Biomedical Signal Processing and Control 86 (2023) 105128

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Biomedical Signal Processing and Control

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/bspc

White blood cell automatic classification using deep learning and optimized
quaternion hybrid moments
Mohamed Amine Tahiri a, Fatima Zohra El hlouli b, Ahmed Bencherqui c, Hicham Karmouni *, d,
Hicham Amakdouf e, Mhamed Sayyouri c, Hassan Qjidaa a
a
Laboratory of Electronic Signals and Systems of Information LESSI, Dhar El Mahrez Faculty of Science, Sidi Mohamed Ben Abdellah-Fez University, Fez, Morocco
b
LISAC Laboratory, Department of Computer Science, Faculty of Sciences, University Sidi Mohammed Ben Abdellah Atlas, 30050 Fez, Morocco
c
Engineering, Systems and Applications Laboratory, National School of Applied Sciences, Sidi Mohamed Ben Abdellah University, Fez, Morocco
d
National School of Applied Sciences, Cadi Ayyad University, Marrakech, Morocco
e
Sidi Mohamed Ben Abdellah University, Institute of Sports Sciences, Fez, Morocco

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The structural characteristics of white blood cells (WBCs) can provide important information about human
Metaheuristic algorithms health status. For this reason, over the past four decades, researchers have sought ways to automate the clas­
Quaternion discrete moments sification and morphological analysis of white blood cells. In the present study, we propose a new method to
Convolutional neural network
classify white blood cells into four types: neutrophils, lymphocytes, monocytes, and eosinophils by combining
Classification
the hybrid discrete moment quaternion approach with deep learning. The proposed classification method is
generally divided into two main phases: the first one is called the preprocessing phase, which is devoted to the
computation of the image moments to be classified using a new quaternion Meixner-Charlier hybrid moment that
is characterized by the following parameters α, β, and φ. In addition, the grey wolf optimization algorithm is
used to guarantee high classification accuracy by optimizing the local parameters of the new quaternion Meixner-
Charlier hybrid moments. The classification phase, which is the second phase of our proposed convolutional
neural network model, is dedicated to introducing image moments. We present various graphical measurements,
including receiver operating characteristics, precision-recall curves, and a confusion matrix. To demonstrate the
effectiveness of our classification method, we also employ numerical measures such as the F1 score, loss, and
accuracy. Our results indicate that the cell types of neutrophils were determined with a 98.53% accuracy rate,
lymphocytes with a 98.16% accuracy rate, monocytes with a 97.43% accuracy rate, and eosinophils with a
97.43% accuracy rate.

1. Introduction However, WBCs can be disturbed in number as well as in quality.

Blood counts and blood smears are frequently used techniques in
medicine to quantitatively and qualitatively monitor different blood
cells [1]. White blood cells are an integral part of the immune system
[2]. They develop from stem cells present in the bone marrow, which
gradually develop into one of these cells: Neutrophils (NGB), Lympho­
cytes (LYT), Monocytes (MON), Eosinophils (EOS), and Basophils (BAS)
[3]. Since Basophils are, the rarest and their absence may be normal in a
healthy individual. Therefore, the main focus in this study will be on the
four remaining types that are most frequently affected and solicited.
These disturbances can be detected using two main methods, namely: i)
the manual assessment, the disadvantage of this technique lies in its
hardness and the fact that it is hematologist-dependent and, therefore,
subject to inter-observer variations [4]. ii) The automated evaluation of
blood cells which allows obtaining fast and objective results. In addition,
automating blood cell assessment also avoids the interobserver variation
inherent in the manual method, which improves the reliability and
reproducibility of results. This is particularly important in patient
monitoring, where results must be consistent over time to allow for an
accurate assessment of the patient’s health status [5–9].

* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: mohamedamine.tahiri@usmba.ac.ma (M. Amine Tahiri), fzelhlouli@gmail.com (F. Zohra El hlouli), ahmed.bencherqui@usmba.ac.ma
(A. Bencherqui), hicham.karmouni@usmba.ac.ma (H. Karmouni), hicham.amakdouf@usmba.ac.ma (H. Amakdouf), mhamed.sayyouri@usmba.ac.ma
(M. Sayyouri), hassan.qjidaa@usmna.ac.ma (H. Qjidaa).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bspc.2023.105128
Received 25 January 2023; Received in revised form 19 May 2023; Accepted 8 June 2023
Available online 16 June 2023
1746-8094/© 2023 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
M. Amine Tahiri et al. Biomedical Signal Processing and Control 86 (2023) 105128

Y. Y. Baydilli et al. [10] presented a method called capsule arrays.
This method is essentially made of two parts: the encoder and the
decoder. The decoder part reconstructs the image while the encoder part
extracts and classifies the image. Additionally, in [11] M. Toğaçar et al.
presented a framework for integrating modulated Gabor wavelets with
CNN categorization of blood cells. M. M. Alam et al. also offered a ma­
chine learning strategy in [12] which three blood cell types were iden­
tified and counted through the use of the object detection and
classification algorithm YOLO.The performances of SVM classifiers in
the white blood cell classification into five categories was assessed by S.
H. Rezatofighi et al. in [13]. Finally, in [14] I. Naz et al. suggest an early
diagnosis strategy for leukemia, which is based on the composition and
deconstruction of the wavelet to reaches and bands of the cell picture
using CNN. B.Hedge et al. proposed in [15] a classification algorithm
based on WBC kernel detection and kernel features. In this paper, the
researchers added the shape and texture of the kernel to a hybrid SVM
and neural network-based classifier.
Automatic screening approaches based on deep learning may
encounter two limitations:
• The first limitation arises from the dependency on collecting a
balanced database, particularly in the medical field where hospital
conditions may not always be optimal. Insufficient availability of
data can hinder the effectiveness of these approaches. To address this
issue, one common strategy is artificially augmenting the training
dataset by applying transformations such as rotation, translation,
and zooming, while preserving the labels [16–18]. This approach
helps overcome the problem of overfitting and improves estimation
accuracy, but it requires a significant amount of storage space due to
the increased dataset size [19,20].
• The second limitation is associated with the utilization of deeper
architectures like VGG-19, ResNet, Google Net, Alex Net, and
Capsule Net, which can lead to challenges when the number of pa­
rameters increases [21,22]. It is worth noting that both AlexNet and
GoogleNet were designed to detect and identify features of animals
quaternion moment neural network (CNN-QMs). Prior to delving into
the structure of this paper, it is crucial to underscore its notable
strengths:
1) Introduce new DMCP hybrid polynomials that contain more local
parameters than the existing classical polynomials, this feature gives
us the possibility to manage and manipulate such hybrid
polynomials.
2) Introduce QHMCMs, which allows us to analyze color images while
maintaining the coherence between the RGB layers.
3) Apply GWO to select the optimal local parameters of DMCPs during
the calculation of QHMCMs.
4) Introduce a new CNN-QMs model dedicated to the classification of
our reduced WBC database.
The remaining sections of the paper are structured as follows: In the
second section, we provide a theoretical framework for Quaternion
hybrid Meixner-Charlier moments. The third section focuses on the
optimization of QHMCMs through GWO. The fourth section describes
the WBC dataset, the preprocessing phase, and the proposed CNN-QM
model used for classification. The fifth section presents the experi­
mental results. In the last section, we will present the conclusion, as well
as our future prospects.
2. Quaternion hybrid Meixner -Charlier moments
While classical orthogonal polynomials perform well in some image
processing applications, they fall short in others, particularly for color
image classification. In this section, we present the theoretical frame­
work of PCs and MPs and then introduce the new hybrid orthogonal
moments in quaternions.
2.1. Charlier polynomials
( )
First, CPs Cn (x) are defined from the hypergeometric function
(φ)

and plants that are not easily discernible to the naked eye. The
Eq. (1) [26], where φ is a strictly positive real parameter [27]:
network architecture of VGG-Net, on the other hand, is primarily
tailored for face recognition tasks [23,24]. Therefore, directly ∑∞
(− n)k (− x)k
employing these network architectures for white blood cell image Cn( φ ) (x) = ( φ )k (1)
k!
classification often yields unsatisfactory results since white blood
k=0

cells are microscopic and possess unique properties that are not
adequately addressed by the aforementioned network architectures.
In such situations, the existing network architectures mentioned
above, as well as others, do not provide an optimal solution to the
problem at hand.
In this study, we are inspired by the concept of automatically clas­
sifying WBC images. To address this, we introduce a novel classification
method that integrates the discrete-moment quaternary approach with
machine learning techniques. Our goal is to automatically differentiate
between different classes of WBC images using a relatively small data­
base. The proposed classification method is generally decomposed into
The CPs computed by the direct method from Eq. (1); generate a
complexity at the computational level and lead to propagations of nu­
merical errors. Indeed, in order to overcome these problems, we adopt
an algorithm based on: (a) the symmetry property [28,29]achieved by
the mathematical Eq. (2), as reported in [30]. (b) The two classical
recurrence relations with respect to the order n in Eq. (3) and variable ×
Eq. (7).
̃ ( φ ) (x) = C
C n
̃ ( φ ) (n)
x (2)
▪ Recursive computation of C ̃ ( φ ) (x) following the order n:
n

two main phases: The first is called the preprocessing phase, which is √̅̅̅ √̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
devoted to computing the image moments to be classified using the new ̃ ( φ) (x) = φ − x + n − 1 φC
C ̃ ( φ ) (x) − n − 1̃( φ )
Cn− 2 (x) (3)
n
φ n n− 1 n
quaternion Meixner-Charlier hybrid moments (QHMCMs). The latter is
based on new discrete Charlier-Meixner hybrid polynomials (DMCPs), The initial values C
( φ)
̃ (x) and C ( φ)
̃ (x) are:
0 1
which were created by multiplying two discrete orthogonal polynomials √̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
(DOPs), namely the Charlier and Meixner polynomials (CPs and MPs). (φ)
̃ (x + 1) =
C
φ
C
(φ)
̃ (x) (4)
DOPs generally depend on local parameters. In practice, the selection of
0
x+1 0
the values of these parameters is done by empirical methods. Moreover, √̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
when the number of local parameters is high, the use of empirical ̃ ( φ ) (x + 1) = φ − x + 1.
C
φ ̃( φ )
C (x) (5)
methods is practically inefficient. For this purpose, the Grey Wolf
1
φ− x .x + 1 1
Optimization (GWO) algorithm [25] is used to ensure high classification
accuracy by optimizing the local α, β, and φ parameters of the new with:
QHMCMs. The second step is devoted to inserting the moment images
into the new CNN model, which will be called the convolutional

2
M. Amine Tahiri et al. Biomedical Signal Processing and Control 86 (2023) 105128

{ φ
Table 1
e2 si n = 0
̃ ( φ ) (0) √̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
C n (6) ̃ (α,β) (x) for recurrence relation with respect to the order n.
Data for the M n
φ.e− (φ) si n = 1 √̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ √̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
(x − xβ − n + 1 − βα + β − βn) β (n − 1)(n − 2 + α)
A = − B = -
β n(α + n − 1) n(n − 1 + α)
(φ)
▪ Recursive computation of C ̃ (x) following the variable x:
n
√̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ (α,β) (α,β)
̃ (φ) (x) = x + φ√−̅̅̅̅̅n̅ − 1C
C ̃ (φ) (x − 1) − .(x − 1)φ ̃ (φ)
√̅̅̅̅̅̅ Cn (x − 2) (7) The initial values M ̃
0 (x) and M ̃
1 (x) are given as follows:
n n
xφ xφ √̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ √̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
̃ 0(α,β) (x) = β(α + x − 1)M
M ̃ (0α,β) (0) With M
̃ (0α,β) (0) = (1 − β)α (13)
The initial values C ̃ (φ) (0) and C
n
̃ (φ) (1) are:
n x
√̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ ( )√̅̅̅
φ ̃( φ )
̃ (φ) (0) =
C n+1 C (0) (8) ̃ 1(α,β) (x) =
M α+x−
x β ̃ (α,β)
M 0 (x) (14)
n+1 n β α
√̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
̃ ( φ ) (1) = φ − n + 1 φ ̃( φ ) Fig. 2 shows the 2D graph of M(nα,β) (x) for x = 0:1000 and n = 10, for
C C (1) (9)
n+1
φ− n n+1 n α = 0.5 and β = 300, α = 0.5 and β = 500 and α = 0.5 and β = 700.
This figure shows how to change the parameters of Mn (x) to obtain
(α,β)
with: certain features of the image. These parameters are also used to move
{
e2
− φ
si x = 0 the region of interest. When α = 0.5 and β = 500 the values of the
̃ ( φ ) (x) √̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
C 0 (10) Mn (x) are distributed symmetrically around the middle as shown in
(α,β)

φ.e− (φ) si x = 1 Fig. 2 (b). Conversely, if α = 0.5 and β = 300, the shift of the region of
Fig. 1 shows the 2D graph of orthonormalized CPs for x = 0:1000 and interest is to the left side. When α = 0.5 and β = 700, it shifts the region
n = 10, for φ = 400, φ = 500 and φ = 600. of interest to the right side.
This figure describes how to adjust the parameter φ to obtain features The computation of the polynomial values from the hypergeometric
of a specified image. When φ = N 2, the values of the polynomials are
/ (Eq. (11)) formula is very time-consuming. In addition, using the
distributed symmetrically around the middle of the x-axis, as shown in recurrence relation for the order n or the variable × to figure out
Fig. 1 (b); conversely, if N/2–100, the shift of the region of interest is to polynomial values is limited by the fact that the numbers of the poly­
the left, while N/2 + 100, it shifts the region of interest to the right, as nomial values change. [27,33]. To overcome these problems when using
shown in Fig. 1 (a) and (c). new quaternion hybrid Meixner-Charlier moments, we adopted the al­
gorithm mentioned in [32] for MPs and [30] for CPs; these algorithms
are based on three concepts:
2.2. Meixner polynomials
• Using recurrence algorithms (n and/or x) of the squared norm and
( (α,β) )
Second,MPs Mn (x) are defined by the hypergeometric function weight function.
Eq. (11) [31], where α and β two real parameters [31]. • Using of recurrence formulas to calculate the initial values of each
Mn (x) and Cn (x) polynomials.
(α,β) (φ)
( )k
∑N
(− n)k (− x)k 1 − 1β • The symmetry property ensures numerical stability of the moment
(α,β)
Mn (x) = (α)n . (11) values [34,35].
k=0
(α)k k!

The calculation of the MP values using Eq. (11) generates a certain After presenting the theoretical framework of the two polynomials
divergence in these calculated values. Therefore, we have adopted a new Mn (x) and Cn (x), the following subsection presents the new
(α,β) (φ)

algorithm proposed by [32]. This algorithm is based on the recursive QHMCMs.

̃ (α,β) (x) and M
calculation of the initial values M ̃ (α,β) (x) with respect to the
0 1
order n in Eq.(12) (The parameters A and B are presented in Table 1.), in
order to eliminate the direct dependence of the latter with the squared 2.3. Quaternion hybrid Meixner -Charlier moments
norm and the weight function [32].
From the mathematical point of view, the combination of two clas­
̃ (nα,β) (x) = A × M
M ̃ (n−α,β) ̃ (α,β) (12) sical orthogonal polynomials generates the probability that the discrete
1 (x) + B × M n− 2 (x)
orthogonal polynomials can be interpreted using a hybrid or separable

̃ (φ) (x) for N = 1000: (a) φ = 400(b) φ = 500 (c)φ = 600.

Fig. 1. 2D plot of C n

3
M. Amine Tahiri et al. Biomedical Signal Processing and Control 86 (2023) 105128

Fig. 2. 2D plot of the Mn (x) for N = 1000:

(α,β)

polynomial [36]. In the literature, many researchers have highlighted
hybrid polynomials because of their effectiveness in many areas
[37–39].
The theoretical calculation of the new hybrid polynomials P̃n (x) is
orthonormal, because it consists of the orthonormal forms of MPs and
CPs. which satisfies the following orthogonal condition [31]:
of digital images in color. This approach treats the images in color
without dividing them into 3 planes. This allows us to minimize the
processing time and retain all the information in the image.
In the following pure quaternion equation, a digital color image f(x ,
y) is defined as a digital color image with × rows and y columns (x = 1,
…, N and y = 1,…, M).

∑
N− 1 f (x , y) = fRED (x , y)i + fGREEN (x , y)j + fBLUE (x , y)k (18)
̃ n (x)P
P ̃ m (y) = δnm , n = 0, 1, 2, ...., N − 1 (15)
x=0 The QHMCMs (QHMnm (f)) can be calculated from the pure quater­
nion equation Eq. (18) and the moments correspond to the new hybrid
where δnm is the Kronecker delta function[31], defined as follows, ̃DMCP (x).
polynomial P n
{
0 if n ∕
=m
δnm = (16) N− 1 ∑
∑ M− 1
1 if n = m QHMnm (f ) = (fRed (x, y)i + fGreen (x; y)j + fBlue (x, y)k)
x=0 y=0
The n order orthogonal of the new hybrid polynomials DMCP sat­
th ( DMCP )
isfies the orthogonal condition Eq. (15), are defined as follows:
̃
× P ̃ DMCP (y) × μ
(x)P
n m (19)

∑
N− 1 with
̃D M CP (x) =
P ̃ (α,β) (n),
̃ (a) (x)M
C n, x = 0, 1, 2, ..., N − 1 (17)
n j j
j=0 − (i + j + k)
μ= √̅̅̅ (20)
3
̃DMCP (x) is the new hybrid polynomial DMCP.
where P n Taking into consideration the equation that defines μ, Eq. (19) sim­
Discrete orthogonal Meixner-Charlier polynomials and their corre­
plifies to the following form:
sponding moments are widely used to represent and extract significant

[ ]
1 ∑ N− 1 ∑ M− 1 ( DMCP DMCP
)
QHMnm (f ) = √̅̅̅ ̃
(fRed (x , y) + fGreen (x , y) + fBlue (x , y)) × Pn ̃
(x)Pm (y)
3 x=0 y=0
[ ]
1 N− 1 ∑
∑ M− 1 ( DMCP DMCP
)
− √̅̅̅ i (fGreen (x , y) − fBlue (x , y)) × Pn ̃ ̃
(x)Pm (y)
3 x=0 y=0
[ ] (21)
1 N− 1 ∑
∑ M− 1 ( DMCP )
− √̅̅̅ j (fBlue (x , y) − fRed (x , y)) × P ̃n (x)P̃ DMCP
m (y)
3 x=0 y=0
[ ]
1 N− 1 ∑
∑ M− 1 ( DMCP )
− √̅̅̅ k (fRed (x , y) − fGreen (x , y)) × P ̃n (x)P̃DMCP
m (y)
3 x=0 y=0

features from images in various fields of image processing. However,

these moments encounter some difficulties regarding the classification
of color images. The main motivations for using QHMCMs are as follows: Notably, the calculation of the 2D hybrid HMnm (f) moments of an
(a) they are discrete, similar to digital images, so there is no dis­ image f(x, y) of size (N, M) using a hybrid polynomial is obtained by the
cretization error. (b) The implementation of these moments does not following equation [40]:
require any numerical approximation. (c) QHMCMs have not been suf­ N− 1 ∑
∑ N− 1
ficiently studied. (d) The quaternion moments simultaneously contain HMnm (f ) = ̃ DMCP
P ̃DMCP
(x)P (y) × f (x, y) (22)
n m
information from all three-color channels of the image. We can therefore x=0 y=0
conclude that the quaternion approach could be used in the processing
The use of Eq. (22) to calculate the moments results in a significant

4
M. Amine Tahiri et al. Biomedical Signal Processing and Control 86 (2023) 105128

computational burden. For this reason, we have adopted the matrix form
[40]. 1 ∑ N− 1 ∑
M− 1
MSE = [F(x, y) − F⌢(x, y)]2 (30)
N × M x=0 y=0
HM = PDMCP,T
n × F × PDMCP
m (23)
In conclusion, the quaternary approach guarantees good results
DMCP
where HM, PDMCP ,PDMCP and F are the matrix forms of HMnm ,P
̃ (x), when used in applications dedicated to image processing (reconstruc­
n m n
̃DMCP (y) and f(x, y) respectively. tion, compression, classification, and localization). In particular, this
P m approach avoids errors such as i) redundancy of information. ii) Loss of
In order to facilitate the understanding of Eq. (21), we will adopt the
information. iii) Loss of correlation between the layers of an RGB system
two equations Eq. (21) and Eq. (23).
created by conventional methods that process the image either by con­
1 1 verting the color image to a gray level or by processing each RGB layer
QHMnm (f ) = √̅̅̅ [HMR + HMG + HMB ] − √̅̅̅ i[HMG + HMB ]
3 3 separately.
(24)
1 1
− √̅̅̅ j[HMB + HMR ] − √̅̅̅ k[HMR + HMG ] 3. Optimization of QHMCMs via GWO
3 3
HMR , HMG and HMB are the hybrid moments of DMCPs for the red, To get the most out of the new polynomial in applications such as
green, and blue channels, respectively. The following form can be used classification, it is critical to select the right parameters. This goal be­
to rewrite equation (24): comes more difficult with the increase of the parameter number. How­
QHMnm (f ) = A0 + iA1 + jA2 + kA3 (25) ever, to achieve this goal the parameters must verify the conditions
{ [ ]} { [ ] }
φ ∈ N2 , N [27] and β ∈ N2 , N , α = 0.5 [31] for MC and MM
After presenting the computation of the moments QHMnm (f), we will respectively and separately. It should be noted that what may work if
now proceed to the presentation of the inverse form of IQHMnm (f). each polynomial is treated separately is not necessarily ideal or perfectly
Mathematically, the calculation of the latter is done by the inverse suited in the case of hybrid polynomials. Motivated by the resolution of
equation of Eq. (22) following: this problem, we will adopt a metaheuristic algorithm [41,42], to select
∑
N− 1 ∑
N− 1 the parameters of the new QHMCMs among thousands of possibilities.
F⌢(x, y) = ̃DMCP
P n
̃DMCP
(x) × P m (y) × HMnm (f ) (26) Metaheuristic optimization algorithms have proven to be useful for
n=0 m=0
solving problems in various fields [43–45]. Among these algorithms is
In order to speed up the numerical calculation we have adopted the the GWO algorithm, which holds a special position in swarm intelligence
matrix form: methods. We can quote some advantages of GWO:
Efficiency: GWO is an efficient method for solving complex nonlinear
F⌢ = PDMCP
n × HM × PDMCP,T
m (27) optimization problems. It can obtain optimal or near-optimal results in a
relatively short time.
where HM, PDMCP ,PDMCP ̃DMCP (x),
and F⌢ are the matrix forms of HMnm ,P Adaptability: GWO is an adaptable and flexible method that can be
n m n
̃DMCP (y) and F⌢(x, y) respectively. By using the two equations Eq. (26)
P applied to a wide variety of optimization problems. It is also able to
m
and Eq. (21) we will present the inverse calculation of QHMnm (f) adapt to dynamic environments and find optimal solutions for multi-
[ ] objective problems.
1 ∑ N− 1 ∑
M− 1 ( DMCP DMCP
) Simplicity: GWO is a simple and easy to understand method. It is
IQHMnm (f ) = √̅̅̅ ̃
(A1 + A2 + A3 ) × Pn ̃
(x)Pm (y)
3 x=0 y=0 based on rules of social behavior of gray wolves, which are easy to model
[ ] mathematically.
1 N− 1 ∑
∑ M− 1 ( DMCP ) The GWO algorithm is based on the organizational structure of gray
− √̅̅̅ i (A0 + A2 − A3 ) × P̃n (x)P̃DMCP (y)
3 x=0 y=0
m wolves. This structure is mottled into four groups: alpha wolves α (the
[ ] best solution), beta wolves β (the second best solution), delta wolves δ
1 N− 1 ∑
∑ M− 1 ( DMCP ) (the third best solution), and the remaining wolves ωi represent the
− √̅̅̅ j (A0 − A1 + A3 ) × P̃n ̃ DMCP
(x)P (y)
3 x=0 y=0
m remaining solutions [25]. Note that the GWO algorithm follows three
[ ] main stages of hunting: search, encirclement, and attack.
1 N− 1 ∑
∑ M− 1 ( DMCP
̃ ̃DMCP (y)
) The behavior of wolves during hunting can be expressed as follows:
− √̅̅̅ k (A0 + A1 − A2 ) × P n (x)P m
3 → → → →
(31)
x=0 y=0
X (t + 1) = X p (t) − A × D
(28)
⃒ ⃒
→ ⃒→ → → ⃒
D = ⃒ C × X (t) − X (t)⃒ (32)

1 1 1
IQHMnm (f ) = √̅̅̅ [A⌢1 + A⌢2 + A⌢3 ] − √̅̅̅ i[A⌢1 + A⌢2 + A⌢3 ] − √̅̅̅ j[A⌢0 − A⌢1 + A⌢3 ]
3 3 3
(29)
1
− √̅̅̅ k[A⌢0 + A⌢1 − A⌢2 ]
3

The representation of color F⌢ images by QHMCMs at order (m, n)
involves reconstruction errors that can be measured according to the
mean square error criteria:
where t is the current iteration, and D is the vector that specifies the new
position of the grey wolf,
X(t) is the position of the grey wolves in the present moment, and
→ →
Xp(t) is the location of the prey. A and C . are coefficient vectors

5
M. Amine Tahiri et al. Biomedical Signal Processing and Control 86 (2023) 105128

Fig. 3. Biomedical dataset.

calculated by the two equations [25]: → → →

→ X1 + X2 + X3
→ X p (t + 1) = (37)
A = 2→
a→r1− →
a (33) 3

→ After locating the prey, the modeling of the attack process begins
C = 2→
r2 (34) →
with a linear decrease in the value of → a from 2 to 0. A is a random value
r1 and r2 are random variables between 0 and 1, and → a is a fitting in the interval [ − 2 a , 2 a ]. According to Eq. (32), the reduction of →
→ → a
→
parameter that varies linearly between 2 and 0. By applying Eqs. (30) also implies the reduction of A .
and (31) together, the GWO algorithm uses the knowledge of α to find
the best solution. However, it uses β and δ to update the location of the • If A < 1, the grey wolves follow the leader α to attack. This step is
other search agents according to the following three equations [25]: called the convergence to a global optimum.
⃒ ⃒ ⃒ ⃒ • If A > 1, the grey wolves are forced to move away from the prey to
→ ⃒→ → → ⃒ → ⃒→ → → ⃒ →
D α = ⃒⃒ C 1 × X α (t) − X (t)⃒⃒ , D β = ⃒⃒ C 2 × X β (t) − X (t)⃒⃒, D .δ find the best possible solution and avoid the local optimum.
⃒ ⃒
⃒→ → → ⃒
= ⃒⃒ C 3 × X δ. (t) − X .(t)⃒⃒ (35) We conducted a statistical analysis to evaluate the effectiveness of
the algorithm used. For this purpose, we exploited three different
⃒ ⃒ ⃒ ⃒ ⃒ ⃒ datasets: XOR, Balloon, and Breast Cancer, and the description of the
⃒→ →⃒ →
→ ⃒→ → →⃒ → → ⃒→ → →⃒
X 1 = ⃒ X α − A 1 × D α ⃒ , X 2 = ⃒⃒ X β − A 2 × D β ⃒⃒ , X 3 = ⃒ X δ − A 3 × D δ ⃒ characteristics of these databases is summarized in Fig. 3.
The datasets were processed using the GWO algorithm, and the ob­
(36) tained results were compared to several widely recognized meta-
heuristic algorithms documented in the literature. These algorithms
include ant colony optimization (ACO), evolution strategy (ES), genetic
algorithm (GA), population-based incremental learning (PBIL), and
particle swarm optimization (PSO). In Table 2, we present the numerical
Table 2 results achieved by GWO, PSO, GA, ACO, ES, and PBIL algorithms for the
Experimental result for the three datasets. XOR, Balloon, and Breast Cancer datasets. Additionally, Fig. 4 illustrates
the convergence performance of each algorithm for the respective
Dataset problem Variant MSE MSE (STD) Classification rate,
(AVE) % datasets, providing valuable insights into their convergence behavior.
During these tests, we evaluate the performance of various algo­
XOR dataset GWO 0.009519 0.018094 100%
PSO 0.084583 0.028044 37% rithms by considering measures such as mean, standard deviation,
GA 0.000649 0.000784 100% classification rate, and convergence rate. Firstly, it is evident that the
ACO 0.148305 0.038948 62% classification rate of the GWO algorithm surpasses that of the other al­
ES 0.129449 0.017394 62% gorithms. Secondly, by analyzing the statistical and convergence out­
PBIC 0.048500 0.059839 62%
Balloon dataset GWO 9.38e- 15 2.54e- 14 100%
comes, we observe that GWO yields highly competitive solutions in
PSO 0.000675 0.000475 100% comparison to alternative variants like PSO, GA, ACO, ES, and PBIL
GA 4.37e- 20 1.45e- 21 100% algorithms.
ACO 0.008957 0.002840 100% Concretely, the proposed process for selecting the optimal parameter
ES 0.018649 0.014857 100% [ opt ]
PBIC 2.95e- 05 2.63e- 04 100%
values of QHMCMs Voptimal = αopt opt opt opt opt
1 , α2 , β1 , β2 , φ1 , φ2 using GWO
Breast cancer GWO 0.00124 7.44653e-05 99% is summarized in Algorithm-1. In order to highlight the efficiency of our
dataset PSO 0.036855 0.028942 34% optimization algorithm (Algorithm 1), we adopt an external comparison
GA 0.002974 0.002384 98% based on the representation of color images.
ACO 0.029749 0.039747 43%
ES 0.048563 0.028408 26%
PBIC 0.038482 0.005495 12%

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M. Amine Tahiri et al. Biomedical Signal Processing and Control 86 (2023) 105128

Fig. 4. Convergence graph of three dataset.

Fig. 5. The set of images reconstructed by different choices of parameters.

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M. Amine Tahiri et al. Biomedical Signal Processing and Control 86 (2023) 105128

Algorithm 1. Optimization of QHMCMs using GWO. Table 3

Descriptions of the database.
Inputs: Image function f(x, y), the moment order Nmax , the image size N × MOutput:
Optimized QHMCMs parameter values αopt
[ opt opt opt opt opt ] Single-cell Size The number of elements chosen to build
1 , α 2 , β 1 , β 2 , φ1 , φ2
Morphological initial elements a reduced database
SA = 50 (The population of grey wolves size)T = 100 (Maximum iterations number).
Eosinophils 400 × 424 340
Dim = 6 (The dimension of the problem)Lb= [0, 0, 1, 1 , 0 , 0] (The minimum
400 ×3
parameter values).Ub = [1, 1, N, N , N, N] (The maximum parameter values).
→ → Lymphocytes 400 × 3937 340
Initialize →
a , A , and C Evaluate the MSE objective function given by Eq. (30) for each 400 ×3
→ → →
search agent and sort them by their type: X α , X β , X δ T = 0while (T < Max number of Monocytes 400 × 825 340
iterations)For each search agentUpdate the position of the current search agent by 400 ×3
Eq. (36)end forUpdate →
→ →
a , A , and C Calculate the fitness values of all search agents Neutrophils 400 × 947 340
→ → → → 400 ×3
and grade themUpdate the positions of X α , X β , X δ T = T + 1end whileendReturn X α

classification. In this work, we explore the optimization of QHMCMs to

enhance their performance in classifying white blood cell (WBC) images.
For this purpose, we have chosen two images of size 400 × 400 pixels:
By fine-tuning the parameters associated with the QHMCMs, we aim to
the first one represents a LYT and the second one an NGB. The results
improve their ability to capture the subtle variations and intricate de­
indicate that the parameter values found using algorithm-1 show
tails present in WBC images, ultimately leading to more accurate clas­
remarkable performance in terms of color image representation
sification results. To achieve this optimization, we employ the GWO
compared to the algorithm used in [33] or compared to the conventional
[ ] metaheuristic algorithm. Having discussed the optimization of
choice of a , β ∈ N2 , N and φ = 0.5 parameters as shown in Fig. 5.
QHMCMs and the utilization of the GWO algorithm, we now shift our
Concisely, algorithm-1 allows both an optimal selection of DMCP pa­
focus to the subsequent components of our approach. We introduce the
rameters and an appropriate representation during the analysis of a
reduced WBC database that will serve as the basis for classification. This
color image by QHMCM, both of which are necessary for accurate image
database is carefully curated to contain representative samples from
classification.
various WBC classes, ensuring diversity and a balanced distribution
In this section, we delve into the details of two crucial aspects: the
across different cell types. By working with a reduced database, we
optimization of quaternion moments (QHMCMs) and the utilization of
mitigate the challenges associated with limited resources and compu­
the GWO metaheuristic algorithm for determining the optimal local
[ opt ]
tational constraints while maintaining a high-quality dataset for classi­
parameters of these moments Voptimal = αopt opt opt opt opt
1 , α2 , β1 , β2 , φ1 , φ2 . fication purposes.
Firstly, we focus on the optimization of QHMCMs. Quaternion moments
have proven to be effective in capturing both spatial and spectral in­
formation from images. By leveraging the unique properties of quater­
nions, we can extract discriminative features that contribute to accurate

Fig. 6. A Single-cell Morphological Dataset of Leukocytes.

8
M. Amine Tahiri et al.
Fig. 7. The overall process of the classification method.
4. Data, preprocessing and model description
We divided this section into two subsections: The first is devoted to
highlighting the reduced database and its distribution into four classes:
EOS, LYT, MON, and NGB, shedding light on the preprocessing. The
second section focuses on the architecture of the proposed model dedi­
cated to classification.
4.1. Data and preprocessing
The Munich Morphological Data Set [46,43] contains approximately
18,300 single-cell pictures taken from peripheral blood smears of 200
patients labeled by professionals [47]. The images were acquired via a
digital microscope with an optical magnification of 100 times. The
aforementioned database is divided into 15 morphological classes as
presented in Fig. 6, most of which have a size of 400 × 400. However, in
order to build a small database, we will choose 4 morphological classes
distributed as follows: 424 EOS, LYT 3937, MON 825, and 947 NGB
(Table 3).
It is important to note that the issue of inequality in acute myeloid
leukemia-cytomorphology databases was prevalent, prompting us to
explore classification methods that can effectively handle very small and
evenly distributed databases. Building upon this observation, this sec­
tion will primarily concentrate on introducing a novel hybrid approach
specifically designed for the automatic classification of white blood cells
9
Biomedical Signal Processing and Control 86 (2023) 105128
with the objective of detecting hematological malignancies. Notably,
this approach emphasizes the utilization of a small database set, further
highlighting its potential for addressing the challenges posed by limited
and imbalanced datasets in this domain. Our hybrid approach combines
the optimized quaternion moments approach and deep learning. The
overall process of the proposed method is summarized in the flowchart
(Fig. 7).
The hybrid classification approach proposed in this paper is based on
three pillars: (a) The QHMCMs quaternion moments approach has the
ability to represent the global properties of color images and describe
the most important features, which have a kernel basis of discrete
orthogonal hybrid polynomials (DMCPs). In addition, it can preserve the
existing correlation between the components of the color image. (b) The
metaheuristic algorithm, which is considered an iterative stochastic al­
gorithm that progresses towards a global optimum of the objective
function MSE of the proposed DMCPs. We should note that a recon­
structed image with low MSE values means that the parameter optimi­
zation method used is efficient. In general, the selection of these
parameter values is done via empirical methods. (c) The deep learning
approach by proposing a convolutional neural network model (CNN)
that takes the moment images calculated by QHMCMs as input.
As shown in Fig. 7, the proposed hybrid classification method com­
prises two phases. The preprocessing phase involves the construction of
a reduced and balanced database comprising 1360 color images. To
achieve this, we begin by collecting a set of images, which initially
M. Amine Tahiri et al. Biomedical Signal Processing and Control 86 (2023) 105128

Fig. 8. The preprocessing phase.

CNVL 1 undergoes max-pooling with a stride of 2 × 2, resulting in a

Table 4
halved input size of 61 × 61. Subsequently, the output of CNVL 1 is fed
Hyperparameters of the CNN-QMs Model.
into CNVL 2, which employs 7 filters of size 3 × 3. The output of CNVL 2
Number of the convolution layer Three convolution layer is then max-pooled with a stride of 2 × 2, leading to a size reduction of
Dropout layer {0.005, 0.006, 0.007} 28 × 28. Further, the output of CNVL 2 is fed into CNVL 3, which utilizes
Size Kernel of each convolution layer 3×3 3 × 3 filters. This layer’s output is again max-pooled with a stride of 2 ×
Number of the fully connected 3
2, reducing the size to 14 × 14. It is important to note that each of the
Pooling method three Max pooling
Stride of pooling method 2×2 three convolutional layers is followed by a dropout layer, with dropout
Activation layer (Hidden layer) ReLU rates of 0.005, 0.006, and 0.007, respectively. This technique is
Activation layer (Output layer) Softmax employed to mitigate the problem of overfitting and encourage the
Learning rate 0.0005 network to learn robust features that generalize well to unseen data.
Epochs 30
The tensor obtained from the previous layers is flattened into a linear
unit consisting of 768 neurons. This flattened tensor is then passed
amounts to 6133. We then proceed to perform meticulous manual op­ through fully connected (FC) layers. The first FC layer, FC1, reduces the
erations, including data cleaning, data scaling, and data splitting. These dimensionality of the tensor from 768 neurons to 384 neurons and ap­
steps are taken to carefully curate the final database, ensuring that it is plies the Rectified Linear Unit (ReLU) activation function to the output.
reduced in size and exhibits a balanced distribution across different The second FC layer, FC2, further reduces the number of neurons from
classes. This preprocessing approach establishes a robust foundation for 384 to 142, also utilizing ReLU activation. The third FC layer, FC3,
subsequent analyses and evaluations conducted in the study. Then, we converts the tensor from 142 neurons to 56 neurons, employing the
generate 128x128x1 moment images by computing the moments of each same ReLU activation function. The output of these FC layers is a tensor
image with GWO-optimized QHMCMs (Fig. 8). The classification phase, containing 56 neurons, which is then mapped to four neurons (four
in which the image moments found in the previous phase are added to classes). It is important to note that the hyperparameters associated with
the proposed convolutional neural network model, is shown in the next the CNN-QMs model are summarized in Table 4, providing an overview
section. of the key parameters used in the model.

4.2. The proposed model’s architecture
The CNN-QMs model, proposed in this study, comprises three
convolution layers (CNVLs), three pooling layers, three dropout layers,
one flat pool layer, and three fully connected (FC) layers. To implement
and train the model, TensorFlow is utilized within the Jupyter Notebook
environment. The CNN-QMs model is derived from the LeNet base
model with modifications tailored to the specific requirements of the
study. Notably, the input to the CNN-QMs is fed with the preprocessed
data obtained from the initial preprocessing step.
The CNN-QMs commences with a convolutional layer (CNVL) that
requires a 128 × 128 matrix as input. The first CNVL, denoted as CNVL
1, employs 10 filters of size 3 × 3 with a stride of 1 × 1. The output of
5. Experimental results
The simulation section, in which we try to show (a) the usefulness
and efficiency of the preprocessing phase with respect to the global
representation of the color images and the computation time, and (b) the
efficiency of the proposed classification model. We divide this section
into two parts. In Experiment 1, we presented (i) the time required to
compute the discrete moments of the color image using the DMCMs. (ii)
The efficiency of Algorithm-1 to select the local parameters of QHMCMs
and representing the color images. In Experiment 2, we will test our
CNN-QMs model’s ability to classify databases with fewer WBC images
by using several metrics.

10
M. Amine Tahiri et al.
Table 5
Average time in seconds and ETIR for calculating discrete moments.
The moments of: The average time of
Using DMCMs CCM [48]
Direct Method Matrix Method Direct Method
EOS 14.2035 0.3673 16.2480
MON 14.2001 0.3508 16.2322
LYT 14.1592 0.3012 16.1064
NGB 14.1835 0.3433 16.1331
ETIR % 97.5989% 88.1092%
5.1. Experiment 1
First, we compared the computation time of the moments of our
DMCMs with other separable moments [36,48,49] by two methods: “
direct method” and “matrix method”. For this purpose the execution
time improvement ratio (ETIR) is used as a criteria [27]:
( )
Time1
ETIR% = 1 − × 100 (38)
Time2
In this context, “time1″ refers to the execution time of the matrix
method, while ”time2″ represents the execution time of the direct
method. It’s important to note that the computational processes were
carried out 35 times for each of the four 400 × 400 pixel 2D color
images.
The computational times of DMCMs are compared with Charlier-
Charlier (CCM) [48], Charlier-Hahn (CHM) [49], and squared
Tchebichef-Krawtchouk (STKM) [36].
The findings are summarized in Table 5. This table contains both the
average execution times as well as the percentage improvement in
execution times. The results of the simulation demonstrate: i) the
rapidity of the matrix method in comparison to the direct method in
terms of the amount of time required for moment computation. ii) The
speed with which DMCMs compute moments in comparison to the speed
with which other hybrid moments.
The matrix method and the classical method are two different ap­
proaches to calculating discrete orthogonal moments. The matrix
method involves constructing a matrix based on the image values and
then applying a matrix transformation to obtain the orthogonal mo­
ments. This method is computationally efficient and can be easily
implemented on digital computers. In contrast, the classical method is to
calculate the orthogonal moments directly using integration formulas.
This method is more mathematically rigorous, but it can be computa­
tionally expensive and difficult to implement in practice. Both methods
have their advantages and disadvantages, and the choice of method
depends on the application and specific requirements. In general, the
matrix method is preferred for large-scale applications that require
efficient computation, while the classical method is more suitable for
mathematical analysis and research.
This seems evident in the average value of ETIR: 97.5989% for the
moment calculation using our hybrid moment and 88.1092%, 85.0440%
and 79.2653% for the moment calculation using CCM, CHM and STKM
respectively. To conclude, it can be affirmed that the use of our DMCMs
based on the matrix calculation makes the step of preprocessing easy,
effortlessly, and does not take much time, about 599 s, while the others
can reach up to 3255.84 s [48], 3087 s [49], and 11956.84 s [36].
In the following, we will focus on the performance of the optimiza­
tion algorithm “Algorithm-1″ compared to the other algorithms, namely:
Artificial Bee Colony (ABC)[50], GA and PSO [51], based on the peak
signal-to-noise ratio (PSNR) and the mean square error (MSE) computed
for four different images. The details of this simulation are shown in
Fig. 9. The MSE curves show the efficiency of our optimization algorithm
in front of the other algorithms, especially in small orders. In the same
direction, the PSNR curves confirm this superiority, especially in high
Biomedical Signal Processing and Control 86 (2023) 105128
CHM [49] STKM [36]
Matrix Method Direct Method Matrix Method Direct Method Matrix Method
1.9995 17.8542 2.3328 35.2358 7.3265
1.9044 17.4256 2.7513 35.4852 7.2568
1.8930 17.4522 2.5624 35.3624 7.2158
1.8991 17.1256 2.7892 35.9452 7.6528
85.0440% 79.2653%
orders.
The simulation results have provided compelling evidence to support
the significant superiority of the GWO-based optimization algorithm in
terms of color image representation. By employing this algorithm, we
have achieved remarkable outcomes compared to alternative methods.
Furthermore, this experiment has served as a valuable learning experi­
ence in our research journey. It has shed light on the optimal approach
for generating moment matrices, which play a pivotal role in our clas­
sification process. These moment matrices, also known as image mo­
ments, quantify various statistical properties of the color images under
consideration. In this case, we have specifically focused on moment
matrices of order n = 128. By leveraging these moment matrices in lieu
of real images, we are able to construct a classified database that offers
distinct advantages. This database not only saves storage space by
eliminating the need for storing actual images, but it also allows for
efficient retrieval and comparison of image features. The moment
matrices encapsulate crucial information about the images, enabling
effective classification and analysis tasks.
5.2. Experiment 2
Initially, we showcase the “loss” and “accuracy” curves obtained
from CNN-QMs, which was employed to classify two distinct reduced
databases. The first database, referred to as collection-1, consists of 1360
authentic images, while the second database, denoted as collection-2,
encompasses 1360 image moments. These curves provide valuable in­
sights into the performance of our CNN-QMs model in terms of both
classification accuracy and loss across the training process for each
respective database.
The evaluation of our model’s performance utilizes a technique
called k-fold cross-validation, characterized by k = 4. Each fold has the
opportunity to be included in the training set (k-1 folds). Following this
approach, we divide the dataset into two parts: the training data and the
test data, in an 80:20 ratio. This means that we retain 80% of the total
dataset for training our model. Subsequently, we randomly split this
80% fraction into four equal parts. It is important to note that we have
set aside 20% of the data for testing purposes, allowing us to evaluate the
performance of the classifier.
We present graphical representations of the training performance of
our CNN-QMs model on two distinct databases, namely “collection-1″
and ”collection-2″. Fig. 10 displays the learning traces observed during
training using the Adam optimizer for 30 epochs, with a learning rate set
at 0.0005, specifically for the training dataset “collection-1″. In contrast,
Fig. 11 showcases the learning traces for ”collection-2″, while main­
taining the same parameters as mentioned in Table 6. These graphical
representations offer a visual depiction of the model’s training progress
and provide valuable insights into its performance on both databases.
By examining the curves depicted in Fig. 10(a) and (b), it becomes
evident that the “loss” curve exhibits a decreasing trend, while the
precision demonstrates an increasing trend. In addition, from these
curves, we can conclude that from the fifteenth epoch, we begin to
obtain good results, contrary to Fig. 11(a) and (b). Hence, we can infer
that our model struggles with “Collection 1,” as it fails to learn
adequately and make accurate predictions. It is important to highlight
11
M. Amine Tahiri et al.
Fig. 9. The MSE and PSNR for 2D QHMCMs.
that the learning period for “Collection 1″ significantly surpasses that of
the second dataset, as illustrated in Table 6. In summary, to solve this
problem of under learning, it is necessary to use a more complex ar­
chitecture with thousands of parameters or to increase the number of
images in the training phase [52–55], both of which make the classifi­
cation task more complex and more expensive in terms of computation
time. Fig. 11 shows that good results can be obtained from a very small
database.
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Biomedical Signal Processing and Control 86 (2023) 105128
Subsequently, we will demonstrate the efficacy of our classifier on
the test samples by utilizing the confusion matrix. By analyzing these
matrixes, we can gain valuable insights into the accuracy and perfor­
mance of our classification approach [56–58]. In practical terms, the
testing phase involves evaluating a range of 272 images, including 68
EOS, 68 LYT, 68 MON, and 68 NGB samples. Fig. 9 displays two
confusion matrices generated from the test samples. The first confusion
matrix is obtained by analyzing a set of image moments. This collection
M. Amine Tahiri et al. Biomedical Signal Processing and Control 86 (2023) 105128

Fig. 10. The plot of accuracy and loss versus the number of training epochs of the collection-1 (a) Accuracy vs. epoch plot. (b) Loss vs. epoch plot.

Fig. 11. The plot of accuracy and loss versus the number of training epochs of the Collection-2 (a) Accuracy vs. epoch plot. (b) Loss vs. epoch plot.

In Fig. 12(b), among the 68 EOS samples, 65 were classified

Table 6 correctly, while among the 68 LYT samples, we obtained 67 accurate
Adjusting parameters during CNN-QM training.
classifications. For the other classes, MON and NGB 63, 66 are classified
Parameters of the CNN-QM model « Collection-2 » « Collection-1 » correctly. Moreover, Fig. 12(a) shows that for the EOS, LYT, MON, and
fully connected neural network layer 3 3
convolutional neural network layer 3. 3.
adjustment factor (learning rate) 0.0005 0.0005 Table 7
training iterations (epochs) 30 30
Classification report.
Time 8 min 45 min
input signal resolution 128 × 128 × 1 400 × 400 × 3 recall f1-score Accuracy Precision Support

EOS 0.96 0.96 97.79% 0.96 68

LYT 0.99 0.96 98.16% 0.99 68
was designed using Algorithm-1, while the second collection of image MON 0.93 0.95 97.43% 0.93 68
moments is designed by applying the optimization algorithm ABC in the NGB 0.97 0.97 98.53% 0.97 68
preprocessing phase [30].

a) b)
Fig. 12. Confusion matrix using different metaheuristic algorithms in the preprocessing phase.

13
M. Amine Tahiri et al. Biomedical Signal Processing and Control 86 (2023) 105128

(a) (b)

(c) (d)
Fig. 13. ROC curve for the proposed model for the following classes (a) EOS, (b) LYT, (c) MON, and (d) NGB.

Table 8 TruePositive
Precision = (39)
Comparison of various white blood cell classification techniques and method TruePositive + FalsePositive
with proposed hybrid approach.
TruePositive
Algorithm Classifier Accuracy Recall = (40)
TruePositive + FalseNegative
Used the matrix transformation Mix of CNN and RNN. 90.970%
(rotation matrix) to efficiently precision × recall
extract all-important details from the Fη = (1 + η2 ) (41)
η2 × precision + recall
image (method 1) [60].
Focuses on the dimension using Gabor CNN 87.080%
wavelets in order to minimize the To put it differently, the F1_score is a metric that integrates precision
uncertainty of the information (Eq. (39) and recall (Eq. (40) by calculating their Harmonic Mean. It can
carried (method 2) [61]. be considered a specific instance of the broader function described in Eq.
Used the canonical correlation analysis mix the canonical correlation 95.890% (41). On the other hand, the ROC (Receiver Operating Characteristic) is
technique to extract features and analysis and CNN or RNN
fixes from input images (method 3) separately
a straightforward line graph that provides a concise summary of the
[62]. classifier’s performance. The ROC graph plots the sensitivity (true pos­
The authors suggested using W-Net to W-Net 94.98% itive rate) on the Y-axis and the 1-specificity (false positive rate) on the
classify the 6562 GBs and created X-axis [59]. It should be noted that our method generates a value of
synthetic images via a generator
Kappa = 0. 94; the coefficient of Kappa is between − 1 and 1, with a
network to get good results (method
4) [63]. value of 1 indicating a perfect match and a value of 0 indicating a match
Proposed method QHMCMS +CNN-QM 95.956% by chance.
Finally, to show the effectiveness of our method of classifying the
small WBC dataset, in contrast to other methods, we have presented an
NGB classes respectively except 60, 57, 62 and 59 were classified external comparison. The overall summary of the comparison of the
correctly. results in terms of accuracy is presented in Table 8.
In order to validate the efficacy of our classification method, we will Method 1, method 2, method 3, and method 4 obtain accuracies of
now present the evaluation parameters: F1_score and recall, which are 90.97%, 87. 08%, 95. 89%, and 94.98%. Despite the good results of
summarized in Table 7. Additionally, we will provide the ROC curve for these methods, it is necessary to highlight that they present some limi­
each class, as depicted in Fig. 13. These evaluation parameters and vi­ tations: a) long learning time caused by large datasets and b) high
sualizations serve to assess the performance and accuracy of our clas­ computational cost. c) Requires one million training data to improve the
sification method, providing valuable insights into its effectiveness in classification rate.
distinguishing between different classes.

14
M. Amine Tahiri et al.
Fig. 14. The BreaKHis Database example.
In contrast, positive results were obtained using our classification
method, in which the accuracy value was equal to 95.95%. Compared
with the result of method 3, we notice that the accuracy value of this
method was the closest to that of our study. However, it should be noted
that the result obtained by method (3) came after using a database
consisting of 12,400 images. However, the method adopted in this
research paper obtained better results using a very small database.
To evaluate the effectiveness of our classification method for WBCs,
we followed a similar approach to our previous proposal by applying our
method to another public database, the “BreaKHis” database (Fig. 14
shows an example of these images). This database contains more than
7,000 high-resolution histological images of breast biopsy specimens,
divided into eight subclasses for breast cancer. The BreaKHis database is
widely used to develop and evaluate computer-aided diagnostic systems
that can help pathologists diagnose breast cancer and predict its prog­
nosis. It is worth noting that we selected four types of malignancies for
this study, each represented by a set of 340 images: ductal carcinoma
(DC), lobular carcinoma (LC), mucinous carcinoma (MC), and papillary
carcinoma (PC). The results of applying our method to the “BreaKHis”
database are presented below. Accuracy, precision, recall, and F1 score
measures were calculated and presented as an average score. Accuracy
= 96.54%, precision = 95.54%, recall = 96.54%, and F1 score =
96.84%.
The exceptional results we have obtained are the result of the clever
use of Meixner-Charlier quaternion moments. These moments, consid­
ered one of the best ways to represent shapes, played a crucial role in our
success. Thanks to their ability to capture the essential information and
distinctive features of shapes, we were able to achieve remarkable re­
sults in our study. Quaternion moments are powerful tools that capture
the variations and nuances of shapes accurately. They are able to
effectively represent different properties of shapes, such as curves,
contours, and textures. By using these moments, we were able to extract
relevant and discriminative information from the shapes we studied. In
sum, the use of Meixner-Charlie quaternion moments was a strategic and
wise decision. Their ability to capture the essential characteristics of the
shapes allowed us to obtain exceptional results and to open new per­
spectives in our research field, in particular in the field of medical image
security [64–67].
6. Conclusion
This study presents a novel classification technique that integrates
the hybrid discrete moment quaternion approach with deep learning.
The proposed method involves two primary stages: the preprocessing
phase, which involves generating moment images using the newly
optimized QHMCMs through the GWO algorithm, and the classification
phase, which incorporates these moment images into a CNN-QMs
model. The results show that the proposed method is effective in clas­
sifying small databases, achieving accuracy rates of 98.53% for neu­
trophils, 98.16% for lymphocytes, 97.43% for monocytes, and 97.43%
for eosinophils. These promising results indicate the potential for
automatic screening in medical applications. However, the method has
15
Biomedical Signal Processing and Control 86 (2023) 105128
the limitation of high computation time due to the use of metaheuristic
algorithms. Further research is needed to address this limitation and
improve the efficiency of the method. In the future, the proposed
method can be generalized by considering red blood cells and platelets.
Furthermore, we will look for methodologies to implement the proposed
method in programmable gate arrays FPGA.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Mohamed Amine Tahiri: Conceptualization, Formal analysis,
Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing, Software. Fatima
Zohra El hlouli: Conceptualization, Formal analysis, Writing – original
draft, Writing – review & editing, Software. Ahmed Bencherqui:
Investigation, Visualization, Data curation. Hicham Karmouni: Inves­
tigation, Visualization, Data curation, Writing – review & editing.
Hicham Amakdouf: Writing – review & editing. Mhamed Sayyouri: .
Hassan Qjidaa: Validation, Methodology, Project administration,
Supervision.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Data availability
The authors do not have permission to share data.
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to thank the anonymous referees for their
valuable comments and suggestions.
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