The
hybrids produced between the Mallard and the Muscovy Duck are of
great size, and afford excellent eating. Some of these half-breeds now
and then wander off, become quite wild, and have by some persons been
considered as forming a distinct species. They also breed, when tame,
with the Black Duck (Anas fusca) and the Gadwal, the latter connection
giving rise to a very handsome hybrid, retaining the yellow feet and
barred plumage of the one, and the green head of the other parent.

I have found the Mallard breeding on large prostrate and rotten logs,
three feet above the ground, and in the centre of a cane-brake, nearly a
mile distant from any water. Once I found a female leading her young
through the woods, and no doubt conducting them towards the Ohio.
When I first saw her, she had already observed me, and had squatted flat
among the grass, with her brood around her. As I moved onwards, she
ruffled her feathers, and hissed at me in the manner of a goose, while the
little ones scampered off in all directions. I had an excellent dog, well
instructed to catch young birds without injuring them, and I ordered him
to seek for them. On this the mother took to wing, and flew through the
woods as if about to fall down at every yard or so. She passed and
repassed over the dog, as if watching the success of his search; and as
one after another the ducklings were brought to me, and struggled in my
bird-bag, the distressed parent came to the ground near me, rolled and
tumbled about, and so affected me by her despair, that I ordered my dog
to lie down, while, with a pleasure that can be felt only by those who are
parents themselves, I restored to her the innocent brood, and walked off.
As I turned round to observe her, I really thought I could perceive
gratitude expressed in her eye; and a happier moment I never felt while
rambling in search of knowledge through the woods.

In unfrequented parts, the Mallards feed both by day and by night;

but in places where they are much disturbed by gunners, they feed
mostly by night, or towards evening and about sunrise. In extremely cold
weather, they betake themselves to the sources of streams, and even to
small springs, where they may be found along with the American Snipe.
At times, after heavy falls of rain, they are seen searching for ground-
worms over the corn-fields, and during the latter part of autumn, the rice
plantations of Georgia and the Carolinas afford them excellent pasture
grounds. I have thought indeed that at this season these birds perform a
second migration as it were, for they then pour into the rice-fields by
thousands from the interior. In the Floridas, they are at times seen in such
multitudes as to darken the air, and the noise they make in rising from off
a large submersed savannah, is like the rumbling of thunder. So
numerous were the Mallards while I was at General H ’s in
East Florida, that a single Negro whom that gentleman kept as a hunter,
would shoot from fifty to a hundred and twenty in a day, thus supplying
the plantation with excellent food.

The flight of the Mallard is swift, strong, and well sustained. It rises
either from the ground or from the water at a single spring, and flies
almost perpendicularly for ten or fifteen yards, or, if in a thick wood,
until quite above the tops of the tallest trees, after which it moves
horizontally. If alarmed, it never rises without uttering several quacks;
but on other occasions it usually leaves its place in silence. While
travelling to any distance; the whistling sound of their wings may be
heard a great way off, more especially in the quiet of night. Their
progress through the air I have thought might be estimated at a mile and
a half in the minute; and I feel very confident that when at full speed and
on a long journey, they can fly at the rate of a hundred and twenty miles
in the hour.

The Mallard is truly omnivorous, its food consisting of every thing

that can possibly satisfy the cravings of its extraordinary appetite. Nor is
it at all cleanly in this respect, for it will swallow any kind of offals, and
feed on all sorts of garbage, even putrid fish, as well as on snakes and
small quadrupeds. Nuts and fruits of all kinds are dainties to it, and it
soon fattens on rice, corn, or any other grain. My friend J B ,
who usually raises a great number of Mallards every year, has the young
fed on chopped fish, on which they thrive uncommonly well. So very
greedy are these birds, that I have often observed a couple of them
tugging for a long time against each other for the skin of an eel, which
was already half swallowed by the one, while the other was engaged at
the opposite end. They are expert fly-catchers, and are in the habit of
patting with their feet the damp earth, to force ground-worms out of their
burrows.

Besides man, the enemies of the Mallard are the White-headed

Eagle, the Snowy Owl, the Virginian Owl, the racoon, the lynx, and the
snapping turtle. Mallards are easily caught by snares, steel-traps baited
with corn, and figure-of-four traps. As we have no decoys in the United
States, I shall not trouble you with a new edition of the many accounts
you will find in ornithological books of that destructive method of
procuring Wild Ducks.

The eggs of this species measure two inches and a quarter in length,
one inch and five-eighths in breadth. The shell is smooth, and of a plain
light dingy green. They are smaller than those of the tame duck, and
rarely so numerous. As soon as incubation commences, the males
associate together in flocks, until the young are able to migrate. This
species raises only one brood in the season, and I never found its nest
with eggs in autumn. The female covers her eggs before she leaves them
to go in search of food, and thus keeps them sufficiently warm until her
return.
 A B , Linn. Syst. Nat. vol. i. p. 205.—Lath. Ind. Ornith. vol. ii. p. 850.—Ch.
Bonaparte, Synopsis of Birds of the United States, p. 383.
M ,A B , Wils. Amer. Ornith. vol. viii. p. 112. pl. 70. fig. 7.—Nuttall,
Manual, vol. ii. p. 378.

Adult Male. Plate CCXXI. Fig. 1. 1.

Bill about the length of the head, higher than broad at the base,
depressed and widened towards the end, rounded at the tip. Upper
mandible with the dorsal line sloping and a little concave, the ridge at the
base broad and flat, towards the end broadly convex, as are the sides, the
edges soft and rather obtuse, the marginal lamellæ transverse, fifty on
each side; the unguis oval, curved, abrupt at the end. Nasal groove
elliptical, subbasal, filled by the soft membrane of the bill; nostrils
subbasal, placed near the ridge, longitudinal, elliptical, pervious. Lower
mandible slightly curved upwards, with the angle very long, narrow, and
rather pointed, the lamellæ about sixty.

Head of moderate size, oblong, compressed; neck rather long and

slender; body full, depressed. Feet short, stout, placed a little behind the
centre of the body; legs bare a little above the joint; tarsus short, a little
compressed, anteriorly with small scutella, laterally and behind with
reticulated angular scales. Hind toe extremely small, with a very narrow
membrane; third toe longest, fourth a little shorter, but longer than
second; all the toes covered above with numerous oblique scutella; the
three anterior connected by reticulated membranes, the outer with a thick
margin, the inner with the margin extended into a slightly lobed web.
Claws small, arched, compressed, rather acute, that of the middle toe
much larger, with a dilated, thin, inner edge.

Plumage dense, soft, and elastic; of the head and neck short,
blended, and splendent; of the other parts in general broad and rounded.
Wings of moderate length, acute; primaries narrow and tapering, the
second longest, the first very little shorter; secondaries broad, curved
inwards, the inner elongated and tapering. Tail short, much rounded, of
sixteen acute feathers, of which the four central are recurved.
 Bill greenish-yellow. Iris dark brown. Feet orange-red. Head and
upper part of neck deep green, a ring of white about the middle of the
neck; lower part of the neck anteriorly, and fore part of breast, dark
brownish-chestnut; fore part of back light yellowish-brown, tinged with
grey; the rest of the back brownish-black, the rump black, splendent with
green and purplish-blue reflections, as are the recurved tail-feathers.
Upper surface of wings greyish-brown, the scapulars lighter except their
inner webs, and with the anterior dorsal feathers minutely undulated with
brown. The speculum on about ten of the secondaries is of brilliant
changing purple and green, edged with velvet-black and white, the
anterior bands of black and white being on the secondary coverts. Breast,
sides, and abdomen, very pale grey, minutely undulated with darker;
lower tail-coverts black with blue reflections.

Length to the end of the tail 24 inches, to the end of the claws 23, to
the tips of the wings 22; extent of wings 36; wing from flexure 10 1/2;
tail 4 1/4; bill 2 2/12; tarsus 1 3/4; middle toe 2 2/12, its claw 5/12. Weight
from 2 1/2 to 3 lb.

Adult Female. Plate CCXXI. Figs. 2. 2.

Bill black in the middle, dull orange at the extremities and along the
edges. Iris as in the male, as are the feet. The general colour of the upper
parts is pale yellowish-brown, streaked and spotted with dusky brown.
The feathers of the head narrowly streaked, of the back with the margin
and a central streak yellowish-brown, the rest dark, of the scapulars
similar, but with the light streak on the outer web. The wings are nearly
as in the male, the speculum similar, but with less green. The lower parts
dull ochre, deeper on the lower neck, and spotted with brown.

Length 22 inches. Weight from 2 lb. to 2 1/2.

The Young acquire the full plumage in the course of the first winter.
 THE WHITE IBIS.

I ,V .

PLATE CCXXII. A M , Y .

Sandy Island, of which I have already spoken in my second volume,

is remarkable as a breeding-place for various species of water and land
birds. It is about a mile in length, not more than a hundred yards broad,
and in form resembles a horse-shoe, the inner curve of which looks
toward Cape Sable in Florida, from which it is six miles distant. At low
water, it is surrounded to a great distance by mud flats abounding in food
for wading and swimming birds, while the plants, the fruits, and the
insects of the island itself, supply many species that are peculiar to the
land. Besides the White Ibis, we found breeding there the Brown Pelican,
the Purple, the Louisiana, the White, and the Green Herons, two species
of Gallinule, the Cardinal Grosbeak, Crows, and Pigeons. The vegetation
consists of a few tall mangroves, thousands of wild plum trees, several
species of cactus, some of them nearly as thick as a man’s body, and
more than twenty feet high, different sorts of smilax, grape-vines, cane,
palmettoes, Spanish bayonets, and the rankest nettles I ever saw,—all so
tangled together, that I leave you to guess how difficult it was for my
companions and myself to force a passage through them in search of
birds’ nests, which, however, we effected, although the heat was
excessive, and the stench produced by the dead birds, putrid eggs, and
the natural effluvia of the Ibises, was scarcely sufferable. But then, the
White Ibis was there, and in thousands; and, although I already knew the
bird, I wished to study its manners once more, that I might be enabled to
present you with an account of them, which I now proceed to do,—
endeavouring all the while to forget the pain of the numerous scratches
and lacerations of my legs caused by the cactuses of Sandy Island.
 As we entered that well-known place, we saw nests on every bush,
cactus, or tree. Whether the number was one thousand or ten I cannot
say, but this I well know:—I counted forty-seven on a single plum-tree.
These nests of the White Ibis measure about fifteen inches in their
greatest diameter, and are formed of dry twigs intermixed with fibrous
roots and green branches of the trees growing on the island, which this
bird easily breaks with its bill; the interior, which is flat, being finished
with leaves of the cane and some other plants. The bird breeds only once
in the year, and the full number of its eggs is three. They measure two
inches and a quarter in length, with a diameter of one inch and five-
eighths, are rough to the touch, although not granulated, of a dull white
colour, blotched with pale yellow, and irregularly spotted with deep
reddish-brown. They afford excellent eating, although when boiled they
do not look inviting, the white resembling a livid-coloured jelly, and the
yolk being of a reddish-orange, the former wonderfully transparent,
instead of being opaque like that of most other birds. The eggs are
deposited from the 10th of April to the 1st of May, and incubation is
general by the 10th of the latter month. The young birds, which are at
first covered with thick down of a dark grey colour, are fed by
regurgitation. They take about five weeks to be able to fly, although they
leave the nest at the end of three weeks, and stand on the branches, or on
the ground, waiting the arrival of their parents with food, which consists
principally of small fiddler crabs and crayfish. On some occasions, I
have found them at this age miles away from the breeding-places, and in
this state they are easily caught. As soon as the young are able to provide
for themselves, the old birds leave them, and the different individuals are
then seen searching for food apart. While nestling or in the act of
incubating, these Ibises are extremely gentle and unwary, unless they
may have been much disturbed, for they almost allow you to touch them
on the nest. The females are silent all the while, but the males evince
their displeasure by uttering sounds which greatly resemble those of the
White-headed Pigeon, and which may be imitated by the syllables crooh,
croo, croo. The report of a gun scarcely alarms them at first, although at
all other periods these birds are shy and vigilant in the highest degree.
 The change in the colouring of the bill, legs, and feet of this bird,
that takes place in the breeding-season, is worthy of remark, the bill
being then of a deep orange red, and the legs and feet of a red nearly
amounting to carmine. The males at this season have the gular pouch of a
rich orange colour, and somewhat resembling in shape that of the Frigate
Pelican, although proportionally less. During winter, these parts are of a
dull flesh colour. The irides also lose much of their clear blue, and
resume in some degree the umber colour of the young birds. I am thus
particular in these matters, because it is doubtful if any one else has ever
paid attention to them.

While breeding, the White Ibises go to a great distance in search of

food for their young, flying in flocks of several hundreds. Their
excursions take place at particular periods, determined by the decline of
the tides, when all the birds that are not sitting go off, perhaps twenty or
thirty miles, to the great mud flats, where they collect abundance of food,
with which they return the moment the tide begins to flow. As the birds
of this genus feed by night as well as by day, the White Ibis attends the
tides at whatever hour they may be. Some of those which bred on Sandy
Key would go to the keys next the Atlantic, more than forty miles
distant, while others made for the Ever Glades; but they never went off
singly. They rose with common accord from the breeding-ground,
forming themselves into long lines, often a mile in extent, and soon
disappeared from view. Soon after the turn of the tide we saw them
approaching in the same order. Not a note could you have heard on those
occasions; yet if you disturb them when far from their nests, they utter
loud hoarse cries resembling the syllables hunk, hunk, hunk, either while
on the ground or as they fly off.

The flight of the White Ibis is rapid and protracted. Like all other
species of the genus, these birds pass through the air with alternate
flappings and sailings; and I have thought that the use of either mode
depended upon the leader of the flock, for, with the most perfect
regularity, each individual follows the motion of that preceding it, so that
a constant appearance of regular undulations is produced through the
whole line. If one is shot at this time, the whole line is immediately
broken up, and for a few minutes all is disorder; but as they continue
their course, they soon resume their former arrangement. The wounded
bird never attempts to bite or to defend itself in any manner, although, if
only winged, it runs off with more speed than is pleasant to its pursuer.

At other times the White Ibis, like the Red and the Wood Ibises,
rises to an immense height in the air, where it performs beautiful
evolutions. After they have thus, as it were, amused themselves for some
time, they glide down with astonishing speed, and alight either on trees
or on the ground. Should the sun be shining, they appear in their full
beauty, and the glossy black tips of their wings form a fine contrast with
the yellowish-white of the rest of their plumage.

This species is as fond of resorting to the ponds, bayous, or lakes

that are met with in the woods, as the Wood Ibis itself. I have found it
breeding there at a distance of more than three hundred miles from the
sea, and remaining in the midst of the thickest forests until driven off to
warmer latitudes by the approach of winter. This is the case in the State
of Mississippi, not far from Natchez, and in all the swampy forests
around Bayou Sara and Pointe Coupée, as well as the interior of the
Floridas. When disturbed in such places, these Ibises fly at once to the
tops of the tallest trees, emitting their hoarse hunk, and watch your
motions with so much care that it is extremely difficult to get within shot
of them.

The manner in which this bird searches for its food is very curious.
The Woodcock and the Snipe, it is true, are probers as well as it, but their
task requires less ingenuity than is exercised by the White or the Red
Ibis. It is also true that the White Ibis frequently seizes on small crabs,
slugs and snails, and even at times on flying insects; but its usual mode
of procuring food is a strong proof that cunning enters as a principal
ingredient in its instinct. The Cray-fish often burrows to the depth of
three or four feet in dry weather, for before it can be comfortable it must
reach the water. This is generally the case during the prolonged heats of
summer, at which time the White Ibis is most pushed for food. The bird,
to procure the Cray-fish, walks with remarkable care towards the
mounds of mud which the latter throws up while forming its hole, and
breaks up the upper part of the fabric, dropping the fragments into the
deep cavity that has been made by the animal. Then the Ibis retires a
single step, and patiently waits the result. The Cray-fish, incommoded by
the load of earth, instantly sets to work anew, and at last reaches the
entrance of its burrow; but the moment it comes in sight, the Ibis seizes it
with his bill.

Whilst at Indian Key, I observed an immense quantity of beautiful

tree snails, of a pyramidal or shortly conical form, some pure white,
others curiously marked with spiral lines of bright red, yellow and black.
They were crawling vigorously on every branch of each bush where
there was not a nest of the White Ibis; but wherever that bird had fixed
its habitation, not a live snail was to be seen, although hundreds lay dead
beneath. Was this caused by the corrosive quality of the bird’s ordure?

There is a curious though not altogether general difference between

the sexes of this species as to the plumage:—the male has five of its
primaries tipped with glossy black for several inches, while the female,
which is very little smaller than the male, has only four marked in this
manner. On examining more than a hundred individuals of each sex, I
found only four exceptions, which occurred in females that were very old
birds, and which, as happens in some other species, might perhaps have
been undergoing the curious change exhibited by ducks, pheasants, and
some other birds, the females of which when old sometimes assume the
livery of the males.

Much, as you are aware, good Reader, has been said respecting the
“oil bags” of birds. I dislike controversy, simply because I never saw the
least indications of it in the ways of the Almighty Creator. Should I err,
forgive me, but my opinion is, that these organs were not made without
an object. Why should they consist of matter so conveniently placed, and
so disposed as to issue under the least pressure, through apertures in the
form of well defined tubes? The White Ibis, as well as the Wood Ibis,
and all the other species of this genus, when in full health, has these oil
bags of great size, and, if my eyes have not deceived me, makes great
use of their contents. Should you feel anxious to satisfy yourself on this
subject, I request of you to keep some Ibises alive for several weeks, as I
have done, and you will have an opportunity of judging. And again, tell
me if the fat contained in these bags is not the very best lip-salve that can
be procured.

When any species of Ibis with which I am acquainted falls into the
water on being wounded, it swims tolerably well; but I have never
observed any taking to the water and swimming either by choice or to
escape pursuit. While in the company of Mr J M , a young
man who was for some time employed by me, and who has drawn plants
to some of my birds, although not so successfully as my amiable friend
Miss M , or G L , who finish those they draw as
beautifully as my learned and valued friend W M of
Edinburgh does his faithful drawings of birds, I chanced one morning to
be on the look-out for White Ibises, in a delightful swamp not many
miles from Bayou Sara. It was in the end of summer, and all around was
pure and calm as the clear sky, the bright azure of which was reflected by
the lake before us. The trees had already exchanged the verdure of their
foliage for more mellow tints of diversified hue; the mast dropped from
the boughs; some of the Warblers had begun to think of removing farther
south; the Night Hawk, in company with the Chimney Swallow, was
passing swiftly towards the land of their winter residence, and the Ibises
had all departed for the Florida coasts, excepting a few of the white
species, one of which we at length espied. It was perched about fifty
yards from us towards the centre of the pool, and as the report of one of
our guns echoed among the tall cypresses, down to the water, broken-
winged, it fell. The exertions which it made to reach the shore seemed to
awaken the half-torpid alligators that lay in the deep mud at the bottom
of the pool. One shewed his head above the water, then a second and a
third. All gave chase to the poor wounded bird, which, on seeing its
dreaded and deadly foes, made double speed towards the very spot where
we stood. I was surprised to see how much faster the bird swam than the
reptiles, who, with jaws widely opened, urged their heavy bodies through
the water. The Ibis was now within a few yards of us. It was the
alligator’s last chance. Springing forward as it were, he raised his body
almost out of the water; his jaws nearly touched the terrified bird; when
pulling three triggers at once, we lodged the contents of our guns in the
throat of the monster. Thrashing furiously with his tail, and rolling his
body in agony, the alligator at last sunk to the mud; and the Ibis, as if in
gratitude, walked to our very feet, and there lying down, surrendered
itself to us. I kept this bird until the succeeding spring, and by care and
good nursing, had the pleasure of seeing its broken wing perfectly
mended, when, after its long captivity, I restored it to liberty, in the midst
of its loved swamps and woods.

The young bird of this species which I kept alive for some time, fed
freely, after a few days captivity, on soaked Indian corn meal, but
evinced great pleasure when cray-fishes were offered to it. On seizing
one, it beat it sideways on the ground, until the claws and legs were
broken off, after which it swallowed the body whole. It was fond of lying
on its side in the sun for an hour or so at a time, pluming its body and
nursing the sore wing. It walked lightly and very gracefully, though not
so much so as the Herons. It did not molest its companions, and became
very gentle and tame, following those who fed it like a common fowl.

The Creoles of Louisiana call this species “Bee croche,” and also
“Petit Flaman,” though it is also generally known by the name of
“Spanish Curlew.” The flesh, which, as well as the skin, is of a dull
orange colour, is extremely fishy, although the birds are often sold in our
southernmost markets, and are frequently eaten by the Indians.

The White Ibis has been shot eastward as far as New Jersey. Of this I
have been made aware by my generous friend E H , Esq. I
never saw one farther up the Mississippi than Memphis.

T , Linn. Syst. Nat. vol. i. p. 242.—Lath. Ind. Ornith. vol. ii. p. 705.
W I ,T , Wils. Amer. Ornith. vol. viii. p. 43. pl. 66. fig. 3.—Nuttall,
Manual, vol. ii. p. 86.

I , Ch. Bonaparte, Synops. of Birds of the United States, p. 312.

Adult Male. Plate CCXXII. Fig. 1.

 Bill very long, slender, deeper than broad, compressed, tapering,
arcuate, obtuse at the tip. Upper mandible with the dorsal line arched in
its whole length, the ridge convex, broader towards the end, the sides at
the base nearly erect, towards the end very convex and narrow, the ridge
separated in its whole length from the sides by a deep narrow groove, the
edges inflected and sharp. Nostrils basal, dorsal, linear, direct. Lower
mandible nearly equal to upper, its angle very narrow, and protracted in
the form of a groove to the tip, the sides convex, the edges sharp, but
strong.

Head small, compressed; neck long and slender; body slender,

deeper than broad; wings rather large. Feet very long, slender; tibiæ long,
bare about half their length, and covered all round with hexagonal scales;
tarsi long, slender, anteriorly covered with numerous broad scutella, the
rest with hexagonal scales; toes slender, the first much smaller, the third
longest, the fourth considerably shorter, the second very little shorter
than the fourth, all covered above with numerous scutella, laterally with
angular scales, beneath flattened with thick soft margins; the anterior
connected at the base by membranes, of which the outer is longer; claws
small, arched, compressed, obtuse, the middle one with a sharp thin
edge.

Head and throat bare to beyond the eyes, as are the tibiæ nearly half
way up. Plumage in general soft, unglossed, the feathers rather blended,
those of the head and neck narrow and more blended. Wings long,
ample, some of the secondaries as long as the longest primary when the
wings are closed; third quill longest, but second and fourth almost as
long, first longer than fifth; secondaries broad and rounded. Tail short,
slightly emarginate and rounded, of twelve rounded feathers.

Bare parts of the head light orange-red; bill the same, but towards
the tip dusky. Iris of a fine pearly blue. Legs and toes paler than the bill;
claws dusky, tipped with horn colour. Plumage pure white, excepting the
ends of from three to five of the outer primaries, which are deep black,
with blue and green reflexions.
 Length to end of tail 24 1/2 inches, to end of wings 27, to end of
claws 31 1/2; extent of wings 40; wing from flexure 12 1/2; tail 4 3/4; bill
along the back 5 1/4, along the edge 5 3/4; bare space of tibia 1 3/4, tarsus
3 1/4, middle toe 2 1/8, its claw 3/8. Weight 2 lb.

The adults vary considerably in size, and remarkably in the length of

the bill. The extent of the bare space on the head varies according to age.
In the breeding season the bill and legs are bright carmine; during the
rest of the year paler.

Young bird killed in September. Plate CCXXII. Fig. 2.

In its first plumage this species is of a dull brown colour all over,
excepting the rump, which is whitish, and the tail, which is tinged with
grey.

After the first moult, the bill is pale yellowish-orange, toward the
base greenish; the naked parts of the head are pale orange-yellow,
inclining to flesh-colour; the eye dark brown; the feet pale blue. The
plumage is of a dull olivaceous brown, the quills darker, the tail rather
lighter, the hind part of the back white, the breast and abdomen white.

The Crayfish represented in the plate will be found described in the

article entitled “the White Perch and its favourite bait.”
 THE AMERICAN OYSTER-CATCHER.

H ,T .

PLATE CCXXIII. M .

Our Oyster-Catcher has a very extensive range. It spends the winter

along the coast from Maryland to the Gulf of Mexico, and being then
abundant on the shores of the Floridas, may be considered a constant
resident in the United States. At the approach of spring, it removes
toward the Middle States, where, as well as in North Carolina, it breeds.
It seems scarcer between Long Island and Portland in Maine, where you
again see it, and whence it occurs all the way to Labrador, in which
country I found that several were breeding in the month of July. Unless
in winter, when these birds assemble in parties of twenty-five or thirty
individuals, they are seldom met with in greater numbers than from one
to four pairs, with their families, which appear to remain with the parent
birds until the following spring. It is never found inland, nor even far up
our largest rivers, but is fond of remaining at all times on the sandy
beaches and rocky shores of our salt-water bays or marshes. In Labrador,
I met with it farther from the open sea than in any other part, yet always
near salt-water. I have never met with any other species on the coasts of
North America.

Shy, vigilant, and ever on the alert, the Oyster-Catcher walks with a
certain appearance of dignity, greatly enhanced by its handsome plumage
and remarkable bill. If you stop to watch it, that instant it sounds a loud
shrill note of alarm; and should you advance farther towards it, when it
has neither nest nor young, off it flies quite out of sight. Few birds,
indeed, are more difficult to be approached, and the only means of
studying its habits I found to be the use of an excellent telescope, with
which I could trace its motions when at the distance of a quarter of a
mile, and pursuing its avocations without apprehension of danger. In this
manner I have seen it probe the sand to the full length of its bill, knock
off limpets from the rocks on the coast of Labrador, using its weapon
sideways and insinuating it between the rock and the shell like a chisel,
seize the bodies of gaping oysters on what are called in the Southern
States and the Floridas “Racoon oyster beds,” and at other times take up
a “razor-handle” or solen, and lash it against the sands until the shell was
broken and the contents swallowed. Now and then they seem to suck the
sea-urchins, driving in the mouth, and introducing their bill by the
aperture, without breaking the shell; again they are seen wading up to
their bodies from one place to another, seizing on shrimps and other
crustacea, and even swimming for a few yards, should this be necessary
to enable them to remove from one bank to another without flying. Small
crabs, fiddlers, and sea-worms, are also caught by it, the shells of which
in a broken state I have found in its gizzard in greater or less quantity.
Frequently, while on wet sea-beaches, it pats the sand, to force out the
insects; and in one instance I saw an individual run from the water to the
dry sand, with a small flounder in its bill, which it afterwards devoured.

This bird forms no regular nest, but is contented with scratching the
dry sand above high-water mark, so as to form a slight hollow, in which
it deposits its eggs. On the coast of Labrador, and in the Bay of Fundy, it
lays its eggs on the bare rock. When the eggs are on sand, it seldom sits
on them during the heat of the sun; but in Labrador, it was found sitting
as closely as any other bird. Here, then, is another instance of the
extraordinary difference of habit in the same bird under different
circumstances. It struck me so much that had I not procured a specimen
in Labrador, and another in our Middle Districts, during the breeding
season, and found them on the closest examination to be the same, I
should perhaps have thought the birds different. Everywhere, however, I
observed that this bird is fond of places covered with broken shells and
drifted sea-weeds or grasses, as a place of security for its eggs, and
where, in fact, it is no very easy matter to discover them. The eggs are
two or three, measure two inches and one-eighth in length, by an inch
and a half in breadth, and are of the form of those of a common hen.
They are of a pale cream colour, spotted with irregular marks of
brownish-black, and others of a paler tint, pretty equally dispersed all
over. The birds, even when not sitting on them, are so very anxious about
them, that on the least appearance of an enemy, they scream out loudly,
and if you approach the nest, fly over and around you, although always
at a considerable distance. When you meet with the young, which run as
soon as they are hatched, the old birds manifest the greatest anxiety.
They run before you, or fly around you, with great swiftness, and emit
peculiar notes, which at once induce their little ones to squat among the
sand and broken shells, where, on account of their dull greyish-colour, it
is very difficult to see them unless you pass within a foot or two of them,
when they run off emitting a plaintive note, which renders the parents
doubly angry. Their shape is now almost round, and the streaks of their
back and rump, as well as the curved points of their bills, might induce
you to believe them to be any thing but the young of an Oyster-Catcher. I
have caught some, which I thought were more than a month old, and yet
were unable to fly, although full feathered. They appeared weakened by
their fatness, and were overtaken by running after them on the sands.
There were no parent birds near or in sight of them; yet I much doubt if
they procured their own food at this period, and have more reason to
believe that, like some other species of birds, they were visited and
supplied with food at particular hours of the day or of the night, as is the
case with Herons and Ibises, for the Oyster-Catcher is scarcely nocturnal.

By the beginning of October these birds return to the south. I saw

them at Labrador until the 11th of August, but cannot say at what period
they leave that country. When wounded while wading or on the shore,
they make for the water, on which they float buoyantly and move with
ease.

The flight of the American Oyster-catcher is powerful, swift, elegant

at times, and greatly protracted. While they are on wing, their beauties
are as effectually displayed as those of the Ivory-billed Woodpecker of
our woods, the colours of which are somewhat similar. The transparent
white of their wings contrasts with their jetty tips, and is enriched by the
coral hue of the bill, while the beautiful white of their lower parts has a
very pleasing effect. Their loud cries, too, of wheep, wheep, wheeop,
which sound in your ears, are quite different from any you have heard;
and as they perform their various evolutions, all charming in themselves,
you cannot, if unacquainted with the bird, refrain from asking what it is?
Now wheeling with wonderful impetuosity, they pass within a hundred
yards of you, and suddenly checking their flight return, not low over the
waters as before, but high in the air. Again, they form their ranks in a
broad front, and again, as if suddenly alarmed by the report of a distant
gun, they close pell-mell, and dip towards the sands or the waters. Shoot
one at such a moment, and you may expect to kill another; but as this is
done, the wary birds, as if suddenly become aware of your intentions,
form themselves into a straggling line, and before a minute has elapsed,
far beyond reach, and fading on the view, are the remaining Oyster-
catchers.

The gullet of this species is capable of being considerably distended.

When your finger is introduced into it, it passes with ease into a sort of
crop, where the food is apparently prepared before entering the gizzard,
which is rather muscular. How this bird disposes of the hard particles of
shells, pebbles, and other matters, with which its food is mixed, is
beyond my comprehension, and one which I gladly leave for your
solution. Their flesh is dark, tough, and unfit for eating, unless in cases
of extreme necessity.

The females and young are dark olive-brown above, like the males,
but of a browner shade. I have represented a male bird. I have never met
with the European Oyster-catcher, Hæmatopus Ostralegus, in any part of
the United States, and, although I cannot of course aver that it does not
occur there, I believe that the American or Mantled Oyster-catcher has
been confounded with it by W and others. Indeed, the figure given
by W resembles that of the European bird, but his description of the
female and young almost agrees with the present species, the dimensions
also being nearly the same.

H , Temm. Man. d’Ornith. part ii. p. 532.

M O - ,H , Nuttall, Manual, vol. ii. p. 15.

 Plate CCXXIII. Male in June.

Bill long, slender but strong, straight, deeper than broad at the base,
towards the end extremely compressed, terminating in a very thin
wedge-shaped point. Upper mandible with the dorsal line at the base
straight and slightly sloping, convex beyond the nostrils, then straight
and sloping to the point, the ridge broad and flattened as far as the
prominence, afterwards extremely narrow, the sides sloping at the base,
perpendicular towards the end, the edges rather sharp. Nasal groove
basal, long; nostrils basal, in the middle of the groove, linear, direct,
placed nearer the margin than the dorsal line, pervious. Lower mandible
straight, the dorsal line at the base sloping upwards, at one-third of the
length of the bill bulging, then straightish and slightly ascending, the tip
narrower than that of the upper mandible, the sides at the base sloping
upwards, and having a shallow groove, towards the end becoming
perpendicular. The bill differs from that of the Hæmatopus Ostralegus in
being much deeper at the bulging part, much more attenuated towards
the point, and proportionally longer.

Head of moderate size, oblong, the forehead rounded. Neck rather

long. Body stout, compact, deeper than broad. Wings long. Feet of
moderate length, rather stout; tibia bare for a fourth of its length, and,
like the slightly compressed tarsus, covered all round with hexagonal
scales; toes rather short and fleshy, the hind toe wanting, the second a
little shorter than the fourth, the third much longer, all scaly at the base
above, scutellate towards the end, flattened and broad beneath, with thick
margins, which are covered with prominent thick scales, and connected
at the base by short webs of which the outer is longer; claws small, blunt,
rather compressed, that of the middle toe largest, and with a dilated thin
inner edge.

Plumage of the head and neck short, blended, of the back compact,
and slightly glossed, of the lower parts close and rather blended, the
feathers in general incurved, broad, and rounded. Wings long, acute;
primaries rather narrow and tapering, the first longest, the second slightly
shorter, the rest rapidly graduated; secondaries broad and rounded, the
inner much elongated and tapering. Tail short, rounded of twelve rather
broad, rounded feathers.

Bill vermilion, lighter at the base. Edges of eyelids vermilion; iris

bright yellow. Feet very pale flesh-colour; claws brownish-black. Head
and neck dull black tinged with bluish-grey; lower eyelid white; the
bases of the feathers on the chin white. The general colour of the upper
parts is light greyish-brown, tinged with olive, and in certain lights with
faint reddish-purple reflections; the edge of the wing, the tips of the
secondary coverts, the secondary quills, excepting the inner elongated
ones, pure white; as are the breast, sides, under wing-coverts, abdomen,
sides of the rump, the upper and the lower tail-coverts. Basal half of the
tail white, the rest greyish-brown, like the back.

Length to end of tail 17 1/2, to end of claws 19 1/2; wing from flexure
10 1/2, tail 4 1/4; extent of wings 36; bill along the back 3 5/8; along the
edge 3 7/8; bill at the base 9/12, at the deepest part in the middle 8/12;
naked part of tibia 1; tarsus 2 1/4; middle toe 1 8/12, its claw 3 /
1 2
/ 12 .
Weight 1 lb. 4 1/2 oz.

The bill varies considerably in length and depth. Individuals vary in

length from 17 to 18 inches.

The Female is precisely similar to the male.

 THE KITTIWAKE GULL.

L ,L .

PLATE CCXXIV. A S , Y W .

This beautiful Gull ranges, during the autumnal and winter months,
along the whole of our extensive coasts. I have procured it from the
mouth of the Mississippi to the coast of Maine, and have traced it from
the latter district to Labrador. Yet I never saw it on any of our great lakes
or rivers, nor in any part of the interior. From New York to Eastport it is
extremely abundant, and many breed on the Island of Grand Manan, off
the entrance of the Bay of Fundy.

As we approached the famous Gannet Rock of the Gulf of St

Lawrence, the wind suddenly rose to a gale; but as I was exceedingly
anxious that a landing should be effected on the island, every exertion
was made to enable me to accomplish my purpose. The whale boat was
manned. T L and my son leaped into it, accompanied by
young C . Urged by strong pulls, the buoyant boat advanced
towards the grim rock. For nearly an hour it became hidden from my
sight; but now and then the report of a gun brought intimation that all
was as yet safe; and at length I had the great pleasure of seeing it
advancing towards the Ripley, which stood off and on, shivering as it
were under the heavy blast. My eye fixed to the telescope, watched every
movement of the boat, as with fear I saw it tossed from billow to billow,
this moment a glimpse of her keel appearing over the edge of a wave, the
next a foot of her stem only seeming to float on the waters. “Pull steadily
on, my good lads,” at last came on my ear, when, by a heavy surge, the
floating shell was driven back some twenty yards, as I thought, and the
wave, foaming with wrath, broke over her. Breathless and exhausted, the
crew at length came within reach of a line, as the boat was dangerously
plunging, when by good luck the rope was thrown across her, and in a
few moments she lay snug under our lee. How happy was I when I again
saw my son, my young companions, and the sailors, on the deck of the
Ripley. Quickly was the whaler hauled on board, and with joy we saw
our vessel fly off like a Kittiwake before the gale.

When the anxiety was over, inquiries were made as to the success of
the adventurous party. Several nests of the Kittiwake and many of its
eggs had been brought safe on board. Notes had been taken on the spot,
and the result of the expedition was as follows:—The nests were found
placed on some ledge of the huge rock, so small as barely to admit their
breadth, which was about a foot. They were placed where no other bird
than the Guillemot would have ventured to drop its egg, or the Raven to
fix his nest. Yet on that narrow platform the Kittiwake sat on its three
eggs, as unconcerned as if in a meadow. The nests were altogether
composed of sea-weeds called “eel-grass,” and coarse grasses, probably
procured on the top of the rock, or stolen from the nest of some unwary
Solan Goose. Their inner surface was quite flat, although some of the
nests were many inches in thickness, and looked as if they had been
increased in bulk year after year. The sitting birds remained on their eggs
with uncommon pertinacity, seldom indeed flying off, but merely
moving aside. The male birds, or those that had no eggs, on the contrary,
were extremely clamorous, flew around the party in great concern, and
shewed much courage. The eggs are of a light olive-green colour,
marked with numerous irregular spots of dark brown. Their average
length is two inches and a quarter, their greatest breadth one inch and
seven-eighths. No other species of Gull was seen about the rock; and
indeed I have regularly observed that each species of this genus breeds
far apart, although at all other seasons it may associate with others.

The young remain a considerable time in the nest or about it, when
room is afforded. Their bills and feet are now quite black, the eye dark,
and they do not change these colours until the second spring after their
birth, when the bill is dull yellow, the legs and feet of a greenish flesh-
colour, and these parts gradually improve in their tints until they acquire
the appearance represented in the plate. This species raises only one
brood in the season, and old and young leave the coast of Labrador at the
first appearance of winter, or when the Ivory Gull reaches that country.
This, however, I know only from hearsay, having received the
information from a settler at Bras d’Or, who has lived there many years,
and must know something of both species, as he was in the habit of
salting young Kittiwakes for winter provisions, along with those of other
species, and of shooting the Ivory Gull when it arrived over his harbour
in the month of December.

The Kittiwake is on land the most awkward of its tribe; and,

although it walks often on the rocks, its gait manifests a waddling
gaucherie; but on the water, or in the air, few birds surpass it in
buoyancy, grace, and ease of motion. Bearing up against the heaviest
gale, it passes from one trough of the sea to another, as if anxious to rest
for an instant under the lee of the billows; yet as these are seen to rear
their curling crests, the Gull is already several feet above them, and
preparing to plunge into the next hollow. While in our harbour, and
during fine weather, they seemed to play with their companions of other
species. Now with a spiral curve, they descend toward the water, support
themselves by beats of their wings, decline their heads, and pick up a
young herring or some bit of garbage, when away they fly, chased
perhaps by several others anxious to rob them of the prize. Noon has
arrived. High above the mast-head of our tallest man-of-war, the
Kittiwakes float gracefully in wide circles, until all, as if fatigued, sail
downward again with common accord towards the transparent deep, and,
alighting close to each other, seem to ride safely at anchor. There they
now occupy themselves in cleaning and arranging their beautiful
plumage.

The food of this species consists of small fish, sea insects, and small
bivalves, most of which they procure while on wing, even those left dry
by the tide. Unlike the larger species, they do not take up shell-fish to
break them by letting them fall on the rocks; at least I never saw them do
so. Their principal enemies are different species of Lestris, especially
that beautiful one named the L. parasiticus. This tormentor follows the
Kittiwake to the very waters around the Gulf of Florida during the
winter. There with astonishing swiftness, and an audacity scarcely to be
surpassed, it gives chase to the Gull, overtakes it, and forces it to alight
on the water, or to disgorge the fish which it has just swallowed.

The two represented in the plate were drawn at Boston, at the

approach of spring, when the old birds had already assumed the pure
white of the head. This species was so abundant on several of the islands
of the Bay of Boston, that several basketfuls of them were procured in
the course of a few excursions. When one fell to the water, the rest
would hover about and around the boat, until many were shot from a
flock. The case was the same, while we were in some of the harbours of
Labrador.

L , Lath. Ind. Ornith. vol. ii. p. 817.—Ch. Bonaparte, Synopsis of Birds of

the United States, p. 359.—Swains. and Richards. Fauna Bor. Amer. part ii. p. 423.
K G , Nuttall, Manual, vol. ii. p. 298.

Adult in Summer. CCXXIV. Fig. 1.

Bill shorter than the head, strong, nearly straight, compressed. Upper
mandible with the dorsal line nearly straight and slightly declinate, until
towards the end, when it is decurved, the ridge convex, the sides slightly
convex, the edges a little inflected, straight, towards the end declinate
and arched, the tip rather obtuse. Nasal groove narrow, rather long;
nostril in its fore part, lateral, longitudinal, linear, wider anteriorly, open,
and pervious. Lower mandible with a slight prominence at the end of the
angle, which is long and narrow, the dorsal line then nearly straight and
ascending, the sides convex, the edges sharp and inflected.

Head rather large, oblong, anteriorly compressed. Neck of moderate

length. Body rather full. Wings long. Feet of moderate length rather
strong; tibia bare below; tarsus somewhat compressed, covered before
and behind with numerous broad scutella, the sides reticulated; hind toe
rudimentary, with a minute knob in place of the claw; the fore toes rather
long and slender, the fourth longer than the second, all scutellate above,