ETHICS 5323522 151b92dd2f3

Resilience and Transformation
for Global Restructuring
Edited by
Manju Singh, Nupur Tandon, Vidy Potdar and

Preeti Bhatt
Resilience and Transformation for Global Restructuring
Edited by Manju Singh, Nupur Tandon, Vidy Potdar and Preeti Bhatt
This book first published 2022
Ethics International Press Ltd, UK
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Print Book ISBN: 978-1-871891-59-1
eBook ISBN: 978-1-871891-60-7

Table of Contents
Preface.................................................................................................................. ix
Part One: GLOBAL RESTRUCTURING
Chapter 1. A Historical Analysis of the Nexus between Migration and

Diffusion of the Tribal Mizos, Thelma Lalhmingthangi and Konthoujam
Gyanendra Singh................................................................................................. 1
Chapter 2. Challenges Before the Indian Justice and Court Administration

System in the COVID-19 Crisis, Maninderjit Singh ..................................... 12
Part Two: CREATIVITY AND INNOVATION
Chapter 3. ‘Liminality’ in Chamber Dramas: Malayalam Cinema’s

Creative Response to the Pandemic, Adish. A. S. ......................................... 23
Chapter 4. Fintech Industry Start-Ups: Analyzing Trends, Challenges and

Opportunities in the Indian market, Shweta Sharma and Manpreet Kaur
Khurana .............................................................................................................. 33
Part Three: DEVELOPMENT FOR A SUSTAINABLE WORLD
Chapter 5. Impact of COVID-19 on Quality Education in North-East India,

Sneha Deka......................................................................................................... 45
Chapter 6. Decoding the Degree vs. Skills Debate, Parul Pandey and
Urvashi Kaushal ................................................................................................ 59
Chapter 7. Students’ Employability: An Empirical Study, Kiran Vaghela

and Urvashi Kaushal ........................................................................................ 71
Chapter 8. Critical Analysis of Eco-System and Sustainable Development,

Umang C. Modi ................................................................................................. 84
Chapter 9, Right Livelihood for Sustainable Mountains: A Conceptual

Framework, Sachin Kumar .............................................................................. 91
Part Four: SKILLS FOR AN EMPOWERED WORLD
Chapter 10. Religious Regimes in the Pandemic: An Analysis of Hybrid

Modes of Ritual Practices among the Syrian Christian Communities of
Kerala, Chithira James and Kavya P. G ........................................................ 111
Chapter 11. Blended Learning: A Means of Adapting to the New Normal,

Kavya Rayala and Dr. Madhavi Kesari ........................................................ 120
Chapter 12. Lessons for the Modern World from an Ancient Culture:
Some Reflections on Aboriginal Culture and Literature, Minimol P. G. . 134
Part Five: TECHNOLOGY FOR ALL
Chapter 13. Stabilising Farmers’ Income through Pradhan Mantri Fasal

Bima Yojana: An Overview, Saurabh Bharne and Dr. Pushpender Yadav
............................................................................................................................ 145
Chapter 14. Demographic Profile and ePayment Usage: An Empirical

Analysis of Selected Cities of Punjab, Anu Sahi and Vikas Choudhary .. 157
Chapter 15. Inclusive Design for Higher Education Institutions:

Connecting Web Content Accessibility Guidelines and Universal Design
for Technology-Enabled Blended Learning, Surbhi Sethi; Manju Singh . 169
Chapter 16. Media and Development: The Future of Women’s Health,

Anushka Srivastava and Ajay Kumar Samariya ......................................... 183
Chapter 17. Mapping the New Dynamics of Employee Engagement and

Work-Life Balance: Literature Review, Jyoti Motwani, Akanksha Joshi,
Kumari Rashmi and Aakanksha Kataria,..................................................... 197
Chapter 18. The Influence of Socio-Demographic Characteristics on Use of

Digital Payment Methods, Sunayna Khurana and Baljinder Kaur .......... 208
Part Six: CULTURAL DIMENSIONS OF WELL-BEING
Chapter 19. ‘Cha’, ‘Kwai’ and ‘Apong’ as Stimulus for Well-being: A

Subjective Study in the context of some cultures of Northeast India,
Dr. Neeta Lagachu (Taye), ............................................................................. 223
Chapter 20. Intersectional Inequalities, Well-being and Violence: A Study
of Select Malayalam Films on and during COVID-19 Times, Reju George
Mathew ............................................................................................................. 235
Chapter 21. Understanding Health Resource Allocation in Kerala Based

on Gini Coefficient Method, K Muneera, Fawaz Kareem ......................... 245
Chapter 22. Cancer Fatality and Health Seeking Behaviour in North East
India, Chaitan Kumar and M Momocha Singh ........................................... 260
Part Seven: POST COVID-19 OPPORTUNITIES
Chapter 23. Study of the Factors and Attributes to Motivation and Work
Satisfaction in the Realm of Teaching, Gaurang Sharma ........................... 275
Chapter 24. Contemplative Pedagogy: An Experiment with School

Students for Demystifying the Philosophy of Contemplative Education,
Ashraf Alam ..................................................................................................... 289
Chapter 25. Social Entrepreneurship as A Tool for Sustainable Social

Development in the Post-COVID-19 Situation in India: Challenges &
Opportunities, Anish Kumar Bhunia, Mihir Kumar Shome ..................... 301
Chapter 26. Restructuring India’s Merchandise Trade Post COVID-19:

Challenges and Opportunities, Nikhat Khalid ........................................... 315
Chapter 27. Innovations in Early Childhood Education in India During

COVID-19, Nabeela Musthafa ....................................................................... 328
Part Eight: GENDER INEQUALITY AND INTERSECTIONALITY
Chapter 28. Gender Prejudice among Secondary Level Adolescent Girls in

India: A Descriptive Study, Chanchal Kumari, Guddakesh Kumar
Chandan, Roma Kumari, Ajay Kumar Roy, Brajesh Kumar Kanchan* ... 341
Chapter 29. A Sociological Review of Sexual and Reproductive Health of

Married Women in India and Its Socio-Cultural Determinants, Anuradha
Sharma, Amithy Jasrotia ................................................................................ 353
Chapter 30. Resilience and Renewal: Objectified Portrayal of Women in
Maya Angelou's Autobiographical Writings, Anita Chalka and Nupur
Tandon .............................................................................................................. 381
Chapter 31. Women as a Site of Resistance in Toni Morrison’s The Bluest

Eye and Sula, Ankita Bhowmick and Paonam Sudeep Mangang ............ 390
Chapter 32. Contradicting Patriarchy towards the Discovery of a Room of

One’s Own: Alice Walker’s the Color Purple, Deepti Sharma and Vikas
Choudhary ....................................................................................................... 397
Chapter 33. Manasa-Vacha-Karmana Dhira Karna: An Embodiment of

Loyalty and Candour, Anila Pillai and Urvashi Kaushal .......................... 405
Chapter 34. Restructuring of Gender Binaries in Chitra Banerjee’s the

Palace of Illusions, Dr. Prerna Vanjani ......................................................... 416
ix
Preface
The twenty-first century has brought in its wake innumerable challenges
that have transformed our understanding of human values, science and
innovation, religion and ethics. The pandemic COVID-19 not only took the
world by surprise but shook its very roots so that scholars from across all
fields began to question and discover, innovate and research. The
policymakers, decision-makers, academic community, and other
stakeholders have realized that no more solution to the most pressing
challenges is found in seclusion but requires incubation of various
viewpoints. This book includes a selection of papers presented at the 2nd
PAN-NIT HSS International Conference on Resilience and Transformation
for Global Restructuring (ICRTGR) held at Malaviya National Institute of
Technology (NIT), Jaipur. The conference was a unique one in that it was
held in collaboration with twenty-one NIT’s, each contributing at various
forums and levels of academic interaction. With its focus on the novel ways
in which the globalised world has transformed by restructuring its guiding
principles to accommodate emerging challenges and has displayed
resilience and optimism in the face of delimiting forces, the conference
brought together academicians and researchers from all over the world. It
served as a platform for experts and policy makers from different fields
who, through discussions, debates and deliberations, explored significant
aspects of innovation and enterprise. Participants from all over the world
shared cutting-edge research in this field and exchanged knowledge,
research and outcomes across different disciplines. Through its highly
relevant theme and sub-themes, the conference focused on the innovative
ways that India and other nations can be transformed even as they retain
their ethos.
The present publication consists of selected articles on challenges

witnessed by the society with the advent of the 21st century. These
ubiquitously challenging times have rendered a restructuring of almost all
the dimensions of life and transformed our understanding of human
existence, science, innovation and human vulnerability. The collection
includes the ways in which global society is exhibiting resilience, tenacity
and hope and discusses how the ‘new normal’ world will be structured and
planned around the learning from these experiences and encounters.
x
The sections of this volume reflect the themes of the conference: Global
Restructuring, Technology for All, Skills for an Empowered World,
Creativity and Innovation, Post COVID-19 opportunities, Development for
a Sustainable World, Cross-Cultural Dimensions of Well-Being, and
Gender Inequality and Intersectionality. This book collaborates and
corroborates the understanding about the global challenges and the means
to counter them. It is intended to be a valuable reference for beginners,
researchers, and professionals interested in understanding the diverse
strategies that have been adopted throughout the world to cope with the
crisis, and also about the new measures that can safeguard human
civilization from future threats and risks.
Editors
Part One
GLOBAL RESTRUCTURING
Resilience and Transformation for Global Restructuring 1
Chapter 1
A Historical Analysis of the Nexus between
Migration and Diffusion of the Tribal Mizos
Thelma Lalhmingthangi1 and Konthoujam Gyanendra Singh2
Abstract. Migration of the people and tribes has become a crucial aspect of
history and has been recognized as a significant factor in the area of
development and changes in all facets of life; society, culture, economy, politics,
environment, etc. The history of the Mizos cannot be segregated from the
history of the people in Southeast Asian countries who are akin to them in
culture, language, and natural features. The tribal Mizos were considered to be
one of the families of the Tibeto- group and claimed that their original habitat
was located somewhere in Szechwan Province in Southern China. This paper
examines the link between migration and diffusion of Mizos in different parts
of Southeast Asia and evaluates the determinants of migration and penetration
from their original home to the plains of Burma, their migration to the Chin
Hills, and final settlement in the Lushai Hills. The present paper argues that the
Mizos had faced struggles against natural hardships and enemies which made
them unable to stay for a long period at any place. The paper also analyses the
socioeconomic formation in different historic movements of the Mizos and the
controversy that rose upon the invasion by the neighbouring village to
another’s village, which resulted in intervillage and inter-clan conflict.
Keywords: Migration, Diffusion, Mizo, Tribal, Conflict
1
Research Scholar (Economics), National Institute of Technology Mizoram, Aizawl
2
Associate Professor (Economics), National Institute of Technology Mizoram, Aizawl
2 A Historical Analysis
1. Introduction
The history of the Mizos cannot be isolated from the history of the people
in Southeast Asian countries who are akin to them in culture, language, and
natural features. It is evident from the historical accounts that they do not
belong to the Indo Aryan-Dravidian races of the Indian sub-continent as
their historical accounts, oral or written, point to the east (Lalchungnunga
1987, 42-43). T. H. Lewin called the hill tribes originated from the
Mongoloid. Other writers like Keane, McCall and Donnison also conform
to this view. Considering their language, Grierson identified it with the
name Kuki-Chin and included them in the Burmese branch of the Tibeto-
Burman family. Other writers also associated the Mizo dialect with the
Tibeto- Burman family (Sangkima 1985, 22).
Objectives of the study
1. To examine the migration and diffusion processes of the tribal

Mizos.
2. To analyse the determinants of migration from their original home
to different areas.
3. To evaluate the socio-economic formation in different historic
movements of the Mizos.
2. Methodology
The present study employed the historical method of research and analysis.
The data were obtained through secondary sources which include journals,
thesis, published books, internet sources etc. The study is also descriptive
in nature as it assembled on the findings of earlier works done in the field
of Mizo migration and diffusion, while Newspapers were also looked up
for examining the movement and penetration of the Mizo community.
3. History of the emergence of the Mizos
'Mizo' is a generic term combination of 'Mi' and 'Zo', literally interpreted as

'hillmen'. The highlanders or people who reside on the high hill are
designated as ‘Mizo’. No satisfactory definition exists in the introduction
of the usage of the word Lushai. In the past, the term was used to epitomize
the folk with long heads. 'Lu' signifies head and ‘Sei’ indicates excessive
length. (Chawngsailova 1997,2). According to Sanga, the Mizos were
recognized by the British as “Kuki” seemingly a Bengali word implying
highlanders or Hillman (Sanga 1990, 1-2). No original document was
available. There is no original document relating to the Lushais history.
However, it is generally agreed upon that the Mizos are of Mongoloid
stock. They were believed to come out of a cave known as Chhinlung which
means 'Closed Stone', situated in the Chin Hills district of Burma and as a
result of tension exerted by the Chins as well as congestion pressure, they
moved from Upper Burma in the 11th century. Between the 17th and 18th
centuries, they were believed to reach their present settlement. It was
believed that the Mizo tribes came out from Chhinlung, and lastly, when
the Ralte clan emerged, they made a ruckus with the keeper of the capstone,
though there were already too many (tribes/people), and finally shut the
hole with the capstone (Malsawmdawngliana 2012, 54). It is in response to
the above that this paper attempted a historical analysis of the nexus
between migrations, penetration and diffusion of the tribal Mizos in
different areas.
4. Migration and diffusion processes of the tribal Mizos
This section covers findings, and analysis of the migration and diffusion of
the tribal Mizos. Specifically, these shall be examined under the following
sub-headings: Original home of the Mizos, Coming to the Present Habitat,
The Kabow (Kubo) Valley or Shan State Settlement, Chin Hills Settlement,
and finally the Present Settlement.
5. Original home of the Mizos
The earliest home of the Mizos is still unknown. Hall opines that the
original home of the Tibeto-Burmese speaking folks was someplace in the
middle of the Gobi Desert and northeast of Tibet. The Chinese under Ching
in 1000 BC made serious devastation and to avoid them, the Tibeto-Burman
moved across ridges and forests and escaped to the south. That journey
probably took hundreds of years and in course of time they came to the
border of Tibet and Burma (Lalhmachhuana 2019, 54). A close similarity of
the Mizos with the hill tribes of China in languages, way of living and
culture, etc. makes us believe that they came from a typical place and had
common ancestors. There exists the possibility that while the Mizos were
in southern China, they might have a connection with other hill tribes and
as a result, they borrowed a common language and culture. Like other non-
Chinese tribes of southern China, the Mizos too shifted to the south because
of the pressures of the Chinese. All these indicate that the Mizos had come
from the east, and probably southern China (Sangkima 1985, 28). Even
though their original home is shrouded with obscurity, the Mizos, most
probably, while living with the Ngai-Lao group of Tai, Lolo, Miao and
other tribes in the Kiulung Mountains had been disrupted by the Chinese.
The southern part of China, particularly, the Szechwan, Yunnan, Kwichow
provinces and, in a wider context, the entire border of the eastern perimeter
of the plateau between Kansu and Burma, may be regarded as the original
home of the Mizos (Sangkima 1985, 28). Lalthangliana asserts that the
Mizos once inhabited the T'Ao valley of Kaisu province in the north-west
of China and northeast of Tibet 2000 years ago. They migrated to Burma
via the place where the borders of Burma and Tibet join, ejecting the Beian
Kadus into Manipur and Burma (Lalchungnunga 1987, 43).
6. Coming to the present habitat
It was argued that the Mizos previously lived in Thantlang i.e., in the Upper
Burma from 1400-1500 A.D. After some time, they descended to their
present ground around in 1700 A.D. Mizo historian K. Zawla also claimed
that the Mizos were in the Chin Hills in Upper Burma probably from 1400-
1700 A.D. and they slowly migrated from 1700-1730 A.D. According to
Soppitt, the first batch of the Mizos after crossing Tiau River settled in the
present Mizoram, in the middle of the 16th century A. D. The precise year
of their access into the present area is unknown. The prominent tribe of the
Mizos called the Lushais were the last immigrants. They inhabited this area
in the 18th and in the beginning of the 19th century (Zonunmawia 1985, 3-4).
It is known that the Pyu, a Tibeto-Burman tribe, were the original dweller
of Burma. According to Harvey, they were followed by the Karens, and
they may have been one on of the earliest of all. Afterwards, the Shans
reached the country in the early Christian era from the eastward.
Subsequently, the Chins (Mizo), Kachins and others entered Burma. Karens
were expelled from south China by Kolofeng, the Nan- Chao king in 778
A.D. Some scholars believe that the region now occupied by the Chins was
inhabited earlier by the Burmans. The Burmans penetrated into Burma in
the 9th century A.D., probably between 849 and 1044 A.D. Marshall asserts
that the route that was followed by the Karens from Yunnan to Burma was
by way of the Mekong or the Salween into the Upper part of modern Shan
States. Another route followed by the tribes was a caravan route from Suifu
in the western Szechwan to Bhamo in Burma on the east of the Irrawaddy
which was only over six hundred miles in length (Sangkima 1985, 29). The
Mizos apparently followed the same routes followed earlier by the Karens.
7. The Kabow (Kubo) Valley or Shan State settlement
The Mizos occupied the Kabaw valley from about the 8th century A.D.
through the 13th Century A.D.; while they lived in the Kabaw valley they
developed a culture of a high order. (Lalchungnunga 1987,43). There is a
universal belief that the Mizo tradition does not move beyond their
habitation in Burma. In around the eight century A.D., the Mizo reached
the Kabaw valley.
Before the Mizo people scattered from the Kabow Valley, they had planted
a Banyan tree popularly called Khampat Bung at the palace site before they
left Khampat to memorialize the dispersal with a vow that they would go
back to that place for resettlements when the tree becomes large and its
branches pointing towards three directions touches the ground. The
promise was fulfilled during the first part of the decade in the 20th century
(Sangkima 1985, 34). From Kabow Valley they advanced to the Chin Hills
where they found appropriate land for their settlements.
8. Chin Hills settlement
The Mizos migrated to the Chin Hills from the Kabaw valley due to the
Shan invasion early in the 14th century. Till the mid-15th century, they were
assumed to settle in the Than Range and Manipur valley. During this
period, some argued that their culture suffered a huge setback due to
difficult living conditions (Lalchungnunga 1987, 43). Descend from the
Kabow Valley, the Mizos enter in groups, tribe after tribe and from various
directions and at different times, to the present Chin Hills of Burma
searching for food and warmth in tiny land along the fertile hill regions
(Sangkima 1985, 34). They came down to the Chin Hills in Burma and lived
for around five centuries. Due to the hardships from stronger groups and
the growing fears of being assimilated culturally, the Mizo people migrated
from Kabaw valley into Mizoram, Tripura, Manipur, Meghalaya,
Chittagong Hills Tracts in Bangladesh, Chin state in Burma, Central Burma,
Sagaing Division in Kabaw valley, South Burma and Arrakan in Burma
(Lalhmachhuana 2019, 54).
The penetration from China down to the Chin Hills of Burma lasted for
considerable centuries. The approximate date of their influx at the Chin
Hills may be put as early as the 14th century A.D. as they had been found in
the Tripura kingdom, south of the Chin Hills. The Burmese king gained
control over the present Chin Hills only in the year 1819 (Sangkima 1985,
34). They settled down clan-wise and established villages and allotted the
clan's name to the villages in the Chin Hills. Subsequently, the Lushai
dwelled at Seipui, Khawkawk and Khawrua; Ralte family at Saihmun and
Suaipui; Chawngthu at Bochung; Khiangte at Pelpawl, Belmual, at
Lungchhuan. Hauhnar settled down at what is now known as Hauhnar-
tlang; Chuaungo and Chuauhang also lived with Hauhnar and so on.
9. The present settlement
It was believed by some writers that the Mizos approached Mizoram at

three different times and were identified by three different names. The first
entering was named "Old Kuki", and the second group was called "new
Kuki" and the last were called "Lushai" (Mizo). The "Old Kuki" tribe
consists of the Hrangkhawl, Biate, Langrawng, Pangkhua and Mawk, and
the "New Kuki" comprises of Changsen, Thado, etc. Vanchhunga claimed
that the six different batches or groups had crossed through the present
Mizoram and the last or the seventh batch known as Sailo clans crossed in.
It was asserted that the "Old Kukis" made the first movement from Chin
Hills to Mizoram and moved to the Chittagong Hill Tracts and then
reached the North Cachar Hills. They could not find peace and security in
the plain areas of Cachar which compelled them to move to the hills now
known as North Cachar Hills of Assam. They claim to have achieved
maintaining their distinct identity even though they are less in number and
are armed and cooperative (Sangkima 1985, 38). The "New Kukis", in
course of time, when driven out by the Lushais, migrated to present
Tripura during first half of the twentieth century. But they were being
rebuked after some time by Colonel Lister for starting unrest on the British
frontiers. The surrenders were enlisted as soldiers, and they created a good
station on the frontiers. When coming back, they pursued the Tuiruang
(Barak) river and escorted their brothers to North Cachar.
The third group was named "Lushai". After driving out the new Kukis, they
shifted to their current settlement in the beginning of the 18th century. The
first clan to enter Mizoram was regarded as The Zadeng clan followed by
Palian clan and so on. The latest clan was considered as Sailo clan. On
arriving at the present settlement, the Sailos invaded and overthrew the
previous clans and the Sailo chiefs emerge as the most important rulers
over the people. This brave clan approached the British Government and
since 1850, the British Government directed numerous expeditions against
the tribes to enlarge their control over the tribes. Eventually, they were
controlled in 1890 (Sangkima 1985, 39).
10. Determinants of migration of the Tribal Mizos
It is a common belief that the Mizos made their journey from southern
China. It appears that they had faced struggles against natural hardships
and enemies which made them unable to stay for a long period at any place
on their way down except in the Kabaw valley of the present Burma.
Nevertheless, for searching a secure and arable land, Mizos shifted
westward and passed over Tiau river and Chindwin valley, splitting
Mizoram and Burma and finally reached their present habitat. The Mizos
now scattered in proper Mizoram, Myanmar, Assam, Manipur, and
Bangladesh (Chawngsailova 1997, 8). Mizo migration from the east
towards the south west was regarded as “push” theory. As cited in the folk
tradition, Famine was the major determinant of migration. During the pre-
colonial era, no written document was on record regarding the nature and
effect of famines. It was only through the folk belief that we can attribute
to these incidents. Due to a famine that took place in 1500, the Hmar clans
were considered to have migrated from Burma to the present Mizoram. The
leading sub-tribe Lusei was believed to have reached Mizoram during the
middle of the 17th century. Apparently, they must have experienced these
occasional famines even then (Malsawmdawngliana 2012, 66). In the later
part of the 18th century, the hatred between the Pawi tribes and the Lusei
tribes compelled the latter moved to farther west into the present Mizoram
(Lalchungnunga 1987, 43).
11. Socio-economic formation during migration
The Mizos are claimed to be a stock or a mixture of Huns, who migrated to

upper Burma from the Chamdo region of Tibet via the eastern passes of the
Himalayas. As these tribes are constantly moving they could not
accumulate much material wealth. They occupied the Patkai Hills and
Hukawng Valley for a period of time. It is obvious from Chhinlung account
that the Mizos were having a pastoral life till they entered Burma and
eventually landed in the present territory and the surrounding areas. The
first known settlement of the Mizos after they left Chhinlung was in the
present Shan state or Kabaw Valley in Burma (Zonunmawia 1985, 2-3).
Tradition asserts that Khampat is the oldest Mizo settlement which was in
Kabaw valley. They talk of a place Awksatlang where they resided for a
long period which has been identified by some writers as Auktawng, a
corruption of Awksatlang, situated in the Kabow valley of Burma. Mizo
had learnt a lot of things, including economic self-sufficiency and new
festivals in the springtime when they became associated with the Shans.
From the settlement of the Kabaw valley, chieftainship attained its origin
which may be acquired from the Shans. They learned how to drink tea also.
They lived in the Kabow Valley for a long time but had to leave their
residence because of the outbreak of a severe famine which is noted to the
sizes as thingpui tam (tea famine) when they suffered severely. In the later
part of the 15th Century, they moved westward to the Len Range near the
river Tiau in Burma and inhabited it till the late 18th century. It was found
that most of their folksongs, customs, traditional institutions and much of
their literature which they obtain now indicate this period in their history.
Because of the hill ranges in the Chin Hills, Mizos were located in dispersed
villages, and this created hindrances to constructing a big town like that of
Khampat. It is apparent that while in the Chin Hills the population of the
Mizos expanded due to increasing prosperity and comparatively peaceful
life despite inter-clan feuds. However, the settlement in scattered villages
developed the idea of clanism or separatism leading to disunity among the
Mizos (Sangkima 1985, 35). After entering the current Mizoram, most of
them believed that the land was healthy and asserted with embracing
climate and accepted that it was the land which the earth has provided for
them. Most of the clans built their own villages which are recognized by
the clan’s name. Many of these villages are present under the name of Biate,
Chhungte, Darngawn, Khawbung, Khawzawl, Ngur, Thiak, Vankal, Zote,
Ngurtlang, Kangbur, etc. (Lalhmachhuana 2019,55).
12. Conclusion
We have discussed in this paper the historical analysis of the migration and
diffusion of the Tribal Mizos. The paper argued that there exists a close
similarity between the Mizos with the hill tribes of southern China in
languages, way of living, culture, etc. which make us believe that they came
from a typical place and had common ancestors. It is apparent that they
had faced struggles against natural adversity and enemies which make
them unable to stay for a long period at any place on their way down. At
the end of the 18th Century, the alienation between the Pawi tribes and the
Lusei tribes urged the latter to move farther west into the present Mizoram.
It is within this argument that the paper described and examined the
phenomena of migration and diffusion in different areas and the
determinants of migration as well as the socio-economic formation of the
tribal Mizos in their historic movements. It is also seen how the socio-
economic factors influenced them to settle in the present-day Mizoram. It
can thus be observed that the settlement of a particular tribe/race is
influenced by migration and other related socio-economic factors.
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Political Development From 1935-1952). (Doctoral Thesis, North Eastern Hill
University). http://hdl.handle.net/10603/61318.
12 Challenges Before the Indian Justice and Court Administratin System
Chapter 2
Challenges Before the Indian Justice and
Court Administration System in the
COVID-19 Crisis
Maninderjit Singh
School of Social Sciences, IGNOU, Delhi, India
Abstract. In India, the COVID-19 crisis came when the focus was already on
accelerating the setting up of E-courts and the digitization of justice and
court administration. E-courts were first introduced in 2006 as part of the
National e-Governance Plan (NeGP). The sudden and unexpected onset of the
COVID-19, on the other hand, appears to have generated a greater impetus for
a speedy transition in the country's court administration. As the physical
presence of the lawyers and litigants were prohibited in courts due to the
COVID-19 crises' tight safety regulations, increasing use of technology, which
had previously been put in place, became helpful in justice and court
administration. This article intends to investigate how the court administration
handled numerous issues posed by the COVID-19 crisis, particularly in the
time following lockdown, and provide a broad overview of the circumstances
in India before the COVID-19 crisis. It will discuss how courts at various levels,
including Lok Adalats (People's Courts), the Supreme Court, the High Courts,
and the District and Subordinate Courts, modified the way courts functioned
during the COVID-19 crisis, accelerating the judicial process. The study will
then discuss some of the difficulties that have been experienced, such as the
Bar's reservations and the key obstacles that the court administration has faced
post-COVID-19.
Keywords: E-courts, E-judiciary, Information Technology Act, COVID-19

Crisis
1. Introduction
India’s judicial system is one of the oldest legal systems. The supreme court
is the top court, with state-level high courts serving one or more states. The
subordinate courts, which include district courts and other inferior courts
at the district level, are located beneath the high courts. The judiciary is a
source of confidence and fearlessness for the citizens of a state. The
commoner looks to the judiciary for justice (Singh, 2018).
The judiciary is in charge of interpreting the constitution. It functions as the

constitution's watchdog, as specified by the document, and safeguards the
people's fundamental rights. It also makes sure that neither the legislative
nor executive branches propose anything unconstitutional. The judiciary
also resolves any power disparities between the state and federal
governments. During decision-making, the courts must also be untouched
by the pulls and pressures exerted by other legislative bodies, individuals,
or interest groups, as mandated by the constitution (Singh, 2018).
Globalization and rapid technology development are impacting global

economies, posing new challenges and opportunities for countries to thrive
and prosper. Courts, like all other segments, are racing to overcome
difficulties and adapt new technology while sustaining economic growth
and providing clients with efficient judicial services. To meet
transformation needs, information and communication technologies (ICT)
are giving potential IT capabilities (e-mail, video conferencing, record
digitization, etc.) to courts (Supreme Court Agenda, 2009).
The COVID-19 problem in India happened when India's justice and court
administration were on the verge of a new age, with significant
groundwork already done, particularly in the domain of information and
communication technologies (ICTs) over the previous decade or so.
Following the Information Technology Act in 2000, e-Government
initiatives in justice and court administration were expanded. E-courts
were then formed as part of the National e-Governance Plan (NeGP), which
was introduced in 2006 (Rattan & Rattan, 2021).
The article is aimed into the significant technological advances in India's

judicial administration before to the COVID-19 pandemic. Following then,
the court administration's response to the difficulties posed by COVID-19
will be investigated. The paper also covers the Bar's reservations and some
of the major challenges confronting Indian judiciary in the aftermath of the
COVID-19 debacle.
2. Methodology
The COVID-19 pandemic has only recently begun. It seems to be too early
to assess the pandemic's quantitative impact on various aspects of India's
judicial system, especially since the situation is still fluid. As a result, based
on primary and secondary published sources, beginning with a brief
summary of prior work on court technology in India, this study aims to
provide a more comprehensive view of the situation of judicial across the
country, as well as the implications of the COVID-19 disaster.
3. Literature review
The constant advancement of information technology impacts all aspects

of public life, including judiciary. Practicing lawyers have long been
concerned about the viability and suitability of using electronic information
as evidence in judicial proceedings (Alona, 2021).
Seetharam & Chandrashekaran (2016) discovered in their study that case

filing, scrutiny, registration, case allocation, court diaries, calculation of
court fees, issuing of certified copies of decisions and judgements, and
online publication are just a few examples of how ICTs have the potential
to alter the justice system. But, considering the time required to attain this
level of computerization and the incomplete actions that still need to be
done, progress in the e-courts project has been slow (Seetharam &
Chandrashekaran, 2016).
As per Gibson (2016), emerging technologies have allowed judiciary to

communicate with the public using social media while also providing a
platform for responding to a continually expanding digital communication
platform. The UK government has upgraded its courts and judicial
procedures to boost the speed, cost-effectiveness, and quality of service by

using the capabilities of information and communication technology.
(Raine, 2000). There is limited literature on the advantages of introducing
e-courts, such as increased availability, transparency, cost benefits, and
improved judicial efficiency and effectiveness (Mcmillan et al., 1998; Nasir,
2007; Saman & Haider, 2012). According to Upadhyay (2015), the planning
and design of an e-Court in India, also known as an e-judiciary, began in
2003, and the computerization of all courts began in 1990. The Indian
government proposes to establish e-Court as a Mission Mode Project
(MMP) under the NEGPs in three phases over the course of five years:
Phase I consists of installing hardware and software, providing training,
appointing technical staff, and delivering connectivity; Phase II consists of
providing courts with power backup, video conferencing, ICT
infrastructure upgrades, Wi-Fi enabled Supreme Court and High Courts,
and Digital Signatures (DS); and Phase III consists of Government Process
Reengineering (GPR), Project Management Consultancy, monitoring and
change management, and a centralised facility. (Ministry of Law and
Justice, Department of Justice, Government of India Report, 2011). Despite
these efforts, the Indian government has yet to construct the world's first e-
Court of paper because of a multitude of problems including a lack of
techno-legal ability, infrastructure, and so on. There is a paucity of research
on the elements that determine the success of e-courts in India. There is
minimal research on the aspects that contribute to e-successful Court's
installation and functionality.
4. India's situation prior to the COVID-19 crisis
4.1 E-Courts mission mode project
Prior to the COVID-19 issue, the e-courts project was one of the National e-
Governance programmes that had been deployed in all of the country's
District or Subordinate Courts. The main goal of the e-courts was to use
information and communication technology (ICT) and Internet-enabled
courts to build a transparent, accessible, and cost-effective justice delivery
system for all citizens. In 2005, the e-courts project was launched. As part
of this effort, all levels of the court will be computerized. New cases will be
filled out online, as well as the cause list, case status, judgments, roster
details, and other information. Online filing of lawsuits and miscellaneous
civil applications, known as E-filing, has already begun. The concept will
expand in future to incorporate live video broadcasting of all courts as well
as video conferencing for witnessing. A judicial service centre will be
constructed in each court as part of the e-court project to serve all public
and advocate enquiries free of charge (Singh, 2018). The overall Court's
impact will be speedier case disposal, easier record keeping, increased
evidence dependability, and increased transparency in the District Courts'
operations. The E-courts Project, in particular, enables digital
interconnection between all courts, from the District levels to the Supreme
Court. The E-courts project was previously conceptualized as part of the
"National Policy and Action Plan for Implementation of Information and
Communication Technology in the Indian Judiciary – 2005" prepared by
the Supreme Court of India's e-Committee (Prakash, 2014).
4.2 The Supreme Court App
The launch of the Supreme Court App was yet another major step toward
digitising the court administration system that had already been taken
before COVID-19 outbreak. The Chief Justice of India expressed his
optimism that an artificial intelligence-powered law translation system will
promote excellent translation and aid the efficiency of the Indian judicial
system while describing the application's utility. The Supreme Court App
was designed to interpret the rulings in different regional languages.
Translation was required in court, and the manual translation was a
significant issue because it was time-consuming and laborious, frequently
causing excessive delays in the judicial process.
5. Responses of the courts to COVID-19
The end of the pandemic has yet to be definitively predicted. Legal matters
are always brought regardless of the passage of time, and they are still
heard in court. The role of the court is vital in a crisis like this, because
protection and legal clarity are fundamental rights for all citizens that
cannot be traded away. As a result, the court has yet to decide whether or
not to continue operating. However, all judges and judicial personnel who
carry out their responsibilities should be protected by their health
(Syarifuddin, 2020).
Long before the COVID-19 incident, e-courts were becoming more

common in many other countries throughout the world, including the
South Korea, Singapore , United States and others. In India, e-courts were
already playing an important role in avoiding potential court congestion
by permitting decision makers to communicate with courts via internet —
a requirement that had emerged and became more of a necessity much later
under the COVID-19 rules.
On the other end, E-judiciary extends beyond E-courts. The filing of cases
online, as well as online contact between judges and attorneys, online
procedures, online witness and cross examination, and lastly, the issuing
of judgements online are all examples of E-judiciary. Before COVID-19,
there was no pressure to move forward after the breakthrough of E-courts,
and India's implementation of E-judiciary moved at its own bureaucratic
pace.
6. Impact of the COVID-19 crisis on the working of courts
The physical presence of the parties has been the form of hearing in Courts
since the beginning. However, they've just noticed a new tendency in their
operations. The COVID-19 pandemic safety procedures, in particular, have
mandated the use of virtual hearings in the court system. The COVID-19
crisis had a substantial impact on the regular working of court
administration in India and other nations, and cast a wrench into the works
of courts, in addition to destabilization of other sectors. The COVID-19
pandemic has ramifications on the courts across the country, as well as at
the lowest levels of the judicial system, namely all district and subordinate
courts. In brief, the COVID-19 pandemic had a significant impact on the
efficiency of Indian courts, as indicated by different court decisions made
by authorized judicial bodies from time to time.
To begin with, various steps were made to safeguard the security of the
lawyers, petitioners, and public in the Supreme Court case. The Supreme
Court began taking the necessary actions to avoid the spread of COVID-19
from the start. For example, effective Monday, March 16, 2020, the Supreme
Court issued a notification directing the Courts' operations to be limited to
crucial matters with multiple benches as may be deemed suitable.
Furthermore, no one other than the lawyers who were going to represent
in the case, i.e., for argument, making oral submissions, or assisting one
litigant only, was allowed in the courtroom. Cases were only to be
mentioned before the Mentioning Officer (Supreme Court of India, 2020).
It is worth noting that, in light of the COVID-19 pandemic, apex court of

the country opted to use technology more in court proceedings and
directed that for service of notices and summons, pleadings, and visiting
postal offices during the lockdown was impossible, so the Apex Court
allowed service of notices and summons to be done by using technology.
COVID-19 related directives were also issued by the courts at state level
i.e., the high courts on a regular basis. For example, in April 2020, Punjab
and Haryana High Court issued an order requiring judicial officers and
officials to take all necessary precautions, such as wearing masks and using
hand sanitizers, while doing their duties in the court.
As a result, virtual courtroom sessions are becoming increasingly popular.

Virtual proceedings were commonly utilized in criminal cases prior to the
COVID-19 incident when the accused could not be hauled in the court for
security concerns. Courts have begun to hear ordinary cases via video
conference due to the rigorous COVID-19 crisis safety standards. A
newspaper headline recently declared, 'High Court stays normal selection
of medical faculty,' and in addition to presenting other data about the case,
it reported that 'video-conferencing' was used (Rattan & Rattan, 2021).
7. COVID-19 crisis and E-judiciary in India
It's no surprise that, in the midst of the COVID-19 catastrophe, E-judiciary

is being lauded as a more secure means of judicial process, with increasing
efforts to accelerate its adoption across the country. The shift, however,
presents numerous issues that must be handled as soon as possible to avoid
undue burden for lawyers and litigants during this critical moment.
COVID-19 has brought practically the whole globe to a halt. Due to the
closure of courts during COVID-19, the disposal rate was also severely
impacted. The hearing dates have also been pushed back. Due to the
nationwide lockdown, the number of new cases registered during COVID-
19 was also low.
If the Bar does not participate, the judicial system will be incomplete. The
Bar plays an important role in preparing future judges and protecting their
clients' interests. When computerization began, the members of the Bar
were hesitant to use the technology. Nevertheless, things are gradually
changing, and people are now openly admitting that ICT is a part of life.
Indeed, Karnataka High Court Justice Ram Mohan Reddy noted, how can
we think of e-courts if attorneys are not willing to adopt, cause-list
delivered in electronic form and object to the ceasing of delivery of cause-
list in printed form. The bar has contended that judicial technology
advantages tech-savvy lawyers while limiting lawyers the ability to present
the case and adjust the course of debates based on changing circumstances
of an issue (Parliamentary panel, 2020).
During the COVID-19 crisis, the Indian courts at various levels, notably the
Supreme Court, High Court, and District Court, insisted on exclusively
virtual hearings in various instances via instructions released on a regular
basis. However, due to the realities of the legal system, many litigants are
impeded from obtaining justice through no fault of their own. More
precisely, lawyers cannot contest in far-flung rural locations or remote
towns without any internet connectivity, and litigants suffer as a result of
the COVID-19 situation.
8. Conclusion
Since COVID-19 wreaked havoc on people's health and lives, governments

all over the world have reacted swiftly to the global emergency and taken
numerous precautions to avoid its rapid spread. The most important of
these were social isolation and home quarantine (Reimers & Andreas,
2020). The global COVID-19 dilemma necessitated a swift and
unprecedented adjustment in court administration at all levels of the
courts. The answer to this has been a transition in virtual hearings from e-
courts to e-judiciary.
We may soon have to convert all of our legal materials from whatever
language they were written into a digital language that computers and
related systems can understand. To establish where there is departure and
the degree of variation, the legislation must be grasped in digital form.
When a person's deviance is too great, he or she may be labelled a deviant,
and appropriate rehabilitative or, if necessary, punitive measures based on
constitutional purposes may be implemented to make the rule of law a
reality rather than permitting things to be regulated by the rule of law.
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study from Ukraine. Access to Justice in Eastern Europe, 4(4), 163–181.
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22 ‘Liminality’ in Chamber Dramas
Part Two
CREATIVITY AND INNOVATION
Chapter 3
‘Liminality’ in Chamber Dramas: Malayalam
Cinema’s Creative Response to the Pandemic
Adish. A. S
School of Management Studies, NIT Calicut
Abstract. The COVID-19 pandemic has transformed the form and content of
our art. Malayalam Cinema was soon to respond and has offered movies that
can be categorized as Chamber Dramas. The streaming platforms, which
offered new possibilities in terms of production budget and release, have been
instrumental in this change. David Bordwell argues that a "new alertness to our
immediate surroundings may sensitize us to a kind of cinema turned resolutely
inward" [Bordwell, 2021]. C U Soon (2020), Joji (2021), Love (2020), Aarkkariyam
(2021), Irul (2021), Kala (2021), The Great Indian Kitchen (2021), and Wolf (2021),
Malayalam movies that were shot and released after 2020 March can be
categorized under the genre Chamber Drama or Chamber Piece since their
narratives are confined to restricted spaces like a single household. The
narratives of these movies can be analyzed in light of the concept of 'liminality
as theorized by the British Anthropologist Victor Turner in his various works
[Turner, 1991]. With "the very structure of the society temporarily suspended",
there is an identity crisis and the possibility of new perspectives [Szakolczai,
2009]. The conflicts and existential crises that arise from confinement, as we see
in some of the abovementioned films can be inspected with the use of
'liminality'. In these films, the characters go through crises in a liminal phase
and get transformed. This research intends to examine the given Malayalam
films as Chamber Dramas. It also aims to apply the concept of liminality to
these works. It also intends to study the changes in form and content in
Malayalam Cinema as illustrated by these works.
Keywords: Chamber Dramas, Confinement, Liminality

Introduction
Malayalam Cinema, the industry that is based in Kerala and produces

movies predominantly in the Malayalam language has garnered much
acclaim in National and International film festivals and awards. The
outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic and the subsequent lockdown had led
to the shutdown of theatres and disruption of filmmaking in the state. But
Malayalam Cinema has adapted to this state of uncertainty and restrictions
by modifying the form of its art. As Namrata Joshi has pointed out in her
short article, the young filmmakers from Kerala were able to respond to the
situation creatively in fact "using manpower, resources, money, locations,
and technology more frugally, efficiently and inventively than the rest".
The small industry that does not rely heavily on massive production houses
and studios could produce small movies adhering to the confined spaces
[Guardian].
The giant streaming platforms such as Netflix, Amazon Prime, and newer
and smaller alternatives like Neestream have been instrumental in this
response by distributing 'small' films to a large number of viewers. Most of
these films feature established actors and crew; but their style and cost of
production distinguish them from superstar-driven, commercial spectacles
that were dependent upon the reception of moviegoers at cinema halls.
Streaming platforms, after garnering popularity by making internationally
acclaimed web series and TV shows, set the stage for the release of movies
that were not commercially viable as far as distribution costs were
concerned. Some movies like C U Soon were meant to be watched
exclusively on smaller screens for a greater effect. Thus, pandemic created
a cinema with limited production cost and restricted location, with only a
handful of actors and a simplified distribution process.
Chamber drama as a response
David Bordwell argues that “a new alertness to our immediate

surroundings may sensitize us to a kind of cinema that turned resolutely
inward”. Malayalam cinema makes this possible by adopting the
stylistically different ‘Chamber Drama’. The movies are shot at single
locations with a very limited number of actors and technicians and are
released in digital ‘chambers’ called streaming platforms. This filmmaking

style has already been used extensively in World Cinema according to the
narrative requirements. Alfred Hitchcock’s, Dial M for Murder (1954), Rope
(1948), and Rear Window (1954), and other renowned classics such as 12
Angry Men (1957) are set in small chambers [Bordwell, 2021]. With the
actual narrative of the world confined to just chambers, there could not
have been a more apt choice this time for Malayalam Cinema. C U Soon
(2020), Joji (2021), Love (2020), Aarkkariyam (2021), Irul (2021), Kala (2021),
The Great Indian Kitchen (2021), Wolf (2021), and Santhoshathinte Onnam
Rahasyam (2020), Malayalam movies that were shot and released in the
2020-21 period can be categorized as Chamber Dramas.
This situation represents a frozen state where the normal social activities
are suspended and the whole society goes through a kind of unprecedented
and indefinite slumber. The idea of Liminality, introduced by Arnold Van
Gennep in Rite De Passage (1909) and popularized by Victor Turner in
anthropology can be instrumental in analyzing the artistic works of this
curious period. Van Gennep identifies the three stages in the rite of passage,
or the ritual that involves the forming an adulthood from adolescence as
"seperatim, passage, and re-aggregation" [Szakolczai, 2009]. Victor Turner
was interested more in Seperatim, or liminality, the middle phase between
the initiation and the conclusion. With the limits removed and the structure
of the society temporarily suspended, liminality presents a person with an
opportunity to rediscover the world. The identity crisis develops into a
person's maturity in the rite of passage. This ritual, noted as very common
in tribes across the world, can be used as a conceptual tool to analyze
certain transformative events in history such as wars. The COVID-19
outbreak that has toppled the world order qualifies as a transformative
event. I believe that it is possible to analyze the Malayalam movies of the
pandemic times using liminality as a conceptual tool.
During the outbreak of COVID-19 and the pandemic-induced lockdown,

individuals were restricted to closed spaces and rooms with limited means
of expression and communication. The physical and mental space shrank
into rooms and houses, and one could interact only with their immediate
family. This break in normativity brought frustration and some were forced
to interact with the kith and kin. No escape was possible from a system
without safety valves. The issues that troubled them were not entirely new.
The existing troubles were magnified by the condition and ghosts from
pasts started haunting families as we see in these movies. The viewers are
made to feel the slight nausea that claustrophobic spaces invoke. The
locations work like informal prisons with no way out. These were times
when demons, inside oneself and in the family crept out of the bag.
Malayalam chamber dramas in the pandemic period
In C U Soon, Mahesh Narayanan ventures into computer screen drama and

delivers an exciting thriller. By presenting a cinematic style that depends
only on the digital screen, the film turned out to be a technical marvel
Indian cinema had not seen before. The movie was shot and released when
moviemaking was almost impossible. C U Soon is the story of people who
dedicate most of their lives to screens, revealing the way the all-pervasive
force of technology has taken control of our lives. New tabs or applications
opened by the characters are new scenes and logging off are cuts. Most of
the drama takes place through video calls and texting. The limits in the
narrative are that of technology, which turns out to be the real antagonist
in the narrative. Jimmy, a Malayali bank employee in UAE meets Anu
through a dating app and falls in love with her. This is a world where social
interaction is impossible outside social media which points towards an
abnormal, prolonged liminal phase. Even though the characters are
connected with the help of technology, they are also deceived by it. Kevin,
a cousin of Jimmy’s is unable to discern truth from technical data even
though he was tasked with gathering information about Anu. This failure
is the limitation of a technocratic world which presents a make-believe life
before us. The crisis that Kevin, Jimmy, and their kin go through and the
rude realization about Anu's life marks a liminal phase in their screen-
struck lives. Kevin, presumably, sheds his arrogant pride as he encounters
the experiences of Anu and becomes a less toxic, self-refined person. It is
his trajectory that represents a positive change as he goes through the
liminal experience. The change behaviour towards his colleague by the end
of the movie indicates this trajectory. The chamber in this Chamber Drama
is not bigger than the screens that the characters are entrapped in. Their
perception of reality is shaped by what they see on screen and not what
they actually see.
Aarkkariyam features a setting similar to that of Joji’s. The locations, initially

a Bombay flat and then a house in the middle of a plantation in Kerala make
the movie a minimalistic Chamber Drama. The pandemic shapes the
narrative by bringing up the crises. Shirley comes to her father’s house with
her husband for a vacation during the initial phase of the pandemic in
India. The lockdown presents them with financial and emotional crises.
Shirley is not able to bring her daughter and Roy is in a deep financial crisis.
Ittiyavara,
Shirley’s father who offers a solution to the financial trouble ends up

trapping Roy in another dilemma. The three central characters are confined
to the house and go through a period without any significant intervention
from the outside world. Their attempts to reach out for help do not succeed
in the beginning. Roy eventually commits the crime and escapes any kind
of scrutiny. He also, interestingly, refines himself by confronting a
frightening task. The crises are resolved the characters are presented with
a brand-new life in the urban flat and thus spatially, the narrative comes
full circle. The events during the lockdown change their lives forever and
turn out to be a liminal phase.
Santhoshathinte Onnam Rahasyam is a single-shot experimental drama

directed by Don Palathara. The camera is permanently placed on the
dashboard of a car, a technique that resembles Ten (2002) directed by Abbas
Kiarostami. The use of masks by the characters points towards the
pandemic period. Like Love, this movie features the clash of a couple in the
wake of a potential pregnancy. The couple is on their way to confirm the
pregnancy that they did not wish for. Maria and Jithin get into an
aggressive argument and ends up blaming each other for the issues in their
relationship. This Chamber Drama presents the characters with a personal
crisis during a global crisis just like the other movies. The movie achieves
success in making the viewers feel congested by forcing them to witness a
disturbing fight in a congested space. This liminal event takes place in a
personal space where society does not have much to do. Two interventions
from outside, a phone call from a friend and stranger they let into the car,
only end up worsening the crisis. The crisis seems to be resolved by the end
of the movie, but only after leaving a strong impression of the characters in
the viewer's mind. The characters, again, experience a positive trajectory in
the liminal phase as they become better as the resolution arrives. The
liminal phase in a relationship is portrayed in a realistic style by Don
Palatahra in Santhoshathinte Onnam Rahasyam.
In Wolf, the narrative takes place at the beginning of Kerala’s first phase of
lockdown. An arrogant young man, Sanjay is forced to spend a night at the
house of his would-be and learns a shocking truth about her. The pandemic
directly initiates the conflict in the movie and puts the characters through
a phase of utter confusion and crisis. Sanjay’s male ego is questioned and
ridiculed. Asha goes through a realization as well by the climax. Sanjay’s
arrogant nature is challenged, and Asha’s belief is shattered. They are
forced to question their ideas about the world, which brings about a change
in their character. The violent day comes to an end as a character leaves the
house, and a resolution, which is rather reactionary or conservative when
compared to the other movies on the list, is made possible. As in
Santhoshathinte Onnam Rahsyam, interventions from the outside world only
help in complicating things further.
In Joji, a modern-day reimagining of Macbeth, the repressed young son in

the family decides to take advantage of a family crisis. The movie is shot
mostly in a big house in the middle of a plantation where the patriarch lives
with his three sons. The use of masks in the film reveals the pandemic
situation, leaving the geographically isolated house socially detached as
well. When the normal social action is suspended, as Turner argues, the
central values are questioned. When Panachel Kuttappan, Joji's father, gets
bedridden in the lockdown times, it presents Joji with a chance to gain
control without much intervention from the outside world. The movie is
the rite of passage of Joji, who, after realizing the centre cannot hold,
decides to attain power by taking law into his own hands. The legal system
is absent as we see Joji’s crimes go undetected for the most part. The moral
system is condemned and kept away even though it attempts to bring
things under control. When the young son in the family inside Joji dies, the
ambitious Macneth takes birth.
The setting of the movie comprises this liminal phase. It is also a rite of
passage where people change positions, and the power equation gets
disrupted. When he is exposed, Joji shoots himself and blames society for
his death in his suicide note. With Jomon and Kuttappan dead, Jaison
presumably forms his own normative communitas and brings things back
into order.
Chamber dramas without pandemic references
Kala, Love, and The Great Indian Kitchen are also chamber dramas shot and
released during the pandemic times. But there is no direct reference to the
pandemic though. In Khalid Rahman’s Love, the characters are confined
mostly to a single flat. The movie depicts the toxic marriage of Anoop and
Deepthi who do not have much love left for each other. The movie, which
has a deceptive title and narrative, explores the confined lives of its
characters that have only unhappy marriages in common. Deepthi's
pregnancy is the event that initiates a liminal phase. If death followed by
birth is a symbolism associated with liminality, the anticipation of a child's
birth gives rise to the conflict in Love, which has shocking outcomes. There
is no honest human connection; all we see are lies, emotional blackmailing,
and betrayal. There is abuse and murder which are not accounted for by
the legal system. There is no compassion left and there exists zero
commitment towards any social cause. All the characters are desperate to
escape their marriage. They are tired and angry. The story that
masquerades as the story of Anoop's cover-ups turns out to be that of
Deepthi's adaptation to the reality of her marriage.
Deepthi goes through an identity crisis that is characteristic of a liminal

phase but comes out of it, by making transformation possible. Love is
Deepthi's rite of passage in a world without morality.
Rohith V S sets up Kala, again, in a house in the middle of a plantation,

presenting a geographically isolated yet economically privileged family
with daily labourers working in the plantation. When the patriarch in the
family leaves the house, Shaji, his son prepares to steal his sacks of
peppercorns to sell them off. This phase, where there is no authority to look
over things, leads to the conflict in the movie. A labourer turns out to be an
intruder who seeks revenge for the killing of his dog by Shaji in the past.
The violence unleashed on each other by Shaji and the labourer boy forms
the rest of the narrative. The movie has a strong political subtext, with the
labourer boy retaliating against the oppression he faces. The revolt forms a
liminal period that upsets the feudal arrogance of Shaji and his family. The
event that might not have led to an irreversible change in the system, leaves
long-lasting realizations in the feudal household. The boy in the labourer
dies and a rebellious young man takes birth. Shaji suffers for his lack of
compassion and his power as the ‘master’ is challenged. He is stripped
naked before his family both literally and figuratively. Kala, a Chamber
Drama that features a prolonged fight that topples the structure, gifts the
labourer with a smile of maturity in its last scenes.
The events of The Great Indian Kitchen (2021) directed by Jeo Baby, take place
mostly inside a house if not a kitchen as the title indicates. The movie
narrates the struggle of an unnamed housewife as she is forced into
household chores by the men in her house. Marriage, a ritual in itself, traps
her inside a kitchen where she goes through terrible but not rare or
uncommon, treatment. She denounces tradition and religion and liberates
herself from the kitchen by the end of the movie. The viewer encounters a
claustrophobic kitchen that works as a prison. The liminal phase, if the
systematic torture enforced on the character by patriarchy can be called so,
is put to an end by the woman herself as she commits the acts of rebellion
and walks out of it. It is her breaking point when she finally makes up her
mind to defy the system that the real transformation is made possible. The
narrative consists of the suffering, awakening, and liberation of a woman
as she goes through a liminal phase.
Conclusion
Joji, Kala, Santhoshathinte Onnama Rahsyam, Aarkkariyam, Wolf, Love, and C U

Soon can be categorized under the genre Chamber Dramas. All these
movies are shot in restricted spaces, with a limited budget and a limited
number of characters. Joji, Snathoshathinte Onnam Rahsyam, Aarkkariyaam,
and Wolf leave evidence for their occurrence during the lockdown period.
Aarkkariyaam, Joji, and Kala are set in similar locations that are isolated in a
world of isolation and lockdown by an estate or a plantation surrounding

the house. This isolation points towards their socio-economic privilege
behind owning and maintaining such a large amount of land.
All the movies mentioned above feature a liminal phase that transforms the
central characters from within. Their struggle results in realizations about
the world and themselves. Except in Wolf, the resolution is progressive or
positive in a modernist sense. Human beings with troubles in pre-
pandemic normality go through unprecedented conflicts during times of
confinement and turn into better human beings. In Wolf, Asha's attempt to
escape patriarchal oppression brings her trouble and she is forced to
conform to its norms by the end of the narrative. In most of the other cases,
positive self-introspection leaves refined human beings behind, which,
again, is a positive trajectory. In Kala and Love, the narrative does not give
out clues about the pandemic and the lockdown. But they came into being
as the filmmakers were forced to explore stories that could be told in
limited spaces with a limited number of characters. This response is made
possible by chamber drama, a genre that fits times of crisis.
In all the movies, the characters are met with unprecedented difficulties
that involve identity crisis and shocking revelations about the other
characters. The filmmakers invoke a certain kind of claustrophobia as they
invite us to closed spaces and dark minds. The world in the movies is
similar to prison cells. The psychological struggles of the characters are
presented using the potential of the visual medium. Internal scrutiny also
takes place in the minds of the central characters. This period that places
them in a crisis of their own in the middle of a larger crisis presents them
with an opportunity to change and adapt. This seems to be a common
theme of several Malayalam movies in this period. The industry is expected
to shift into bigger canvasses as the situation gets better. But the
extraordinary artistic response during extraordinary times will leave its
mark on the future of Malayalam Cinema.
References
David Bordwell’s Website on Cinema, http://www.davidbordwell.net/blog/2020/

04/01/stuck-inside- these-four-walls-chamber-cinema-for-a-plague-year,.
Szakolczai, A.: Liminality and Experience: Structuring Transitory Situations and
Transformative Events. International Political Anthropology (2), 141-172 (2016).
The Guardian, https://www.theguardian.com/film/2021/jul/01/malayalam-cinema-COVID-
bollywood,
Turner, V.: The Ritual Process, Structure and Anti-Structure. 7th edn. Publisher, Cornell
University Press, New York (1991).
Chapter 4
Fintech Industry Start-Ups: Analyzing Trends,
Challenges and Opportunities in the
Indian market
Shweta Sharma and Manpreet Kaur Khurana
Department of Management Studies, Jaipur, India
Abstract. Over the past decade financial technology (FinTech) has seen a rapid
growth across the world. Financial institutions are focusing on financial
innovations using technology interventions, as a tool for long term strategic
planning and growth. The adoption of FinTech models is playing a key role in
developing a robust financial infrastructure both in developed and developing
economies. This study aims to identify the recent emerging trends relating to
adoption of financial technology in Indian financial markets. This includes
trading and investments in digital technologies (Cryptocurrencies); Blockchain,
Robotics, mobile wallets, digital lending (Peer to peer lending), Biometrics,
Crowdfunding, etc. The study further aims to study the impact of COVID-19
pandemic on the level of adoption and its application in the present financial
scenario. The study also identifies the various challenges and opportunities
faced by the financial institutions while adopting these technologies in the
context of Indian business environment. Findings of the study suggests that
introduction of Fintech has improved the efficiency of the financial institutions
by improving connectivity and reducing the information processing time hence
resulted in reducing the operational cost. The study has significant implications
both for the managers and policy makers as Fintech adoption is necessary for
firms to survive in the new technology environment but the threats/ risk
associated with the adoption of these technologies and security issues should
be addressed adequately while adopting such technologies.
Key words: FinTech, Innovation, Financial Market, Emerging Economy,

Digital Finance
34 Fintech Industry Start-Ups
1. Introduction
The introduction of financial technology (Fintech) in twenty first century is

considered to be one of the important innovations in the financial industry.
Fintech or financial technology relates to an innovative style of delivering
financial services. Fintech includes the technological startups, e-commerce
companies or large technological companies [1]. Fintech promises to
reshape the financial industry. It is being implemented with a very fast pace
all over the world including India with promising regulation, artificial
intelligence and information technology. It has been recognized that the
inclusion of financial technology is helpful in cost reduction, better quality
services and ensuring stability [2]. These days with the growth in
technology customers expect for easy-to-use financial services irrespective
of limitation in place and time. Moreover, customers strive for getting these
financial services at minimal cost and efforts. The increase in internet usage
and use of mobile devices also stresses for carrying financial transactions
online regardless of time and place [3]. Fintech is referred to as the
combination of digitalization and financial services with an objective to
bring an improvement and efficacy in the finance industry [4].
India has emerged as the fastest growing Fintech market and third largest
ecosystem in the world [5]. Reserve Bank of India (RBI) has been taking
several steps for financial inclusion in India. Few innovations areas in
India, like BankBazaar is one of the India’s first marketplace which focused
on personal financial products. Big Bank invested its mobile app to increase
customer base by allowing to use their mobiles to access such services.
Jocata is another FinTech company that offers products like: Know-Your-
Client (KYC) and Anti-money laundry (AML) products. As per the records
of RBI, Key enabling technologies used by FinTech are:
• API (Application Programming Interface)

• Cloud computing
• Biometrics
• DTL (Distributed Ledger Technology)
• Big data
• Artificial Intelligence
2. Objectives of the study
1. To study the emerging trends of FinTech in India.

2. To study the impact of COVID-19 on FinTech market in India.
3. To study the opportunities and challenges faced by India in its
adoption and execution.
3. Global investments in FinTech
Financial technology (FinTech) is being adopted significantly over the past

few decades. The growth in the adoption rate is reflected by an increase in
the number of FinTech startups and FinTech innovative products in the
past few years. These newly startups are raised with the help investments
in this sector increasing from $59.2 billion in 2017 to $168 in 2019 and again
decreasing to $105.3 in 2020.
$ 59.2
$ 168.0
$ 145.9
$ 105.3 Total
2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021
Fig.1. Source: KPMG Pulse of FinTech H2’20
4. Evolution of FinTech in India
The growth in India in the area of financial technology is the result of

foundation done in past few decades for developing key enablers. The
Indian financial technology is a result of regulatory environment,
technological enablers, unique characteristics and business opportunities
in India. Reserve Bank of India (RBI) as a regulator of the payment system
undertakes various measures to ensure efficiency, security and availability.
Four goals of Reserve Bank Vision 2021 are: Competition, Cost, Confidence
and Convenience.
1991-2000 Introduction of payment technology such as Magnetic Ink

Character Recognition technology (MICR).
2000-2005 FinoPay Tech and EKO India two start-ups were built called BC
model, to allow transfer of funds in the banking sector.
2005-2010 Emergence of Oxigen, Paytm, Free charge, Mobiwik providing
mobile wallets for bill payments and recharge services.
2010-2014 Many FinTech start-ups came into existence in different
segments like 100 plus in lending, 40 plus in personal finance
management and 90 plus in investment management.
2014-2019 The period of demonetization brought a boost to FinTech in
India via emergence of Aadhaar, eKYC, UPI, eSign etc.
Beyond 2019 NeoBanks for attracting investments from round the world,
lending, trade finance and B2B start-ups are going through
evolution phase.
Table 1. showing year-wise evolution of FinTech in India
5. FinTech in India
As per the records for the year 2021, in India there are 2200 FinTech start-
ups. The majority (in terms of percentage) of start-ups are in Mumbai and
Bangalore which accounted for around 42% of the total startups. Apart
from Mumbai, Bangalore, New Delhi, Gurugram and Hyderabad, there are
738 start-ups in remaining cities of India. The figure below gives the detail
of the number of start-ups in top ten cities:
Fig. 2. Showing number of FinTech in top cities

5.1 FinTech in 2021
The year 2021 has showed a drastic change in the technology and also in its
adoption level. A number of FinTech solutions were implemented which
helped customers in solving their problems in an easiest manner. These
solutions include digital applications, contact less payments etc.
Robotic process automation. Robotic processes are used to automate the

back-end services such as security checks, credit card processing, loan
processing, customers on boarding and account processing. This
transformation has brought an ease for the customers who earlier have to
stand in queues and waste lot of time and energy for their number to come.
Earlier such services are to be provided by the staff members and with the
coming up of robotic process automation these services are either
automated or provided by robots. This automation will now allow staff
members to focus on important tasks like marketing and customer service.
Bio-metrics. Biometrics is the study of different human characteristics for

the identification and recognition of an individual. With the application
FinTech in every country, there is also an increase in number of cybercrime
cases. From small organization to large organization all are dependent on
the FinTech as it provides ease in accessibility to the capital and perform
other critical finance related activities in an easiest way. To resolve the
problem of cybercrimes, the financial sector now days are likely to rely on
bio-metrics to escape from cybercrime cases and also to safeguards
consumers from fear of losses by using such technology.
Artificial Intelligence and machine learning. Artificial Intelligence and

machine learning has its high application in fintech sector since last half
decade. Finance companies utilizes artificial intelligence and machine
learning for providing service as per demand of the customers. There is
also an increase in the application of artificial intelligence and machine
learning in finance companies to get easy accessibility to capital. Machine
learning and artificial intelligent also helps to reduce the number of frauds
and cybercrimes cases.
Fintech as a service platform. A number of existing companies in order to

stay in competition and to ensure stability in the market makes a decision
to collaborate with agile FinTech companies. Such collaboration in form of
mergers and acquisitions helps existing companies to come in pace of
innovation with least cost and time. FinTech as a service platform also
assists many financial institutions to innovate by collaborating or forming
partnership with FinTech companies or firms.
6. Impact of COVID-19 on FinTech
Digital payments. The COVID-19 is a landmark development for FinTech

firms after demonetization in the year 2016. The pandemic has increased
the quantum of digital or contactless payments, due to fear created in
minds of people in exchanging paper money. Digital payments include
cards, mobile based, QR based, wallet based, and other electronic modes of
payments.
Neo Banks. Neo banks are wholly digitalized platform offering services
like money transfer, opening of bank accounts etc. Neo banks do not work
as an autonomous body whereas it forms partnership with traditional bank
and deliver services to the customers on digital platform. The unique
features of Neo banks are:
• Attract customer easily by offering services at lower cost

• Offer cloud-based services
• Lower cost due to cost saving in setting up of infrastructure.
• Offers specialized services like payments, receivables, budget and
spend management
• Easily attract customers- SME, salaried class etc.
The biggest challenge with Neo banks in India is that Reserve Bank of India
doesn’t permit it as 100% digital model. They cannot lend and take deposit
on their own autonomy. As of now, they cannot function as an autonomous
body and are relied on working in partnership with traditional banks.
Lending companies have suffered a lot in COVID-19 duration. This has led
to an in level of adoption rate in financial products offered by Neo Banks
in India. There are ten Neo banks in India as shown in table 2 below:
Neo Bank Products and services Partner Bank
Razorpay X Payments, current account, cheque book, RBL
credit card, payroll management, IT and
compliance management, customer
relation management.
NIYO Salary account, saving account, foreign IDBI first, DCB,
exchange card, employee benefit system, Yes
travel loans and early salary advance,
mutual fund investments.
Open Automated account, current account, ICICI (primary),
payment gateway, credit cards, automated Yes, SBI Axis,
book-keeping, cash flow management, tax HDFC, Kotak,
and compliance management solutions IndusInd, Union,
IDFC, PNB,
Citibank,
Standard
chartered
InstantPay Savings or current account, Prepaid cards, Federal, ICICI,
bills payments and collections, travel HDFC
insurance, loans and investments, expense
and cash management solution
InstaD App Smart contracts, cryptocurrencies and
other blockchain assets deposit account,
decentralized assets lending and
borrowing
Forex Kart Foreign exchange services, multi-currency
foreign exchange card, traveler cheque
PayZello Virtual debit card, forex card, Expense Laxmi Vilas, Yes
management, loans, money transfer
Yelo Banking, credit, payment solutions and Federal, ICICI
remittance, goal-based saving, consumer
durables, gold, health care and
government benefits
Walrus Payments, Saving and debit cards
Neo-bank Credit, saving and investment products
Table2. List of ten Neo banks in India [6]
Digital lending. The establishment of an open architecture platform is

being developed by the Government of India for enabling the digital
ecosystem in India. It will assist in digital lending through authentication
and sharing data online. In the year 2019, digital lending reached to $110
billion and is forecasted to reach $350 billion by 2023 as shown in the figure
4. It has been estimated that in India consumers for digital lending will
reach up to 850 billion by 2025. Faircent.com one of peer to peer (P2P)
lending startups in India showed a growth of 50 times from January 2019
50 Jan 2020 from $ 3.5 million to 16.4 million.
Digital Lending (Amount in $)

400
300
200
100
0
2019 2020 2021 2022 2023
Fig. 3: showing trend of digital lending
Cryptocurrency in India. With the tremendous growth of FinTech in India,

especially at time of COVID-19. With the upcoming trend and promising
growth with trading and investments in cryptocurrencies such as Bitcoin,
Ripple, Dogecoin etc., people in India have started investing much of their
time and money in cryptocurrency market. India has become a digital
economy with a boom in blockchain innovation as well as becoming a $10
trillion economy. Cryptocurrency these days are propelling that utilizes the
concept of blockchain. In April, the total market capitalization in crypto
currencies is around $2 trillion. It was estimated that there are around 15
million Indian holding crypto currencies today. In the last week of March
2020. The Government of India (GOI) has legalized transactions in crypto
currencies legalized through amendments in Schedule III of the Companies
Act, 2013.
7. Challenges and opportunities
FinTech entities have to face many opportunities and challenges. The

foremost challenge faced by utmost of the FinTech companies is the issue
concerning data protection. The growth of FinTech in the financial
industry, duplicity in machine learning algorithm, cybercrimes has also led
the fear of data privacy. Due to lack of trust, knowledge and data security
the mobile devices are less preferred for processing financial transactions
(IFMR, 2017). Further, due to lack of digital education and regulations
lower proportion of population in India are adopting financial technology.
Challenges for Fintech start-ups during COVID-19 pandemic
• The pandemic has disrupted many businesses models

• Decrease in consumer demands due to decline in consumption
• Travel restrictions has forced many startups to look for new
business startups.
Opportunities for Fintech start-ups during COVID-19 pandemic
• Entrance of new products

• Innovation in existing products
• Identified new customer segments
• Inclination towards customer centric approach
8. Conclusion
The main purpose of this paper is to investigate the emerging trends of

FinTech in India, to study the impact of COVID-19 on financial market and
to identify the opportunities and challenges faced by India in its adoption
and execution. The data for these papers is captured from renowned
websites, journals, white papers, articles, KPMG and PwC annual reports.
Through theoretical research, it has been found that there is a paucity in
this field of research due to recent emergence of FinTech innovation in
India. We have identified that FinTech has been adopted significantly over
the past few years with a global investment increasing from $ 59.2 billion
in 2017 to $ 168 in 2019 and again decreasing to $ 105.3 in 2020 (as per
KPMG pulse of FinTech H 2’20). In 2021 a number of FinTech solutions
were implemented namely globally: Robotic process automation, Bio-
metrics, Artificial Intelligence, Machine learning, service platforms.
The pandemic COVID-19 reflected a landmark development in the year

2016 with as growth in digital payments from 3% in 2016 to 39% growth in
2020. It has been estimated that in India consumer for digital lending will
reach up to 850 billion by 2025.
With the tremendous growth of financial technology in India, people have

started investing much of their time and money in cryptocurrency
transactions. In April, the total market capitalization in crypto currencies
was around $2 trillion. It was estimated that there are around 15 million
Indian holding crypto currencies today. Also, in the last week of March
2020, the Government of India (GOI) has legalized transactions in crypto
currencies through amendments in Schedule III of the Companies Act,
2013.
References
Gomber, Peter, Jascha-Alexander Koch, and Michael Siering.: Digital Finance and
FinTech: current research and future research directions. Journal of Business
Economics 87(5), 537-580 (2017).
Lee, In, and Yong Jae Shin.: Fintech: Ecosystem, business models, investment decisions,
and challenges. Business Horizons 61(1), 35-46 (2018).
Mankotia, A.: FinTech and Financial Services, BFSI
Pant, Sudhir Kumar.: Fintech: Emerging Trends. Telecom Business Review 13(1), (2020).
Zavolokina L, Dolata M, Schwabe G.: FinTech transformation: How IT-enabled
innovations shape the financial sector. InFinanceCom 2016, LNBIP, vol 276, pp. 75-
88. Springer, Cham (2017).
https://bfsi.economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/fintech/neo-banks-in-india-are-rising-
but-will-take-some-time-to-disrupt/78251059)
http://www.businessworld.in/article/What-Trends-Will-Shape-Fintech-In-India-In-
2021-/10-04-2021-386122/
https://inc42.com/infocus/startup-watchlist-2021/startup-watchlist-7-indian-fintech-
startups-to-watch-out-for-in-2021/
https://mobilityforesights.com/product/india-fintech-market/
https://thefinancialbrand.com/113516/global-fintech-funding-investment-trends/
https://www.consultancy.in/news/1352/indias-digital-lending-volume-could-be-1-
trillion-over-the-next-five-years,
44 Impact of COVID-19 on Quality Eduction in North-East India
Part Three
DEVELOPMENT FOR A
SUSTAINABLE WORLD
Chapter 5
Impact of COVID-19 on Quality Education in
North-East India
Sneha Deka
Department of Geography, North-Eastern Hill University,
Shillong, India
Abstract. This paper throws light on the influence of COVID-19 on the

teaching-learning process of North-East India. A random survey was carried
out by distributing questionnaires through various social media applications.
The respondent group comprises high schoolers to research scholars affiliated
with various institutions. The interpretation of the collected data highlights
that most of the students were almost satisfied with the measures taken up by
their respective institutions. However, there were also a few negative
comments regarding accessibility to necessary facilities, teacher-students
interaction and communication, support from teachers, etc. This shows that
there is still room for improvement. The concerned authorities can look into
such issues and make necessary developments for positive growth in the online
teaching-learning process.
Keywords: Sustainable Development Goal 4, Quality Education, COVID-19,

North-East India, Virtual Teaching-Learning
1. Introduction
Amongst all the 17 Sustainable Development Goals of the 2030 Agenda,

education is often considered a basic human right and a primary driving
force for peace and development. United Nations Education, Scientific and
Cultural Organization (UNESCO) being United Nations' specialized
agency for education, is entrusted to coordinate the Global Education 2030
Agenda. The COVID-19 pandemic, labelled as a "catastrophic calamity"
and compared to World War II in terms of economic and societal
consequences, has brought the largest disruption of education in history
and has impacted the teachers and students on a global scale.
COVID-19 gained a lot of attention in recent times. Various research works

have been conducted based on the Coronavirus pandemic.
Various scholars have worked focusing on education during COVID-19.

Ashley (2020), in her work "How is COVID-19 impacting education?" talks
about the influence of the pandemic on both educators and students. Her
work focuses on virtual education, mental health and student impact. The
University of the People (2021) wrote a blog post “What is the Impact of
Coronavirus on Education”? The blog talks about COVID-19 and its
influence on people. It gives an overall view of the impact of COVID-19 on
education, alternatives for school closures and new opportunities for
continuation of the teaching-learning process. Maria-Crina Radu (et al.,
2020) published an article titled "The Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic on
the Quality of Education Process: A Student Survey". It is a survey
conducted at the University of Bacau, Romania. This article talks about the
already existing infrastructure and online platforms; teachers' views on the
new system of teaching/ evaluation; and the students' views about the
situation during the pandemic, in case COVID-19 continues or is repeated
over time. Through these research works it could be understood that the
developed countries could manage to continue the teaching-learning
process, with pros and cons at a much faster rate compared to a few others.
Nonetheless, there is a lack of research on education in the pandemic in

India, even after all the attention COVID-19 got during the recent years.
Hence, this research paper tries to throw light on the quality education in
the northeastern states of India during the pandemic through the views of
the students of various institutions.
3. Problem
India went through a countrywide lockdown of education institutes on

March 16, 2020. Institutes were fully closed down for around 18 weeks,
starting from March till August 2020. Classes were suspended,
examinations were postponed, and dormitories were emptied. Various
measures were taken up by the institutions to continue the education
process.
4. Study area
The beginning of year 2020 saw the socio-political upheaval all over India
concerning NRC. Most educational institutes were closed down during that
time. The sudden countrywide lockdown made an effective impact on the
teachers as well as the students. With the calming down of the situation,
many institutes of North-East India had just reopened by February 2020.
The teaching-learning process was soon shifted to digital platforms. After
a gap of about 2-3 months, the government tried to get back the education
system back on track. All the responsible authorities (CBSE, UGC, …) went
through many discussions to get the academic year back on track. To fill up
the gap, online classes and examinations were held for the continuation of
education. Unfortunately, the uneven geographic location of North-East
India harms the accessibility high functioning technologies which
consequently hinders the smooth shift to digital teaching-learning. This
paper tries to focus on how the teaching-learning process of North-East
India was affected by COVID-19 and the impact on the students' lives.
5. Methodology and data base
A random survey was carried out to gather information from the student
community of various institutes throughout North-East India. The survey
was carried out from 21st – 25th July 2021. A total number of 50 students
responded to the survey. The survey was carried out with the help of
questionnaires being distributed through online platforms. The survey
questionnaire was designed to collect data related to the then status of the
students, the measures taken up by different institutes to tackle the
pandemic and to what extent they proved effective. Out of 17 questions,
three were subjective and the others were objective with multiple choices
to select from.
6. Analysis and interpretation of findings
6.1 Level of Education
The respondent group consists of high school students, undergraduates,

postgraduates and research scholars affiliated with various institutes.
NO. OF
LEVEL OF EDUCATION AGE GROUP
RESPONDENTS
Class 12 or below 17-19 4
Undergraduate 18-24 26
Postgraduate 22-25 12
Research Scholar 25-30 8
TOTAL NO. OF
50
RESPONDENTS
Table 1. Respondent’s Age Group and Level of Education
Table 1 shows the different age groups, categorized according to the level of
education. The responses of the samples differed with the change in the level of
education. Most of the respondents are undergraduates and about 13 of them
are 21 years old.
6.2 Educational affiliation
Almost all of the respondents are affiliated to institutions of North-East

India, excluding a very few. Most of them are also residents of this region.
Out of the 50 respondents, 45 are from Assam, of which 26 are from
Guwahati City. The rest 5 respondents are from Shillong (Meghalaya),
Alipurduar (West Bengal), Mokokchung (Nagaland), Kannur (Kerala) and
Ailawng (Mizoram).
Fig. 1. Affiliation of Respondents in numbers.
It was noticed that around 41 respondents were affiliated to different

institutions of Assam, of which 34 are located at Guwahati. Out of the other
9 respondents, 7 are affiliated to North-Eastern Hill University, Shillong
(Meghalaya), 1 each at Christ University, Bengaluru (Karnataka) and
Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi.
6.3 Online platforms
Different online platforms were used for online classes. A few respondents
mentioned that blended mode (both online and offline) was also used to
carry out classes.
Fig. 2. Online Platforms used by Respondents in per cent.
According to the data collected, it was noticed that various online platforms
were used for conducting online classes. Out of which, Google Meet was
mostly preferred. A total of 41 (35.65%) respondents marked Google Meet,
followed by Zoom and Google Classroom with 18 (15.65%) responses each,
WhatsApp with 15 (13.04%) responses, Microsoft Team with 9 (7.83%)
responses and YouTube with 7 (6.09%) responses. It can be interpreted that
these were the most preferred platforms. On the other hand, Skype and
Teachmint had 2 (1.74%) responses each, followed by WebEx with 1 (0.87%)
response. A few students (1.74%) also mentioned some other platforms
which were used at a very low scale, such as Telegram, Web mails, etc.
6.4 Electronic devices
Fig. 3. Accessibility to Devices by the Respondents.
Around 38 students (56.72%) had access to mobile phones and 21 (31.34%)

had access to laptops. Out of the rest, 5 (7.46%) had access to desktops and
2 (2.99%) had access to tablets. Only 1 student (1.49%) had no access to any
electronic device.
6.5 Problems encountered
The uneven geographical location of North-East India affects the network

and connectivity of communication technologies. Many interior places in
this region are yet to be covered by mobile connectivity. Few other regions
lose their connectivity due to bad weather conditions.
From the collected data it can be interpreted that respondents from

different locations went through different struggles to attend an online
class and write online exams.
Fig. 4. Difficulties faced while attending Online Classes in per cent.
About 30 (60%) respondents faced network instability whereas, 10 (20%)

respondents faced problems due to exhaustion of data. Only 1 (2%)
respondent lacked the necessary facilities for the online classes. 4 (8%) out
of 50 respondents had faced all the mentioned issues, whereas 5 (10%)
respondents faced no issues at all.
To get the academic year back on track, different institutions came up with
various evaluation methods. Some institutes asked the students to work on
assignments, while others conducted online examinations through various
methods. The examinations were either conducted through platforms such
as Google Quiz: where all the questions were multiple-choice, or the
students had to write the subjective answers on sheets and then upload the
scanned copies of their answer sheets. A few institutions even cancelled

examinations for the batches except for the final semester ones.
Fig. 5. Difficulties Faced in Case of Online Examination/Evaluation.
The data shows that 16 (32%) out of 50 faced internet connectivity issues,
13 (26%) faced problems in the management of time for completion of
examinations, 8 (16%) faced issues due to unduly conducted examination
and scarcity of study materials each, only 1 (2%) faced all these issues.
Whereas only 4 (8%) out of 50 did not have any problem. This can be
interpreted as that the telecommunication sector of north-eastern states
needs to be developed for positive growth of this region.
6.6 Quality and effectiveness of online learning
Education was limited to classroom premises for decades. Although in

recent years, educators have started experimenting with new techniques
and advanced technologies to make lesson-learning more interesting and
interactive, after the advent of the COVID-19 pandemic, teaching-learning
completely shifted to online platforms. This method became the “new
normal” in the education system. The online classes on a 2D screen were
new to many, leading to various inconveniences posed to both teachers and
students.
Fig. 6. Quality of Online Learning Content in per cent.
Through the collected data it was visible that the students did go through
a little bit of tough time while coping with the “new normal.” When asked
to rate the quality of courses and materials used, 25 (50%) respondents
marked them to be “fair” and 16 (32%) marked them “good.” Whereas 3
(6%) marked them to be “excellent”, 4 (8%) marked them “poor” and only
2 (4%) marked them “very poor.” It can be interpreted that the quality was
neither too good nor too bad, but has room for improvement.
Fig. 7. Effectiveness and Sufficiency of Online Learning in per cent.
The collected data also includes information about how the students felt
regarding the teaching-learning method taken up by their respective
institutions. The responses were collected in the form of ratings as to what
extent did the students find the teaching-learning method effective and
sufficient in comparison to offline classes.
Out of the 50 respondents, 27 (54%) marked it to be effective and sufficient

up to a “small extent” and 15 (30%) marked it to be of a “large extent.”
Whereas 2 (4%) marked it to be of a “very large extent” and 4 (8%) marked
a "very small extent.” Only 2 (4%) respondents marked that it was “neither
effective nor sufficient at all.”
Hence, it can be interpreted that a few institutions need to pay more heed
to the teaching-learning method and its quality. It is also noticed that the
responses from the high schoolers and a few of the undergraduates are the
ones who faced most of the inconveniences regarding the quality and
effectiveness of online learning.
6.7 Communication and support from teachers
Fig. 8. Interaction and Communication with Teachers in per cent.
During the pandemic, courses with practical applications and laboratory

works might have undergone a few hardships. Regardless of the
disadvantages, the responses received were pretty much positive. The
students were asked to rank their interaction with the respective teachers
for activities such as seminars, practical applications, laboratory works, or
any other such courses. 23 (46%) students reported it as being “fair” and 20
(40%) reported it as “good.” Whereas 3 (6%) students reported “excellent”,
and 4 (8%) others reported it as being “poor.” On a positive note, there was
0 response for being “very poor.” It can be interpreted that during the
lockdown, even the teachers put some effort to stay connected and
supporting the students.
Fig. 9. Emotional and Mental Support received from Teachers in per cent.
The students were asked to rate their perspectives regarding emotional and
mental support received from the respective teachers. Of the 50
respondents, 15 (30%) students rated it as “excellent”, 18 (36%) rated it as
“good” and 14 (28%) rated it as “fair.” Whereas only 1 (2%) student rated
it to be “poor” and 2 (4%) rated “very poor.” The above data shows that the
students did receive a fair amount of support both mentally and
emotionally from their teachers during the pandemic. This is a positive sign
that during the lockdown the students must have been able to overcome at
least some bit of mental and emotional stress or depression.
6.8 Efficiency of measures
Fig. 10. The Efficiency of the Measures taken up by the Institutions in per cent.
The students were asked to rate the extent to which they consider that the
measures taken up by their institutes for continuity of the education
process were effective or not. The responses were not much positive. 10
(20%) students marked it as effective to a “very large extent” and 16 (32%)
others marked it as “large extent.” Whereas 22 (44%) marked it as effective
to a “small extent” and 2 (4%) as “ineffective and insufficient.” This shows
that the institutions need to develop their methods of tackling the ongoing
COVID-19 situation from an education point of view.
7. Suggested measures
The research work revealed a series of negative aspects along with a few
positive ones related to the online education process of North-East India
from the students’ perspective. There were a few students who did not
have access to necessary facilities (e.g., digital equipment, internet
connectivity) for the smooth running of the teaching-learning process. On

the contrary, even if the necessary facilities were available for most
students, communication with the teachers for many activities (e.g.,
teaching courses, conducting laboratories/ seminars/ other practical
applications) was not much effective. The students pointed out that the
quality of online learning content (e.g., courses, multimedia content: audio,
audio-video, etc.) received from the teachers was helpful. Some students
did not find the teaching-learning methods adopted by their institutions of
great effectiveness. Lack of face-to-face interaction and communication of
students with teachers and colleagues did put a toll on a few students due
to deficiency of emotional and mental support. Some suggestive measures
which may be effective for improvement of the quality of education in
Northeast India for any pandemic situation which may come in the future
are as follows:
• While choosing an online platform for classes, the teachers can also
take up opinions from students so that the students do not have to
download too many digital applications.
• The institutions can come up with strategies to provide necessary
equipment for those who do not have them.
• The institutions can also come up with measures to cope with
issues related to internet connectivity and exhaustion.
• Teachers can improve the quality of online learning content (e.g.,
opting for audio-visual classes rather than just audio recordings.)
• Teachers can conduct meetings/tutorial sessions in small groups
dedicated to doubt clearing sessions, laboratory works, seminars
or other practical applications.
• Sufficient study materials can be made available through online
libraries.
• The teachers can try to connect with the students on a one-to-one
basis and provide mental and emotional support so that the
students do not undergo stress or depression.
• The institutions can also try to improve their measures by
conducting experiments and surveys on their students. This can
prove as an advantage to the respective institution.
8. Conclusion
The shift from face-to-face learning within the premises of an educational

institution to digital learning was a fast and drastic change for many. Even
though digital learning was gaining more importance with time, few
societies were still coping with the change. If asked on a personal level,
there is no doubt that a lot of educators would still prefer the traditional
form of offline teaching-learning system. With the outbreak of the Corona
Virus, the entire world went under lockdown, which made online teaching-
learning the only possible method for the continuation of education. This
research work throws light on some of the issues and outcomes of online
learning. The respondent group comprised of undergraduates,
postgraduates, research scholars and a few high schoolers; mostly from
Northeast India affiliated to various institutions. The study was carried out
through a random survey using questionnaires which helped in collecting
data anonymously. The responses varied with the level of education. After
the completion of analysing the data, it can be interpreted that the
northeastern region of India has disadvantages due to its geographical
location. This region can make efforts to bring in positive growth not only
with telecommunication but also with other advanced and developed
technologies.
References
COVID-19 and Children’s Education, Psychology Today, https://www.psychologytoday

.com/us/blog/love-money-and-parenting/202004/COVID-19-and-children-s-education
Education: From disruption to recovery, UNESCO, https://en.unesco.org/COVID19/
educationresponse
Education transforms lives UNESCO, https://en.unesco.org/themes/education
How COVID-19 has changed the way we educate children, World Economic Forum,
https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2021/02/digital-learning-covid-19-changed-way-
we-educate-children/
UNESCO: Handbook on Measuring Equity in Education. 1st edn. UNESCO Institute for
Statistics, Canada, (2018).
UNESCO urges all countries to prioritize teachers in national COVID-19 vaccine rollout
plans to ensure education can continue safely and schools remain open, UNESCO,
https://en.unesco.org/COVID19/educationresponse/teacher-vaccination
Chapter 6
Decoding the Degree vs. Skills Debate
Parul Pandey and Urvashi Kaushal
Department of Mathematics and Humanities,
Sardar Vallabhbhai National Institute of Technology,
Surat, India
Abstract. The dichotomy of Degree and Skills has been debated for centuries
resulting in degrees being chosen over skills. Skills can provide livelihood, help
in developing autonomous learners and leaders and help people secure
employment in a rigorously competitive market. It can boost entrepreneurship
and help create indigenous products and practices instead of relying on
developed nations. Embedding Skills in the academia might be challenging
considering it involves tweaking the students’ perspective towards the new
inclusion, but it can help us prepare competent individuals who are qualified
not just in theory but in practice as well. Though with the introduction of NEP
2020, the government has managed to blur the lines of the alleged binaries. This
paper attempts to reinforce the importance of skills and embedding it in the
curriculum and to pro-vide a comprehensive understanding of the importance
and need for skills to be embedded in the academia and what could be the
possible repercussions of the same. This paper has been prepared by
articulating and theorizing different perspectives in the important literature
available on skills and further provides evidence from different official sources.
The evidence in the paper suggests that inculcating a balance of degree and
skills in the curriculum and focus on the holistic development of students can
also help alleviate economy. The conclusion also reveals significant problems
due to lack of skills which needs to be rebut-ted with pragmatic solutions. It
also paves way for future research on curating a more advanced rebuttal
strategy to tackle these problems.
Keywords: Employability, Knowledge-based Economy, Holistic Development,

Innovation, Skill
1. Introduction
Francis Green, an eminent Professor of Economics at UCL defined skills in

a holistic manner as a “personal quality with three key features”. He said
that the skills have high productive value, they can be enhanced with
proper training, and they can be “determined socially” (Green, 2011). This
means that skills can be observed and gauged by observation. In fact,
Fallows and Steven (2000) explained key skills as important skills that
“unlock a person’s potential for employment.” So, skills and employment
go hand in hand.
1.1 Employment and employability rate in developed nations and

India
In order to understand the importance of embedding skills in the

curriculum and its direct impact on the economy, we first need to look at
the economic state of affairs of developed nations and India. Developed
nations such as UK, USA, Australia, and Singapore etc. have stable
economies, lesser population compared to India and they started
integrating the study and training of key skills across all sectors of
employment back in 1990’s which explains the data from the Office of
National Statistics, UK which recorded an employment rate of 75.1% and
the unemployment rate of 4.9% in 2021 in UK. On the other hand, Centre
for Monitoring Indian Economy (CMIE) recorded an employment rate of
37.6% in March in India and the unemployment rate at 6.5% in 2020. This
data was finalized before the national lockdown was announced. In
addition to this, QS graduate employability rankings 2020 in partnership
with Elsevier found that most institutes in USA such as Massachusetts
Institute of Technology, Stanford University and University of California,
Los Angeles alone had an employability rate of 98% and above and all these
Universities offer several vocational skills courses. On the other hand, India
Skills Report 2021 prepared by Wheebox along with Confederation of
Indian Industries (CII), All India Council for Technical Education and
United Nations Development Programme found that Odisha has less than
31% students with employable talent. The data was appalling considering
the Budget 2021 presented in Orissa Assembly allotted an amount of 100
crore to set up a World Skill Centre in the capital city of Bhubaneshwar.

Also, Orissa is home to reputed educational Institutes like NIT Rourkela,
IIM Sambalpur, IIT, IISER and AIIMS Bhubaneshwar.
Thus, the above-mentioned data is proof that having a degree does not
necessarily make one employable instead, employability could well be
called a person’s ability to get work or secure employment by way of being
suitable or skilled for the job.
1.2 Objectives
This study tries to build awareness around the inclusion of skills in the
academia and the advantages of incorporating such skills during the
academic life and beyond. The higher the awareness of skills, the higher the
employability rate. It aims at activating the role of human resources in
academia and the repercussions of the same.
1.3 Methodology
This is an analytical and conceptual paper which presents the authors’

subjective views. This paper is an initial study in the field of including skills
education in the curriculum. There are no “findings” as such, rather, it has
been prepared by articulating and theorizing different perspectives in the
important literature available on skills and further compares data from
several official sources from developed nations and India to stress on the
need to strike a balance of academic and non-academic skills.
2. Status quo of skills education in school/college/higher

education: Developed nations and India
The paper further delves deeper into reports and related literature to
understand what is that status of skills education in schools/college/higher
education in developed countries as well as in India.
2.1 Skills education in schools in developed nations and India
Non-academic skills such as confidence, motivation, resilience was found

to be more important than the academic skills (Sutton Trust Survey, 2017).
National Child Development Study, the British Cohort Study and the
millennium Cohort Study in UK in 1958 found the evidence that possession
of non-academic skills associated with “positive life outcomes, including
higher academic attainment, greater employability, increased wellbeing,
and better physical and mental health” (POSTnote Parliamentary Office of
Science and Technology, 2018). The national curriculum for primary and
secondary schools was defined in UK and the focus was that all schools
should make provision to instill such skills. Many schools found that most
students develop these skills through classroom based teaching and extra-
curricular activities (Life Lessons Report, 2017). The Welsh Government is
all set to introduce a new curriculum for primary and secondary students
between 2022 and 2026 by including expressive arts in order to develop
well rounded individuals who possess skills such as creativity, attitudes
and values. There’s no compulsory skills curriculum in the primary and
secondary schools in Scotland. But these schools have a curriculum for
excellence to help students in the age group of 3-18 years become confident
and responsible individuals and citizens. Thus, incorporating skills
education has been an agenda since 1960’s in UK and US but started
gaining momentum only in 2000. On the other hand, Government of India’s
Ministry of Labour and Employment set up its first Industrial Training
Institute (ITI) in 1969. Around 2009 National Skills Development
Corporation was set up which paved way for National Qualification
Framework which focused on competence and skill-based training system
but only at the higher level. Ministry of Skill Development and
Entrepreneurship (MSDE) was set up in 2014 to make strategies and
policies to push the agenda of skill development across all sectors which
led to most government schools such as Kendriya Vidyalayas and
Jawaharlal Nehru Vidyalayas having the Scouts and Guides or NCC as a
mandatory part of the curriculum and most students are expected to
acquire the necessary skills through interaction with their classmates and
the staff and through extra-curricular activities. But a consolidated skills
training in all schools is still a far-fetched dream.
2.2 Skills education at college level in developed nations and

India
As far as graduates are concerned, University of Napier, University of

Strathclyde, University of Luton started graduate training around 1990s
and started preparing and embedding models in their institute and
measuring the development of students. The Dearing Report (1997) in UK
emphasised on the importance of training graduates to make them skilled
employees and to embed employability skills in Higher Education
Institutions (HEI). Bower-Brown and Harvey in (2004) stated that there
were too many graduates and very few jobs. Boden and Nedeva in (2010)
pointed out that studying employability skills will help produce quality
graduates. Gleeson and keep in (2004) wrote on the importance of a match
between industry-higher education interface and why there needs to be a
partnership with defined rules between industry, governments and
education. So, including employability skills in curricula became the core
focus around 2000. On the contrary, in India, the ratio of people being
awarded degrees and the ratio of people getting jobs was found to be
skewed. Therefore, several studies were done to push the agenda of skills.
Hari Prasad (2014) found that exposure to peer group, networking skills,
and professional group discussions played an important role in enhancing
employability in a case study of engineering graduates of Chittoor district.
P. Nair (2015) in a study called Employability Gap: found out the skills
required for management students in the state of Gujarat by interviewing
the employer as well as the employees and thereby addressed the gap
between the skills possessed by today’s management graduates and the
skills required by the industry and suggestions to fill the gap.
2.3 Skills education in higher education in developed nations and

India
Australia has a rich employability history as well. The employability skills

in Australia can be traced to two works written in early 90s-Mayer Report
(1992) and Australia Higher Education Report. They spoke about the
importance of introducing generic skills and attributes in technical
education. The GC Report in Australia conceded that the general skills
needed to complete the project are not any different from the skills required
at research institute and other potential employment workplace. The report
mentioned an obvious difference between skills needed in the university
domain and the industry domain. Promeet Jaswant Singh (2018) conducted
a study on Minnesota State University Graduates and assessed and
interpreted the soft skills these newly graduate business student brings to
the workplace. Susan Mowbray and Christine Halse (2014) studied the
skills acquired by research scholars during the process of a PhD and how it
paved way for a career in academia. Tim Moore and Janne Morton (2015)
conducted a study in Australia to check whether their doctoral researchers
are skilled enough to take up a job. The results highlighted that they lacked
the right skills and the knowledge and awareness of learning the right
skills. Inge Romgens, Remi Scoupe and Simone Beausaert (2019) wrote a
paper by compiling the major studies that have been done on employability
in the academia as well as industry and formed a link between them and
found that there’s a gap in the skills perception of the major stakeholders
involved in the process i.e., the students, the faculty members and the
recruiters. While in India, the University Grants Commission had taken the
initiative for preparing the curriculum for Life Skills in 2019 for providing
soft skills and important life skills training for undergraduate students and
the students of Higher Education Institutions. Ministry of Education
prepared the NEP 2020 to transform the existing curriculum from a
knowledge-based curriculum to a more balanced knowledge and skills-
based curriculum. But both the National Education Policy and the Life
Skills curriculum are yet to be implemented at all institutes.
3. Different models implemented by different institutions

in the context of developed nations and India
This section will see different approaches and models adopted by different
institutes prepared either on their own or as asked by the education
ministries.
3.1 Different models adopted at school level in developed nations

and India
In UK, programmes for teaching non-academic skills for school students

include PATHS (Promoting Alternative Thinking Strategies) which was
developed in US and implemented in both US and UK which aimed at
providing 30-40-minute-long lessons twice weekly to teach students to
control and understand emotions better. This yielded positive results in US
and average results in UK as the faculty found it difficult to maintain the
frequency of classes due to paucity of time. The Changing Mindsets
programme developed in the USA and implemented on 9–10-year-olds in
both US and UK showed that intelligence is a trait that can be developed,
and this led to the development of students’ metacognitive functions.
Extracurricular activities in UK schools and colleges such as girls on the
move and Hindleap Warren outdoor Education Centre are projects for
young girls aged 7-25 years which aim at their holistic development
through outdoor activities and community participation. While in India,
NEP 2020 has come up with drastic changes wherein NCERT will prepare
a two-part syllabus for children up to 8 years as scientific evidence proves
85% of the child’s brain development takes place till he is 6 years old. This
curriculum will include stories, plays, music etc. which will help with the
cognitive development of a child. Experiential learning will be adopted at
all stages and for all subjects and the focus will be on art integration, sports
integration and multilingualism. Fun courses such as carpentry, metal
work, and electric work would be made compulsory for all students from
6-8th standard 6-12th standard students will have internship opportunities
to learn the vocational subjects. Even the assessment will be made
multidimensional, and the students will be graded not just on their
academic credentials but also on the development of their cognitive,
emotive, psychomotor abilities. Project-based communities will be
promoted in schools such as the dance club, drama club, painting, pottery,
yoga club etc. Even the teachers will be given opportunities for continuous
professional development in the form of regional, national and
international workshops.
3.2 Different models adopted at college/university level in

developed nations and India
In higher education in UK, Cole and Tibby formulated a framework called

USEM (Understanding, Skills, Efficacy and Metacognition) in 2013. This
framework worked on changing the outlook from doing a task to display
competency to doing a task to learn. Further, in 2007, Dacre Pool and Sewell
formulated a framework called Career EDGE which focused on including
skills related to career management in the employability model. University
of Central Lancashire included an employment development profile to
prepare a customized skills needed as per the student’s subject, interests,
nature, potential job prospects. Metcalf and Gray in 2005 pointed out that
students at Australian National University (ANU) are asked to prepare a
personal portfolio documenting the personal attributes, skills,
specializations they possess which will help the supervisor mark the skills
possessed, learned and demonstrated. UK has Vitae’s Research
Development Framework which focusses on preparing re-searchers who
not only specialize in their discipline but rather have the interpersonal
skills to work outside academia with the same efficiency. On the other
hand, with the introduction of NEP, India’s rich educational heritage of
Takshshila and Nalanda were learning the 64 arts were important life skills
to survive and lead a successful life will be revived. Multidisciplinary
approach to blur the demarcation between science and humanities will lead
to a holistic development. Classroom discussions, debates and experiential
learning will not be limited to humanities subjects. More research-based
Universities will be set up and more interdisciplinary research will be
encouraged and supported. Incentives and stipends to promote original
indigenous research work would be provided. Programmes and skills
based on 3-D learning, Artificial Intelligence, Biotechnology, Big Data
Analysis, Indian languages that are slowly becoming extinct will be taught
at all levels. Students will have the flexibility to choose their own skills and
subjects according to their interests and aptitudes. National Skills
Qualification Framework and National Committee for the integration of
Vocational Education will be formed to prepare the detailed structure of a
vocational subject and to describe how it will be assessed (NEP, 2020).
4. Significant results of including skills in the curriculum
Skills can provide livelihood and can help people secure employment in a
rigorously competitive market. It can help create autonomous learners and
boost entrepreneurship and leaders who by virtue of being skilled can
adapt to any environment and work effectively (Moore & Morton, 2017).
Inge Romgens, Remi Scoupe and Simon Beausaert (2020) referred to five
dimensions of employability in the workplace which are human capital,
reflection on self and organisation, lifelong learning and flexibility, social
and a healthy work-life balance, these dimensions will help us pre-pare
multidimensional, adaptive, and commercially aware students. Thus, after
reviewing the literature on skills, it can be stated that including skills in the
curriculum could solve some of the prominent problems in Academia such
as:
• Continuing with the outdated syllabus and course patterns such as

3-7 Years PhD course instead of a structured time bound research
course.
• It will also improve the skewed ratio of number of students
graduating each year to the number of students getting a job.
• Highly qualified students applying for ‘not-so-decent’ positions
have become a reality. As per a UN Report published in 2018, 8 out
of 10 people in India have in-decent employment.
• It could help us prepare qualified as well as competent youth.
• Bridging the gap in the skills perception and demand between the
government, industry and the academia.
• Establish a connection between research and innovation and
entrepreneurship.
• Skill development will help push ideals of several government
initiatives such as NREGA, ITI.
• Deal with the ethical issues in academia, an Indian Express report
stated 35% of all articles were submitted by Indian academics in
fake journals during 2010 to 2014; this explains why Wiggins and
McTighe (2005) stated that by combining core academic content
and necessary future skills, students can have a bright future.
5. Conclusion and the way forward
Thus, the above study tries to build awareness around the inclusion of skills
in the academia and the advantages of incorporating such skills during the
academic life & beyond. The higher the awareness of skills, the higher the
employability rate. It will help us activate the role of human resources in
academia. It will also reduce the gap between industry and academia. The
implementation of this study will also help push the goals of NEP 2020
which aims at allowing a culture of research, innovation and development
to permeate the universities. It will also maximize job opportunities and
start-ups for students and contribute to the economy and help build
academic leaders who endorse ethics both in academia and in life. This
study will also help further the study of skills inclusion and promote more
such studies in the Indian context on related issues such as exploring
different implementation strategies, reasons for non-implementation,
possible solutions for overcoming the limitations, analyzing successful
strategies etc.
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contributors-to-fake-journals-ugc-to-crack-down-811604
Chapter 7
Students’ Employability: An Empirical Study
Kiran Vaghela and Urvashi Kaushal
Department of Mathematics and Humanities, NIT,
Surat, India
Abstract. In the era of the knowledge driven economy, the term

“Employability” has drawn considerable attention from stakeholders in
academia and industry. The existing literature about employability has
analyzed the concept from a range of perspectives such as labour market,
employers, Higher Education Institutions (HEIs), academic staff and even
graduates. On the contrary, student’s perspective has not been much explored.
There is, particularly a dearth of empirical evidence on Indian Engineering
students’ perception towards employability. This research paper aims to
explore the phenomenon from Indian engineering students’ perspective and
identifies the relational link between their understanding and the relevant
employability skills as well as ways of acquiring them. Semi-structured
interview method was adopted to collect the primary data which was
supported by the critical review of existing literature on the concept of
employability. The findings revealed the varied perception of students;
nonetheless, unanimity on perceiving it as a tool for employment was
expressed. Moreover, the student’s choice of employability skills and the ways
of acquisition have been influenced by their understanding and experience.
The students’ views can be used to inculcate employability skills of engineering
students.
Keywords: Employability, Students’ Perception, Employability Skills

72 Student’s Employability: An Empirical Study
1. Introduction
Employability, a ‘relatively an obscure concept’ two decades ago, has now

secured a dominating position in the labour market policy, employment
agenda and (HEIs) (McQuaid & Lindsay, 2005). It has particularly attracted
the considerable attention of HEIs as they are now obligated to produce an
employable workforce which further leads to the economic growth of a
nation. India has emerged as one of the leading nations in the
manufacturing and information technology sector. The exponential growth
of science and technology and their industrial application has made the
engineering profession a very important domain. To meet the increased
demands of the industry, skilled engineers are the need of an hour. On the
other hand, the rise of knowledge-based economy led to the rapid growth
of HEIs in the country, setting up more engineering institutions which
produce hundred thousand engineers every year.
To make engineering education more industry oriented and hence, provide

work-ready employable engineering graduates, the government of India
has taken many initiatives such as Setting up premier technical institutions,
University-industry collaboration, NITI Ayog Internship Scheme, student
exchange programs, innovative teaching learning methods etcetera. On the
contrary, the fact is that both service and industrial sectors face the
challenge of chronic low employability of engineers in India. There are
alarming statistics in a NASSCOM report, which estimates that, of the 3
million joining the IT workforce, only twenty-five per cent of engineering
graduates are employable. According to the Capgemini study, fifty-five per
cent of organizations acknowledged that not only was there a huge gap for
STEM skills but it is widening (NASSCOM, 2019). The new Annual
Employability Survey 2019 report by Aspiring Minds reveals that eighty
per cent of Indian engineers are not fit for any job in the knowledge
economy. It is quite evident that the chronic issues of unemployment, low
employability, competency gap, and employers’ dissatisfaction still exist
despite sincere efforts to curb them. To address the issue, the researcher
reviewed the documented study and found a vast amount of research
conducted on various aspects of employability, globally as well as in India.
The issue of employability has been studied from different perspectives
and in different context. However, student’s perspective has not been much
unexplored. This empirical study research is an effort to understand the

problem by studying employability from Indian engineering student’s
perspectives.
2.1 Defining employability: “The historical antecedents of the current

employability debate can be traced back at least a century” (McQuaid &
Lindsay, 2005, p.5) Over the years, Employability has evolved from
simplistic, narrow construct to more complex, broader phenomenon
accommodating various theoretical, pragmatic and critical perspectives to
its conceptual formation. The term ‘Employability’ has been defined by
many scholars in different contexts. The most widely accepted notion of
employability, of course with variations, is the possession of skills,
knowledge and attributes that makes a person employable and employed.
This is supported by Hinchcliffe who has associated employability with
achieving skills, knowledge and personal at-tributes for successful
employment (Pool & Sewell, 2007, as cited in Hinchliffe & Jolly, 2011).
Emphasizing on being ‘employable’ and being ‘employed’, Pitan in his
paper distinguished between employability and employment and added
that employability is more that getting initial employment (Pitan & Muller,
2020).
Concerning broader approaches to employability, one of the most cited

definitions is “A set of achievements, skills, understandings and personal
attributes that makes graduates more likely to gain employment and be
successful in their chosen occupations, which benefits themselves, the
workforce, the community and the economy (Yorke, 2005, p.8). Yorke’s
understanding is not only restricted to the beneficiaries but extends to the
benefactors too. Another widely cited definition suggests that
“employability is about having the capability to gain initial employment,
maintain employment and obtain new employment if required” (Hillage
and Pollard,1998 p.1). This is further supported by Lowden and his
colleagues, who emphasized the ability to sell those skills, attitudes and
knowledge to the employer to gain initial employment, maintain it,
develop within a particular job and be able to move to a better job (Lowden
et al., 2011).
The aforementioned views bring forth two aspects of the phenomenon: one
is the possession of skills, attribute and qualities required for employment
and the other is the ‘supply side’ (McQuaid & Lindsay, 2005) of
employability which singularly focus on an individual and her/his
responsibility of developing skills. However, what is missing is the element
of ‘interactivity’ at the center of the concept. In order to have a
comprehensive understanding, it is required to place employability in
dialogue with multiple stakeholders.
2.2 Government perspective: The government takes a lot of interest in

employability and invests a lot in higher education as it is the ‘principal
funders’ (Tymon, 2013). The Government of India sees employability more
in terms of employment generation but doesn’t overlook the requirement
of a skilled workforce. It has launched initiatives such as Aatmanirbhar
Bharat Rozgar Yojana, and Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment
Guarantee Scheme for promoting employment generation. Furthermore,
The Ministry of Skill Development and Entrepreneurship runs various
programs and supports private organizations for encouraging skill
development activities in India.
2.3 HEIs’ perspectives: According to Le Grange, the economic growth of a

country depends on the investment in higher education (Grange, 2011).
HEIs perceive employability in terms of league tables which directly affect
the enrollment rates (Tymon, 2013). For some academic institutions,
employment rates are the indicator of employability-the higher the
employment rate, the better the employability achieved. Indian
technological universities as well as government and private technical
Institutions have incorporated employment agenda in their mission and
vision statement to produce work-ready engineers and also to attract
brighter students.
2.4 Employers’ perspectives: The employers recruit engineers who

possess disciplinary knowledge, technical skills and soft skills. Juhdi and
his fellow scholars suggested that technical skills, personal and
interpersonal skills and organizational knowledge of primary business

functions are the significant requirements of employers (Juhdi et al., 2006,
as cited in Saidin et al., 2019). Gokuladas identified the predictors of
employability in the context of undergraduate engineering students
(Gokuladas, 2011). Blom and Saeki reported that Indian professionals
placed a great degree of importance on lifelong learning skills and team
skills for engineering graduates (Blom & Saeki, 2011). In the same paper, it
was also mentioned that the industry professionals were found to be most
satisfied with engineering graduates’ communication skills, while they
were least satisfied with graduates’ technical skills and problem-solving
skills (Blom & Saeki, 2011). This finding throws light on the mismatch
between employers’ expectation and their perception of skills displayed by
engineering bachelors.
2.5 Graduates’ perspective: The Majority of graduates have realized that a

professional degree is not sufficient in this competitive world of job market
and hence, they consider generic skills crucial for gaining employment
(Tomlinson, 2008, as cited in Tymon, 2013). Michael Tomlinson’s research
reported that students expect their academic qualifications to have
importance, but they also do voluntary work outside the university for
adding value to the academic competencies (Tomlinson, 2008). In the
Indian context, Indian engineering students seem to place a higher value
on technical knowledge and skills because of the over-emphasis placed on
core, disciplinary subjects by the academic staff.
2.6 Hidden perspective: It has been found that interpretation of

employability from different stake holders has been widely researched in
the literature. However, understanding the meaning of employability from
engineering students’ perspectives in the Indian context has remained
unexplored. There is some amount of research at the international level
which documented studies on students’ perception on employability but,
the context is starkly different. The students’ perspective on employability
is less analyzed compared to graduates’ and employers’ perspectives in
India. This research paper sheds light on the meaning the students assign
to employability and how their understanding influences selection of
relevant employability skills as well as ways of acquiring in the Indian
context.
3. Method of data collection
The researcher collected the secondary data through a critical study of the
literature regarding employability and the primary data was collected
using a semi-structured interview format. The rationale behind using the
interview method is to have an in-depth exploration of the topic through
interaction with students. Sixteen 3rd year engineering undergraduate
students of Sardar Vallabhbhai National Institute of Technology, Surat
were selected using purposive sampling that was diverse in respect to race,
gender and branch of study. The literature review and four pilot interviews
were used to prepare the final interview questions. Each interview was
recorded and then transcribed to facilitate data analysis.
4. Research findings
In the following sections the main themes which emerged from the
interviews are presented, followed by some discussion.
4.1 Meaning of employability: Students’ understanding expectedly

varies; however, similarities do exist across the meaning derived from the
majority of students. Most of the respondents referred to employability as
a set of skills, knowledge, and abilities to be employed which matched with
most of the definitions reviewed in the literature. Students linked the term
with getting job surfaces the instrumental view of employability. Two
students said, “Employability is a set of skills to fulfil employers’
requirements”. They perceived employability from the ‘demand side’,
emphasizing the role of employers. Three respondents considered it as a
tool of economic growth for an individual as well as the industry. There
was one student according to whom, employability is not only meant for
professional success and earning a livelihood, but the possession of it
should enable you to act as a responsible citizen of a country. This view
which is confirmed by Bowden et al (2000) is largely missing among the
students as there seems to be a more pragmatic approach to employability.
It is quite surprising to note that half of the students sharing a lot of

information and understanding did not come in their initial reactions.
Initially, the term baffled some students which can be highlighted by the
following quote:
“I guess I heard this term for the first time”.
But the researchers helped the respondents to share what they knew about
employability through interaction.
4.2 Important employability skills from students’ perspective: All the

students considered communication skills, problem-solving skills,
decision-making skills, critical thinking skills, time management skills, and
managerial skills as the most important employability skills. On one hand,
this list matches with the literature on important skills from students’
perspectives (Kolmos & Holgaard, 2019), while on the other hand, this view
contradicts the previous theme stating that the students seem to perceive
‘being employable’ more in terms of being able to perform a job which
demands them to be equipped with technical skills and knowledge. Among
generic skills, communication skills were given the paramount importance
which is highlighted in the following quote:
“Communication skills are used everywhere. They are used for both
personal and professional life. They are required more during job
interviews”.
As far as technical skills are concerned, they do believe that to perform the
tasks at a workplace, technical skills are more required than soft skills. A
majority of students felt the need to possess coding skills and software,
besides other domain specific skills. On being asked what is more
important, soft skills or technical skills, they said technical skills are more
important as they help them to carry out their job efficiently, at the same
time they said soft skills are required to gain the employment. Some even
said that the importance and requirement of employability skills depend
on what type of job one is applying for.
4.3 Attribution of responsibility: The students acknowledged the active

involvement of different stakeholders in shaping their employability, but
they attribute the major responsibility to themselves and their professors.
One of the respondents said, “In College, teachers are playing a crucial role
in helping students develop employability skills, during the internship,
mentors are responsible for helping students. But ultimately I am majorly
responsible for developing my employability skills”. A similar view is also
reported in the research carried out by Sin and her colleagues who see the
role of students and the HEIs as crucial in acquiring employability skills
(Sin et al., 2016). On the other hand, the involvement of different stake -
holders assumes that employability is dependent not only on individual
students but on other external factors, thus referring to the relative
dimension of employability (Sin et al., 2016, as cited in Brown et al., 2003).
4.4 Application of employability skills: More than half of the students

believed that communication skills, problem -solving skills, decision -
making skills, and time management are the general skills which can be
used in day-to-day life as well as at work-place. Students’ use of
employability skills are not only restricted to the workplace but extend to
their personal and social life. At the same time, they don’t see the
application of generic skills much at the workplace because they believe
that in the beginning, they need more technical skills to perform operations
and soft skills are required when they move to the managerial positions
later in their career.
4.5 Ways of acquiring employability skills: When asked about their ways
of acquiring employability skills, half of the respondents said that they
want practical ways. The importance of leaning by doing is reflected in
many studies which recommend experiential learning, work-based
learning and work-related learning. Three participants said that they learn
more by observing things or people. As far as developing technical skills
are concerned, fifty percent students quite strongly recommended digital
resources to be utilized maximally as they provide good platform to learn
these skills. This may be due to their dependence on online learning during
COVID-19 pandemic. Quite a noticeable number of students rated extra-
curricular high, as their role in developing generic skills is perceived very
crucial. Quite a few students have experienced developing communication
skills, leadership skills, and managerial skills by participating in various
activities hosted by different clubs of the college.
4.6 Course on employability: All the students said that engineering degree
program should offer a course on employability where students are taught
specific skills required by the industry. The need for such course also arises
due to the lack of awareness about the concept of employability, industry
requirement and more importantly also due to the lack of generic skills
among the students.
5. Discussion
The findings have depicted a comprehensive picture of engineering

students’ understanding towards employability which represents their
awareness about the job requirement and the responsibility to prepare
them for workplace. It ought to be noted that this was achieved due to the
adoption of semi-structured interview method for data collection which
provided enough room for interaction between a student and a researcher
which not only helped the researcher to gather rich data but also helped the
students to share their understanding of the term in detail. Instrumental
view of employability emerging from the understanding of majority of the
students stems from their awareness of the employers’ requirement, their
role and responsibility of being employable and being employed. It also
partly confirms that students’ approach to employability is quite restricted
to employment. However, thin evidence of seeing employability in terms
of contribution points towards broader understating. Relating their
understanding to the problems mentioned in the introduction, it can be said
that students’ perspective needs to be taken into account in dealing with
the issues. Otherwise, government’s initiative of employment generation
and skill development may not yield expected outcome.
The link was identified between students’ selection of employability and

their understanding of the phenomenon of employability. Their inclination
towards generic skills is attributed to a recruitment process and their
rationales behind selection of technical skills are the requirements to do the
task at the workplace. The importance they assigned to the skills depends
on their assumption of the industry requirement which is based on their
understanding of their perceived employability. The overtly emphasized
importance of communication is attributed to their exposure to the
professional communication course they had done in their first year at the
university. If attending a course on employability skills made them aware
of importance of developing such skills for their work life, the same can be
applied to other soft skills development. Students’ expectation from the
university offering exclusive course on employability supports the above
stated suggestive view.
Surprisingly, most of the students did not understand the meaning of

‘graduate attribute’ in the context of employability; however, they did
mention some attributes being unaware that they are called graduate
attribute. This ignorance can be a critique to the academic institution
because graduate attributes stated in the vision and mission of the institute
are for namesake. The analysis of the interview has also brought to light the
issue of students’ ignorance of the technical terms for the employability
skills or soft skills. This could be due to their less exposure to generic skills
at the university. If the students are fully aware of the skills they require,
they will be motivated to even put in extra efforts to hone their skills. This
can also be applied to their varied understanding of the terms
employability, which is quite justified as it tends to differ due to various
factors. However, the exposure at the university through formal course or
expert session can help the students to streamline their understanding and
have a common understanding of employability.
The practical ways of acquiring employability skills shows students’

awareness of the fact that skill development is not theoretical but practical,
it is something which can be acquired not by being lectured but through
learning by doing. Students approach to the construct of employability
reflects outcome-based employment where the employees have to perform/
to work (in a plant, on a machine, on project) in order to produce desired
outcome. This emerging aspect of students’ understanding has to be
considered when it comes to preparing students for such performance-
based jobs.
6. Conclusion
In summary, the common understanding emerged from students’

perception defines employability as a set of skills to gain employment.
However, the variation in their conceptual understanding may be

attributed due to the diverse background, amount of exposure related to
employability issue and the maturity level regarding career management.
The study finds a link between the understanding of employability and the
selection as well as ways of acquiring employability skills. The students
select skills as per its utility value at the workplace―generic skills and
technical skills to get the job and to do the job respectively. Locating the
problem of mismatch, low employability and unemployment cannot be
entirely due to the ignorance of the concept of employability from students’
perception. This empirical study has shown that the students by and large
are aware of the understanding of the employability construct; they are
aware of the requirement of the industry, and fairly have a rough idea
about developing the skills. Yet, the engineering graduates cannot meet
employers’ demand, nor can they get through the job interview. The
industry still faces a severe problem of low employability of their
employees. It is high time to locate the root cause.
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84 Critical Analysis of Eco-System and Sustainable Development
Chapter 8
Critical Analysis of Eco-System and
Sustainable Development
Umang C. Modi
Faculty of Law, The Maharaja Sayajirao University of Baroda,
Vadodara, India
Abstract. As the age-old proverbial saying goes, life is essentially a matter of

attitude. So, the way one reacts to his physical environment and the approach
he adopts for the solution of problem posed by it all depend upon cultural
factors. Even when some facilities for improving the physical environment of a
community are provided by an outside agency, or by its own members, under
the persuasion of someone else or due to any other reason, people utilize only
those facilities which do not in any way clash with their way of life, or at most,
impinge upon it only marginally. Those items which do not fit into their
cultural milieu would be rejected forthwith. ‘Ecology’ is study of organisms in
relation to their environment. In other words, ‘ecology’ is a subject which deals
with the study of eco-system to determine how the creatures are oragnised,
how creatures interact among themselves and how the total system functions.
In the words of U.N. Council on Environment Quality, “ecology is the science
of the intricate web of relationship between living organisms and their living
and non-living surroundings”. Ecology is regarded as a branch of biology
which deals with relations of organisms interse and their habitat and nature of
living. Ecology and Sustainable Development are key aspects in balancing
nature and man-made environment.
Keywords: Ecology, Environment, Sustainable Development

1. Introduction:
“These are times of dramatic change. But there is also sense of opportunity
and hope that a new world can be built and that our goals of social progress
and greater opportunity for all humanity can be achieved. We must
respond. We cannot go on us before. These challenges are real. They must
be addressed sooner rather than later, in all countries. We will certainly
stand a greater chance of success if we face of both Human Habitation and
Environment.” (Boutros Boutros Ghali Former Secretary General United
Nations).
2. Sustainable Development
The concept of Sustainable Development brings in the elements of transcendences.

An improvement in human wellbeing that allows us to meet the needs of the present
without compromising the ability of future generation to meet their own needs, is
called sustainable development. Human beings are at the center of concerned for
sustainable development. They are entitled to healthy and productive life in
harmony with nature.
In Karnataka Industrial Areas Development Board v. C. Kenchappa the

land was acquired for development, however, by the High Court issued
directions to authority concerned to leave one km. area from the village
limits as a free zone or green area to maintain ecological equilibrium. It was
held by the Supreme Court of India that if directions in questions are
rigorously implemented, the authority concerned could not acquire land
for development. In the view of matter, the said directions were liable to
set aside. The concept of sustainable development brings in the elements of
transcendences, in the embryonic stage although, in two forms techno-
economic and historico-exiological.
The techno-economic aspect has been highlighted by WCED in 1987 “in the
past, development assistance has not always contributed to sustainable
development and in some cases detracted from it. Lending for agriculture, forestry,
fishing and energy has usually been made on narrow economic criteria that take
little account of environmental effects. For instance, development agencies have
sometimes promoted chemical- dependent agriculture, rather than sustainable,

regenerative agriculture. It is important, therefore that there should be quantitative
life as well as a quantitative improvement.” A large portion of total
development assistance should go to investment needed to enhance the
environment and productivity of resources sectors. Such efforts include
reforestation and fuel wood development, water shed protection, soil
conservation, agro-forestry, and rehabilitation of irrigation projects, small
scale agriculture, low-cost sanitation measures and the conversion of crops
into fuel. Experience has shown that the most effective efforts of this type
are small projects with maximum grass root participation.
Here a philosophical question is involved. Grass-roots participation

meaningful in the globalization process against the backdrop of world
view, namely that, in the long run every local community is the archetype
of world community the repository of the species attributed to man homo
sociologicus; or local community vanishes. The world view links up the new
techno-economic realization with historic-axiological of re constitution of
human community.
The historical-axiological dimensions in its turn express itself in two forms:

protest movement and agenda for harmonising the structure and function
of the institutional arrangements of social living with the rhythms of nature
in its totality.
3. Eco-system
The presentation of an ecosystem outlined above deviates from traditional

approaches of structure-functionalism or systems structure reproduced
mechanically by organisms or system analysis. Ecosystem in structure -
function or super structure reproduced mechanically by organisms as
implied in ecosystem theories given by Odum. Systems approach reduces
ecological relations of ecosystem to a statistical equation. In both cases a
habitat of ecosystem is a fixed quantity lacking flexibility of mediation
space. In realist concept habitat is physical. It is an assemblage of animals
and species of plants existing in as common area and having effect on each
other, this is also called “biotic community”. According to the U.N. Council
on Environmental quality, eco-system is the interdependence of non-living
and living, that is, animals, man, plants, forest, lakes and river etc. It is true
that ecology cycles are based on mutual dependency.
The term “ecology cycles” means the continuing circle of eco-system. The
services which are rendered or designed to protect and sustain eco-systems
are called eco-system services. In other words, institutional frameworks
protecting and sustaining the earth’s life support systems are regarded as
the eco-system services. It is the conditions and processes thorough which
natural eco-system and creatures of universe are protected with a view to
sustain human life at large.
Notably, the new concept of ecosystem services was introduced by

Gretchen Dailey, According to her - “The new but important notion of eco-
system services, emphasizing the need for policy makers to develop institutional
framework to protect and sustain earth’s life support system” The importance of
eco-system services was recognized during the era of Plato – “What now
remains of the formerly rich land is like skeleton of a sick man with all the
fat and soft earth washed away and only the bare framework remaining.
Formerly, many of the mountains were once covered with forest and
produced abundant pastures now produce for bees. Once the land was
enriched by yearly rain, into sea. The soil was deep, it absorbed and kept
the water and the water that soaked into hills fed springs and running
streams everywhere plains that were full of rich soil are now marshes. Hills
that produce only food for bees.
Eco-system services relieved momentum in view of technological

advancement and overuse of pesticides made agriculturists to be cautious
as their land turning to bareness in absence of use of pesticides and human
impact on environment is noticeable and compelled the limits of
technological substitution.
It is not very easy to resurrect the degraded eco-system since the ecological
accession of species is a complex process that makes reversion to previous
stages difficult. However, the following strategies should be considered:
1. To resurrect the moisture balance: Storage of rainwater by all

suitable methods without taking recourse to large scale
construction of dams, especially in lower stretches of the river

courses where silting is a major problem.
2. To resurrect the vegetal cover: In tropical counties like India where
true forest cover is too thin, steps should be taken to reconstruct
the biosphere with the indigenous species of flora rather than
imported eucalyptus and sababul extraneous to the edaphic and
climatic conditions. The plant association and assemblages must be
studied carefully, and species should be selected strictly in
accordance with the ‘biomes’ of the region. Shade and water
conservation demand greater attention in the tropics, Monoculture
has to be avoided at all costs.
3. To resurrect the habitat: Population growth should be checked, and
an ecologically sustainable and environmentally compatible socio-
economic growth path should be adopted. An integrated
environment population-habitat development strategy should be
formulated. This would, it is hoped, in the long run help to develop
a suitable eco-system and proper habitat development.
4. Conclusion and suggestions
Harold Brockerfield has clearly brought out the nature of ‘interdependent

development.’ Unless man tries to learn from his past mistakes, he will be
forced to learn the hard way. History has the habit of repeating itself. In the
light of history of the last five millennia of human development, it is
advisable to devise a new strategy of ‘habitation development’ in true with
ecological perspective and well-defined goal of universal peace and
prosperity for the whole mankind.
It is imperative that corrective measures are taken immediately to resurrect

the eco-system. Programming of research line must contain elements of
recording, with the same precision, of the changes in the environment as
well as in the human organizations and gene pools. It is essential to develop
investigation methods in general and human ecology as well as to form
general models based on observation and pointing out the elements which
still call for research. It is imperative that corrective measures are taken
immediately to resurrect the eco-system. Programming of research line
must contain elements of recording, with the same precision, of the changes
in the environment as well as in the human organizations. It is essential to

develop investigation methods in general and human ecology as well as to
form general models based on observation and pointing out the elements
which still call for research.
It is very essential to educate people about the significance of Eco-System

and Sustainable Development around their lives and how best can they
make use of nature has given to them, as well as in sensitizing them to the
dangers involved in their behaving otherwise. But for preparing any
curriculum (not necessarily in the strict academic sense of the term) or
deciding the contents of the educative process and its mode, we must first
understand culture of the community for which it is being evolved.
References
Karnataka Industrial Areas Development Board v. C. Kenchappa. A.I.R. 2006 S.C.2038.

Shayam Divan and Armain Rosencranz, Environmental Law and Policy of India, 2nd
Edn. P20.
Tripathi, S.C. Environmental Law,7th Ed Central Law Publications (2019)
WCED (World Commission on Environment and Development), (1987), our common
heritage, New Delhi: Oxford University Press.
Chapter 9
Right Livelihood for Sustainable Mountains:
A Conceptual Framework
Sachin Kumar
Department of Geography, Government Degree College,
Shahpur, Kangra, India
Abstract. Right to livelihoods is being advocated for the teeming millions the
world over because it is fundamental for human existence and it is inextricably
linked to the realization of three core developmental goals, namely, economic
prosperity, social equality, and environmental sustainability. It is also evident
that the right to livelihoods cannot be ensured if the livelihood being promoted
is not the right livelihood. Right livelihood needs to be qualified by a set of
adjectives in order to ensure its appropriateness, adequacy, and relevance. It
can be argued that the sustainable livelihood framework does include all the
necessary elements which can make a livelihood “right”. But it is not so. This
paper argues that any conceptualization of right livelihoods must satisfy at
least four criteria: it should have place sensitivity, people centricity, policy
priority as well as climate change vulnerability consciousness. The paper
further posits that mountains deserve a specific framework for promoting right
livelihood due to the specificities they possess in terms of fragility, marginality,
accessibility, diversity, comparative advantages, and human adaptation
strategies. The geologic, biophysical, and socio-cultural characteristics they
possess, have distinctive implications for development practice including
livelihood promotion. In the light of this assertion, this conceptual paper
reviews relevant extant literature and proposes an integrative framework for
the right livelihoods for mountains. It begins by articulating the idea of right
livelihoods; proposes and describes key principles for right livelihoods;
presents the rationale for and objective and methodology of developing a
framework; and finally, explains key constructs integrating associated
literature in order to guide future research in and practice of livelihood
promotion in the mountain context.
Keywords: Climate Change, Livelihoods, Mountain Development, Right

Livelihoods, Sustainability
92 Right Livelihood for Sustainable Mountains
1. Livelihood, sustainable development and mountains: an

introduction
Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) have been organized under five

themes, namely people, planet, prosperity, peace, and partnership [1].
Interestingly, the issue of livelihood seems to be inextricably linked to each
of the goals directly or indirectly as the promotion of sustainable
livelihoods promises to ensure Prosperity and Peace for the People,
simultaneously taking care of the Planet through Partnership. The
promotion of quality livelihoods promises to address at least three core
developmental challenges, namely economic poverty, social inequality,
and environmental non-sustainability. However, despite huge investments
and genuine intentions, the livelihoods of a large number of people across
the world including India, are not yet stable. Further, recent times have
witnessed multiple stressors that interact and reinforce each other to affect
livelihood opportunities. At the macro-level, these stressors could include
climate change, globalization, and technological change while at the
regional, national, and local levels it could include institutional contexts
and public policies [2]. Perhaps that is why livelihood promotion has
assumed unprecedented primacy in the contemporary developmental
discourse.
Mountains cover 24% of the land area, are home to 12% of the world
population providing at least four types of services, namely: provisioning
services (freshwater, fresh air, timber, food, renewable energy supply);
regulating services (climate, water, air, erosion, and natural hazard
regulation, carbon sequestration), cultural services (recreation, tourism,
aesthetic value, cultural and spiritual heritage); and supporting services—
ecosystem functions, including energy and material flow, such as primary
production, water and nutrient cycling, soil accumulation, and provision
of habitats [3]. But accelerated anthropogenic interventions coupled with
global macro processes such as climate change and globalization in
mountains have not just adversely affected the effectiveness of these eco-
system services, livelihoods of mountain communities too have got
severely jeopardized. To illustrate, in the context of Himalayas, poverty
incidence is one-third compared to one-fourth for the national average.
This situation calls for mountain-specific poverty reduction programme
that will be able to ensure sustainable livelihoods for economically, socially

and politically marginalized people including millions of indigenous
people living at remote inaccessible locations, depending on natural
resources, amidst rigid socioeconomic inequities, conflicts, gender
inequities and caste/ethnicity-based discrimination [4].
2. Right livelihoods
2.1 Rationale
There is a constitutional obligation for ensuring livelihoods for the citizens

of India. Article 39 (a) of The Constitution of India states that the state “
shall, in particular, direct its policy towards securing … that the citizens,
men and women equally, have the right to an adequate means to
livelihood”. Further, the Bombay High Court held that the right to life, in
Article 21 of the Constitution, encompassed means of livelihood [5]. The
right to livelihood cannot be excluded from the content of the right to life.
But right to livelihoods cannot be ensured if the livelihood being promoted
is not the right livelihood. This consciousness among academicians and
policymakers have given rise to terms like: ‘decent jobs,’ ‘gainful
employment’, ‘secure livelihoods’ and ‘sustainable livelihoods’. The
obvious corollary of these articulations would be; a number of people are
not in decent jobs, they are not gainfully employed, the livelihood options
they are pursuing are neither secure nor sustainable. ILO has identified 7
types of socio-economic securities every worker must have for a decent and
dignified living [6]. These are: labour market security, employment
protection security, job security, skills security, work security,
representation security and income security. A cursory glance of state of
livelihood informs that these securities are not universally available to the
people. On the other hand, all types of livelihood interventions may not be
sensitive to environment. On the contrary, insensitive livelihood policies
and practices have been found as one of the core reasons behind growing
environmental degradation. Therefore, it can be concluded that any
livelihood is not desirable. Livelihood needs to be qualified by a set of
adjectives in order to ensure its appropriateness, adequacy and relevance.
Some may argue that the sustainable livelihood framework as articulated
by Chambers and Conway [7] is comprehensive enough and it does include

all the necessary elements which can make a livelihood “right”. But as
explained in geographic as well as sustainability literature, it is not so [8].
An unlimited number of adjectives can be proposed in a context in which

one is free to look at it from a number of ideological and location-specific
vantage points. However, based on the extant literature, the present paper
argues that any conceptualization of right livelihoods must satisfy at least
four criteria: it should have place sensitivity, people centricity, policy
priority as well as climate change vulnerability consciousness. The idea of
sustainable livelihood is known for its people-centricity. Habitat-sensitive
development models address place-specificities. Scaling up livelihood
initiatives remains a key policy priority. At the same time, a discourse
around climate-resilient development models and systems puts the
spotlight on vulnerability consciousness. The following section lists and
explains these principles for right livelihoods.
2.2. Key Principles
Right livelihoods should be sustainable.
In earlier formulation of livelihood promotion strategies, institutions, and

processes formed the centre of initiatives, but sustainable livelihood
approaches (SLAs) are known to have an unequivocal emphasis on people,
their assets, and their ability to cope with the shocks. Livelihoods are
sustainable when they are resilient in the face of external shocks and
stresses; are not dependent upon external support (or if they are, this
support itself should be economically and institutionally sustainable);
maintain the long-term productivity of natural resources; and do not
undermine the livelihoods of, or compromise the livelihood options
available to others [7]. Since the poor are vulnerable to risks and shocks,
they attempt to choose a livelihood strategy that not only maximizes
returns but also helps manage uncertainty. Sustainable livelihoods
frameworks are known to be people centred; responsive and participatory,
integrating rights-based approach [9].
Right livelihoods should factor in place specificities.
Theories and frameworks that are space-neutral and focus overly on people
have also been criticized because the place does matter in every sense
specifically in the development context [10]. Hence it is important to bring
habitat into focus. Keeping the objective of this paper in perspective,
bringing mountain specificities in a framework ensures the adoption of a
place-based approach. Mountains do not just deserve attention due to their
areal extent or benefits we derive or the number of people that depend on
them, we need to treat them separately because of the geologic, biophysical,
and socio-cultural characteristics they possess because these characteristics
have distinctive implications for development discourse and development
practice as well [11]. Defining characteristics of mountains that make them
unique operationally in comparison with other habitats are known as
mountain specificities [12. 13]. These include inaccessibility, marginality,
fragility, diversity/heterogeneity, niche/comparative advantage, and human
adaptation. The first three are considered constraining factors while the
remaining three are considered enabling ones. Livelihoods, which sit at the
intersection of ecology, culture, society, and economy, become an outcome
of the combined impact engendered by these specificities in the context of
mountains. Hence it is important to factor those in any exercise of
framework development.
Right livelihoods should be scalable.
In the academic literature of livelihoods, recent critiques point out the lack
of scale thinking in the discourse on sustainable livelihoods [14, 15]. In its
most conventional sense, scaling up means codification of a demonstrably
successful solution and its subsequent transference to other areas and
target groups in order to achieve greater impact. However, it is not just the
discourse imperative that provides a rationale for scaling up livelihood
initiatives, this is being largely pushed by the state, bilateral agencies,
multilateral agencies, donors and grant-making bodies, and community-
based organizations who want to maximize the impact of their intervention
and want to scale up their initiatives being spearheaded and supported by
them. They can see that ‘small may be beautiful', but they are grossly
insufficient and hence if an initiative cannot be scaled up they do not want

to consider it for implementation. On a more practical level, a livelihood
intervention needs to be scaled up just to avail economies of scale. Scaling
up is also being seen as a way to give voice and visibility to the community.
Small successes are not even noticed. Bigger successes affecting quite a few
individuals /households will generate more clout for advocacy for other
rights of the community [16].
Right livelihood should be climate change-resiliant.
Climate change and variability is known to affect livelihoods at all the

scales: global [2, 17], regional [ 18,19], national [20], provincial [21] as well
as local [22]. At the same time adverse effects on livelihoods are more
pronounced for communities who depend on natural resources for their
livelihoods because these communities have maximum risk and exposure
and minimum resilience and adaptability [23,24]. These people include: the
small and subsistence farmers, rural people, socially disadvantaged
groups, indigenous people; mountain people [22]. In the context of
mountains, climate change and variability assume more significance where
the consequences are likely to be more severe for biodiversity, ecosystem
services and human well-being [19, 25-28]. One way to minimize
vulnerability is to increase resilience. Livelihoods, seen as a system, need
to be resilient in the face of adaptation to climate change and related
phenomena. A resilient livelihood system should be able to: retain its
productivity in a changing vulnerability context; ensure people’s access to
livelihood strategies that allow them to survive changes; and enable
institutions to have the ability, capacity, and willingness to respond to a
changing vulnerability scenario [29]. While vulnerabilities have been
factored in sustainable livelihood approaches, but given the unprecedented
way in which climate change is making livelihoods vulnerable. promotion
of climate change resilient livelihoods must gain primacy.
3. Framework for right mountain livelihood
3.1 Rationale and objective
The dictionary defines a framework as a basic structure underlying a

system, concept, or text. In the context of research, a framework brings
together a set of theories or concepts in order to provide a broader
understanding, explanation or prediction of an event, or a phenomenon
[30]. It typically refers to a structure that serves as a guide: for fine tuning
research questions, selecting appropriate study variables, and making
decisions about tools, methods and plan of analysis [31]. In the context of
livelihood promotion too, frameworks are needed to understand the
contexts, resources, pathways, outcomes, and vulnerabilities of livelihood
systems. Such a framework is likely to assist in designing and executing
appropriate livelihood promotion strategy too. This paper aims to develop
a conceptual framework to understand and plan for scalable, climate
change-resilient, sustainable mountain livelihoods which integrates
associated literature in order to guide future research and practice.
3.2 Methodology
Following steps were taken in order to develop this framework:
a. A detailed critical review of extant frameworks and models on a series

of related themes was conducted.
b. Following themes and frameworks could be identified: sustainable

livelihood frameworks [ 7,32-35]; scaling up framework [36-44]; scaling
up a framework for green livelihoods [45]; Climate change-resilience
and vulnerability framework [46,47]; Mountain specificity framework
[12, 13]; and Sustainable Mountain Livelihood Framework [48].
c. These frameworks offer a number of ideas and labels. Using an eclectic

approach as per the objective of this work, the most relevant ideas were
selected.
d. Most of these frameworks, especially those pertaining to sustainable

livelihoods have been criticized by scholars for missing out on few
essential aspects. For example, its insufficient emphasis on spatial and
temporal aspects has attracted criticism [49]. The proposed framework
attempted to address these lacunas as well.
3.3 The framework
Visually speaking, the framework has two broad parts: the upper part
covers sustainability related aspects while the lower part sums up aspects
pertaining to sustainability. This framework posits that a number of
contextual variables interact with vulnerabilities and resilience capacities
according to various constraining and facilitating mountain specificities,
which, in turn, make individuals/households/communities, adopt
livelihood strategy/strategies which ultimately results in the realization of
a number of sustainability outcomes. The second part of the framework
posits that design and management enablers will help scale up the
initiative. Scale-up efforts can take four possible organizational pathways-
expansion, replication, collaboration and spontaneous diffusion. All these
efforts are posited to lead to a set of scalability outcomes such as an increase
in the number of people impacted, expansion of initiative in a larger area,
the addition of a number of other functions/activities and impact on sector–
specific policies.
Fig. 1. A Framework for Right Mountain Livelihood
Context
Context includes a set of assets/resources, formal and informal institutions,

and conditions of a particular livelihood sector, demographics, and
psychographics of the community. Assets are important aspects of context
that determine livelihood strategies, trajectories, and pathways. These are
not limited only to material assets like cash or land or livestock, but also
include skills, social networks and natural infrastructure. These assets are
available in the form of: natural capital (e.g., soil, water, genetic resources);
financial capital (cash, savings, production tools, and infrastructure),
human capital (e.g., kills, knowledge, physical wellbeing); social capital
(e.g., social networks, affiliations, and associations); political capital (e.g.,
level of political consciousness, the extent of political networks), and
cultural capital (e.g., cultural norms, customs, traditions, knowledge, skills,
inherited values maintained and transmitted across generations). These
assets determine livelihood choices that are made within institutional
contexts defined by macro mechanisms such as state policies as well as local
institutions such as caste structures and cooperative frameworks. These
institutions can be formal as well as informal. Conditions of the livelihood
sector too form a critical aspect of the context. For example, the forestry
sector plays out differently when one compares it with the tourism sector.
Demographics of community in terms of sex ratio, age structure, literacy
rate and work profile assume significance in determining proposal for
creating a livelihood portfolio. Psychographics include the inner realities
aspect of the livelihood system which includes vision, aspirations,
attachments, memories, emotions, compassion and similar aspects of
individuals, families, and communities.
Vulnerability and resilience
IPCC framework defines vulnerability as “a function of the character,

magnitude, and rate of climate variation to which a system is exposed, its
sensitivity, and its adaptive capacity” [17]. Within this definition, exposure
is defined as “the nature and degree to which a system is exposed to
significant climatic variations;” sensitivity is defined as “the degree to which
a system is affected, either adversely or beneficially, by climate-related
stimuli;” and adaptive capacity is defined as “the ability of a system to adjust
to climate change (including climate variability and extremes), to moderate
potential damages, to take advantage of opportunities, or to cope with the
consequences” [17]. Within this framework, overall vulnerability is seen as
a result of the interplay of both the climate change-related as well as non-
climatic factors—environmental, economic, social, demographic,
technological, and political. Resilience is just the other side of vulnerability
coin having an inverse relationship. Resilience has been understood as
the capacity of a system to “cope with a hazardous event or trend or
disturbance, responding or reorganizing in ways that maintain their
essential function, identity, and structure, while also maintaining the
capacity for adaptation, learning, and transformation’ [17] .
Mountain attributes
As mentioned in Section 2.2 of this paper, mountains possess a number of

unique characteristics that have been termed as mountain specificities
[12,13]. In this framework, these have been listed under mountain
attributes which include Accessibility, Fragility, Marginality, Diversity, Niche,
Human Adaptation. First three relates to the sensitivity aspect of climate

change vulnerability while remaining three determine adaptive capacity.
Limited accessibility in mountains is often an outcome of slope conditions,
altitude, terrain conditions, seasonal hazards, and many a time, lack of
prior investment to overcome these factors. This results in the limited
availability of infrastructural logistics, support systems, and
production/exchange activities. Altitude and slope, coupled with geologic,
edaphic and biotic factors limit the capacity of mountains to withstand
even a slight degree of disturbance. This is known as fragility. It can be
understood as the diminished capacity of a social or ecological system to
buffer shocks. Marginality is a state of not being in the mainstream. This
may apply to physical and biological conditions or resources or to people
and their systems of sustenance. As a consequence of interactions among
different factors ranging from elevation and altitude to geologic and
edaphic conditions, as well as biological and human adaptations to these
conditions, diversity/heterogeneity becomes a key mountain characteristic.
This specificity becomes a basis for spatially and temporally diversified and
interlinked activities and it induces strong location specificity of
production and consumption activities. Due to specific environmental and
resource-based features, mountains provide a niche for specific products,
services and activities and as such ensure comparative advantage over
other habitats such as plains. These unique products/activities include
hydropower production, tourism, horticulture, timber, medicinal herbs,
indigenous knowledge systems. Mountains, even at a micro-scale, offer a
mix of constraints and opportunities, ultimately becoming unique
landforms with an array of Human Adaptation mechanisms developed over
generations. People either modify the specificity (e.g., terrace farming) or
capitalize over specific characteristics (e.g., cultivation of climate and slope-
specific crop).
Livelihood strategies
This framework includes five possible livelihood strategies, namely

intensification, extensification, diversification, migration and resource
transfer/ changes in property ownership (e.g., sharecropping, land rent).
When a household brings new areas not used earlier for cultivation, it is
known as Extensification. In case good quality land is not available,

cultivation is extended to areas where yields may be low. Where all
cultivable land is already under cultivation, further extensification is not
possible. In these circumstances, Intensification is adopted which means
efforts are made to increase output per unit area per unit of time.
Intensification may be attempted, as summarized by Malmberg and
Tegunu [50] using following strategies: input intensity (addition of soil
amendments, chemicals, water through irrigation, and labor), frequency of
cultivation (multiple harvests on a single plot), change in crops (cultivating
high-yield crops), capital investment (canals, dams, terraces) and use of
different techniques/technology (crop rotation, multiple cropping,
intercropping, machines). Diversification means creating a portfolio of
livelihood activities and income sources. It generally means a shift away
from the farm to non-farm activities. Migration has been a key survival
strategy in resource-deficient regions. It could be in the form of seasonal
migration for wage employment in nearby regions or it may involve long-
distance migration as well. Resource transfer/ changes in property
ownership may happen in the form of sharecropping or land rent.
Sustainability outcomes
It is expected that livelihoods which are sensitive to context mediated

mountain specificities are likely to yield a number of sustainability
outcomes. These outcomes include enhanced income due to better
wages/revenues, a greater number of working days, ultimately leading to
poverty reduction; valuing and maintenance of natural and cultural
resources, improved capabilities and wellbeing; and improved resilience in
face of climate change and variability.
Scale-up enablers
The framework articulates two types of enablers for scaling up a livelihood

initiative: design enablers as well as management enablers. Design enablers
capture the ability of the leader/s to develop, communicate and realize a
vision. The leader/s should be able to understand contextual factors listed
above and use that understanding to safeguard against negative
externalities and leverage facilitating contextual determinants in their

favour. The team should be able to manage information, processes, and
stakeholders/actors. Management enablers include skills and expertise
(traditional/indigenous as well as technical), operational and capital
expenditure (opex, capex); marketing (reach, delivery, pricing, publicity),
and technology (domain-specific as well ICT based). This framework
believes that in the coming years use of digital technologies such as big data
analytics and artificial intelligence is going to be a game-changer in the
livelihood sector.
Scale-up pathways
Scale-up efforts can take four possible organizational pathways- expansion,

replication, collaboration, and spontaneous diffusion. In expansion, a model
livelihood initiative is scaled up by increasing the scope of operations of
the organization that originally piloted it. It can happen through: branching
out into new locations or target groups; by decentralization or
restructuring; through franchising of the model to organizations operating
as agents or clones of the originating organization; and by spinning off
aspects or parts of the originating organization to operate independently.
Replication involves the increased use of a model by the government or
other agencies. In a typical case, an NGO or community group or a private
entity runs a pilot, and the government adopts a policy to scale up the same.
In another case, replication is done through grafting, where a model––or
one component of a model––is incorporated into another organization’s
scope of an array of services or methods of service delivery. Collaboration
takes place through formal partnerships and informal networks. Diffusion
includes informal and more deliberate dissemination efforts. Spontaneous
diffusion typically bypasses the organization through social media,
knowledge networks, and communities of practice.
Scalability outcomes
Key outcomes of any scaling up initiative include: catering to more needs

of the same people; bringing the benefits to more people and communities
in the same area; expansion on activities in other geographies; increase in
the types of activities and integration with other programs; providing

additional services to current beneficiaries; extending to new categories of
beneficiaries; expansion through efforts to influence the political process
and work with other stakeholder groups, especially state and lobby groups
in order to effect policy changes.
Recursiveness and temporality
The sub-systems shown under context and mountain attributes in the

model are seen as open systems. The boxes under the column are shown
with broken lines representing permeability of the boundaries of these
subsystems which are subject to influence from outside and may also
influence that which is beyond its boundaries. This is recursiveness in the
framework. This framework also attempts to factor in the temporal
dimension shown at the bottom by a line that captures changes over time.
The present, past, and future are linked where presents depend on the past,
future depends on both the present and the future.
4. Concluding thoughts
Mountains are fragile ecosystems that demand a development agenda

which factors in their unique specificities. Livelihoods are key drivers for
any people-centric developmental agenda. The present paper is a modest
attempt to propose a framework for a right livelihood for the context of
mountains. A framework can be used as an analytical tool, a development
objective and a policy decision-making approach as well. The proposed
framework for right livelihoods for mountains is in its rudimentary stage
only and it can best be used as an analytical device for now. It is likely to
help understand a complex reality in comparatively more holistic manner.
Its usefulness perhaps rests on its ability to disaggregate complex socio-
economic-cultural-environmental-institutional interactions that characterize
livelihoods in mountain context. There is no denying that this framework
must have left out a number of possibly important elements. Those,
however, can be included when the framework is modified.
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Part Four
SKILLS FOR AN EMPOWERED WORLD
Chapter 10
Religious Regimes in the Pandemic:
An Analysis of Hybrid Modes of Ritual
Practices among the Syrian Christian
Communities of Kerala
Chithira James1 and Kavya P. G2
Abstract. History of wars, pandemics and famines suggests that such incidents
that shook the social and political stability of the world did not leave religious
institutions unperturbed. Such adverse times have witnessed the expansion of
new religious systems or a revival of the already existing ones. The pandemic-
led lockdown, the need for social distancing and governmental restrictions on
social gatherings have affected the practice of religion in many ways. Although
the positive role of religion in enhancing mental health is widely studied and
acknowledged, the impact of COVID-19 pandemic on religion requires special
attention in that it has changed the ways in which religion was traditionally
practiced and performed. The paper attempts to study the change in faith
perceptions among the Syrian Christian communities in Kerala during the time
of COVID-19 pandemic. The study is based on the results of an online survey
conducted in September 2021- a time when the state’s new caseload was on an
average 20,000 per day and concerns regarding a possible third wave were on
rise. Various denominations of the Syrian Christian community such as the
Knanaya Christians, Jacobites, Marthomites and Syrian Catholic are considered
for the study as these religious groups claim strong adherence to the practice
and performance of rituals. The data collected through the survey suggest that
despite the advent of virtual spaces of religious practices, there is a
considerable decrease in people’s practice of religion. Responses from female
participants suggest that women lack the prerogative to participate in these
1
Department of Management Studies, National Institute of Technology, Calicut, India,
2
Department of Humanities and Social Sciences, Indian Institute of Technology,
Palakkad, India
112 Religious Regimes in the Pandemic
virtual modes of worship as most of the female participants pointed that time
constraints restricted them from participating in religious practices at home.
Keywords: Religion, Virtual Spaces, Performance, Christianity
1. Introduction
1.1 Religion and performance
Religion is very often assumed as a potential mechanism that operates on

the cognitive and emotional plains of individuals which gets reflected in
the form of their beliefs, morals, attitudes and internalized values.
Nevertheless, religion and religiosity are also constituted through bodily
practices and rituals. The engagement of body and the ritual ceremonies
together construct the religious identity of an individual. Thus body, along
with the senses, becomes highly instrumental in “doing a religion”
(Avishai). Avishai takes up the performance theory propounded by Judith
Butler in her text Gender Trouble (1990) to argue that ‘doing religion’ is “a
mode of conduct and being, a performance of identity- not only a
purposeful and strategic action” (Avishai, 413). It is a process of becoming
a subject although the subject is often informed about this process whereas
“doing gender” is an unconscious performance of the oppressive norms of
gender roles (Avishai, 413). So, religion reinstates its existence and retains
the faith communities through a sanctity ascribed to the ritualistic
performances and spaces of worship.
Christianity can be identified as a faith tradition that is deeply rooted in

materiality and embodiment. It perceives the clergymen as God’s
incarnates and places them in high reverence. Floberg writes, “As God’s
Son came into the world, so God’s spirit continues that embodiment
through Church, Gods people. That while Jesus spoke of himself as God
incarnate, the Apostle Paul also speaks of the members of the church being
the temple of God’s spirit- not individually comprehensive, but as a body”
(17). In the Holy Communion in churches, the sacramental bread and wine
is believed to change into the body and blood of Jesus Christ and is served
to the attendees. The relics, pieces of saints where a part or parts
represented the whole, are also much treasured in the religious discourses
of Christianity. These small material objects are recognized as points of

convergence between the divine and the human (Smith, 144). Impartation
of blessings through physical touch and conferring sanctity to material
objects and spaces are central to the performance of Christianity. The
religious identity of a potential participant of these religious rituals is not
entirely devised through the operations of mind but also though the
engagement of senses- through tasting, smelling, seeing and hearing.
Therefore, “doing religion” is not confined to the mental and emotional
processes, but demands the engagement of the whole body and the senses.
COVID-19 pandemic has widely challenged the materiality and

embodiment practices of Christianity. In the time of pandemic, the bodily
engagements in the ritualistic ceremonies became quite difficult owing to
the lockdown and social distancing practices. It is no longer possible to
invoke the body and senses by attending church services, setting out for a
pilgrimage, smelling incense, listening to church rhymes and tasting the
wafer (Huygens, 6). In order to deal with the instability in the changed
circumstances, the religious services have been shifted to online/virtual
platforms very quickly. With churches and similar physical spaces of
worship being closed and religious activities that involved social
gatherings cancelled, the devotees also had to find new spaces to profess
their faith. The various online initiatives taken up by the churches include
internet-mediated prayer communions, rites, retreats and sermons.
As in many other parts of the world, COVID-19 pandemic and the

subsequent requirement for social distancing have affected religious rituals
and practices in India. From spaces that were deemed sacred many
ritualistic practices shifted to the private spaces of home thereby
compromising on the mass participation. In many cases a shift into online
platforms of worship has subverted the notion of pollution/purity
associated with people and places of worship and has to some extent
ensured gender and caste inclusivity. Such rapid shift into online platforms
and the rise in televangelism can be said to have a destabilizing effect on
the monopoly of religious institutions and public spaces of worship. But a
closer observation of these pandemic-led hybrid modes of worship
suggests that these are not egalitarian spaces as they seem to be. As with
the case of online learning, virtual platforms of worship heighten the
disparity in the distribution of resources, specifically technological access.

Provided access to these resources, whether women have the prerogative
to participate in these virtual modes of worship too demands attention.
With the help of data collected from online survey, the paper attempts to
analyse the ways in which perceptions about religious rituals have changed
during the time of pandemic. Factors that inhibit majority of the Syrian
Christian communities from taking part in virtual forms of worship will
also be analysed.
2. Methodology
2.1 Research design
The research implemented survey method. A structured questionnaire was

issued online to adults belonging to any of the Christian religious
communities in Kerala. The survey was conducted from 10th to 17th of
September 2021. The questionnaire was designed through a google form
and was shared through various social media platforms. There were 169
respondents, and the sample was taken randomly to ensure unbiasedness.
Out of the 169 respondents, 138 belonged to any of the Syrian Christian
denominations. The focus group of the study is the Syrian Christian
community in Kerala who constitutes a socially privileged group and forms
a sizable part of the Christians in Kerala. The fact that, unlike in the west
virtual forms of worship and televangelism are not popular among the
Christian communities in Kerala, demands a study of the perception of
these religious groups on the changing patterns of worship.
Apart from the questions to understand the personal attributes of

participants like age and gender, around 13 questions were formulated to
perceive the changing faith perceptions among the participants during the
COVID-19 pandemic. The questionnaire primarily targeted practicing
Christians in various denominations of Syrian Christian community. There
were questions to assess the magnitude of religious faith of the participants
before and after the pandemic. Certain questions intended to receive
participants’ response to the hybrid modes of worship like the live
streaming of Holy mass and other sacraments. It was also important to
incorporate questions that would check whether the participants are

already exposed to virtual spaces of worship, even before the pandemic. A
few questions were included to assess how frequently the participants
visited the physical spaces of worship and participated in the religious
rituals before and after COVID-19 pandemic. The questionnaire attempted
to comprehend the general response of the practicing Christians of the
Syrian Christian community in Kerala to the change in the traditional ways
in which religion was practices and performed.
2.2 Data analysis
The survey was conducted to investigate how the COVID-19 pandemic

affected the religious lifestyles and practices of the Syrian Christian
communities in Kerala. The questionnaire was devised in such a way as to
understand how the newly emerged hybrid platforms of religious worship
were welcomed among the faith communities. Since the Syrian Christian
community in Kerala had relocated its spaces of worship to online/virtual
platforms in the initial stages of the pandemic itself, the survey was
conducted among the members of the Syrian Christian community.
60% of the participants of the survey were females and 37.9% were males.
About 63% of the interviewees come under the Syro-Malabar church, a
Major Archiepiscopal Church based in Kerala. The percentage of
participants belonging to other religious denominations are: 8.9% (CSI),
5.9% (Syrian Orthodox), 5.9% (Latin Catholic), 4.7% (Malankara), 3.6%
(Jacobite), 1.8% (Syrian Marthomite), 1.8% (Roman Catholic) and 4.2%
(other). Among the participants, 57.4% (definitely) and 33.1% (very
probably) are practicing Christians (those who routinely attend church
services and rituals) and this statistic increases the validity and reliability
of the survey. To the question “How do you assess your practice of
religious rituals during the time of pandemic”, 34.3% maintained the view
that “though the pandemic has strengthened my religious faith, I am not
interested in/ I don’t trust virtual spaces of worship”. 32% of the
respondents chose to say that the pandemic didn’t have any impact on their
religious faith. For the same question 16% of the participants answered that
“though the pandemic has strengthened my religious faith, being at home,
I don’t get sufficient time to spend on religious practices”. 48.6% of the

participants disagreed with the statement that “sustaining the virtual
spaces of religious practice is a welcoming change in the post-COVID-19
world, even when there is no requirement for social distancing.” (see Fig.
1). For the question “Are you happy with the live streaming of Holy mass
and other sacraments?” 18.9% of respondents marked “unhappy” and 8.3%
marked “very unhappy”. With regard to the question “How helpful were
the virtual spaces of worship during the pandemic period”, most of the
participants responded affirmatively: 40.8% (helpful), 12.4% (very helpful),
29.6% (not so helpful) and 9.5% (not helpful at all).
Fig. 1 Participant’s response e to the statement “sustaining the virtual spaces of religious
practice is a welcoming change in the post-COVID world, even when there is no requirement
for social distancing.”
2.3 Results
The survey indicates a clear decline in the participation of members in the

religious rituals owing to the relocation of the spaces of worship to the
online/virtual spaces. Almost all of the participants who pointed out the
time constraints were females. This is anticipated as many studies have
shown that the pandemic-led lockdown and work-from-home have
affected the quality of profession and leisure time of women owing to the
greater amount of time that women allocated for unpaid domestic chores
(Power, 67). While 65.5% of the interviewees used to visit religious spaces
of worship weekly before the pandemic, after the pandemic it dropped to
27.8%. Similarly, 12.4% of the participants who used to visit the physical
spaces of worship on a daily basis before the pandemic was reduced to
4.1%. 34.9% of the participants haven’t attended any of the religious rituals
or social prayer meetings through the virtual platforms after the outbreak
of the pandemic. The statistics reveals that the shift in the spaces of worship
during the pandemic times has adversely affected the participation of
people in the ritualistic practices: 39.6% (very likely) and 39.1% (somewhat
likely). To the statement, "Sustaining the virtual spaces of religious practice
is a welcoming change in the post- COVID-19 world even when there is no
requirement for social distancing", 30% of the participants disagreed and
17.8% strongly disagreed. Among the participants, 20.7% agreed and 8.9%
strongly agreed to the same statement. A significant number of participants
seemed worried about the change in the traditional ways in which religion
is practiced and performed: 40.8% (somewhat worried) and 12.4% (worried
to a great extent) (see Fig. 2).
Fig. 2. Participants’ response to the question “Are you worried about the changes in
traditional ways in which religion was practiced and performed?”
3. Conclusion
Televangelism and online spaces of worship were not prevalent among

Christian religious sects in Kerala in the pre-pandemic times. Impartation
of blessings through physical touch and conferring sanctity to concrete
objects and spaces are fundamental to the performance of Christianity. The
pandemic-led lockdown and need for social distancing has led to a wider
recognition of alternate (virtual) spaces of worship. Online holy masses and
live streaming of various sacraments challenge the notion of sanctity
associated with religious spaces of worship. While technologizing religious
spaces, the evolution of such virtual spaces as parallel spaces of worship
points at a shift towards hybridization of religious spaces of worship in the
future.
Data collected through online survey suggest that despite the advent of
virtual spaces of religious practices, there is a considerable decrease in
people’s practice of religion. Responses from female participants suggest
that women lack the prerogative to participate in these virtual modes of
worship as most of the female participants pointed that time constraints
restricted them from participating in religious practices at home. A large
number of participants expressed intolerance towards the changing modes
of ritual practices.
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120 Blended Learning: AMeans of Adapting to the New Normal
Chapter 11
Blended Learning: A Means of Adapting to
the New Normal
Kavya Rayala1 and Dr. Madhavi Kesari2
Abstract. COVID-19 pandemic has led to a phenomenal transformation of the

world, creating a new normal where change and adaptability are the only
constants. In its 2030 agenda, connected to sustainable development, The
International Commission on the Future of Education, established by UNESCO
(2019), reveals that one cannot return to the world as it was before and suggests
an action plan for educators to navigate through the pandemic crisis and its
aftermath. In academia, while the traditional ways of teaching- learning
became almost impossible and impractical, other modes of learning like online/
digital learning gained popularity. However, this unprecedented shift to online
and remote learning has a major impact on the psychology and health of the
students and teachers. These psychological factors presumably arise from
physical barriers related to poor internet connectivity, lack of appropriate
gadgets, that facilitate online teaching- learning, increased exposure to the
screen, uncertainty pertaining to exams and academics in general.
Additionally, research suggests increased stress and anxiety levels rise
drastically in college students due to COVID-19 pandemic. Hence, this paper
examines the psychological factors that impede learning capabilities of
students using tools such as questionnaires and focus group interviews. In
addition to identifying the effect of psychological factors, the paper also
attempts to explore ways in which blended mode of learning could be
creatively adapted to enhance learning strategies and foster resilience among
students.
Key words: Psychological Factors, Blended Learning, Innovation, Resilience
1
Research Scholar, Dept of Humanities and Social Sciences, National Institute of
Technology (NIT), Warangal, India
2
Head & Associate Professor, Dept of Humanities and Social Sciences, National Institute
of Technology (NIT), Warangal, India
1. Introduction
With the onset of unanticipated COVID-19 pandemic, many higher

education institutions and schools have moved to emergency remote
teaching (ERT) through online platforms and this unprecedented shift to
online and remote learning has had a major impact on the psychology and
health of students and teachers. Several studies have explored the
psychological, social and neuro-scientific effects of COVID-19 pandemic
from the perspective of mental health. The present study is divided into
two parts. The 1st part of the paper deals with anxiety and stress
experienced by learners or students, who are between 20- 24 years, young
adults in their higher education, in an online teaching- learning
environment. Further, it tries to understand if students are aware of their
anxiety and stress level and its subsequent effect on mental health and
learning capabilities. The second part of the paper explores the ways in
which blended learning can be innovatively designed in fostering resilience
among learners.
1.1 Research questions
• To what extent do psychological factors like stress and anxiety

impede learning capabilities of students?
• What causes these psychological factors in an online learning
environment?
• How can resilience be incorporated into teaching- learning
process?
Emily A. Holmes et al. [1] in paper titled “Multidisciplinary research

priorities for the COVID-19 pandemic: a call for action for mental health
science” emphasizes the immediate need for collectively high- quality data
on the effects of COVID-19 on mental health, brain functions and cognition
from the lived experience of people in order to mitigate strategies to handle
the long-term effects of pandemic. Matthew Hotopf et al. [2] stresses that
children and young people are vulnerable groups prone to adverse effects
of pandemic due to “prolonged period of school and university closure and

uncertainty about exams.” (541) A study by Pinaki Chakraborty et al. [3] on
the opinion of students on online education shows that majority of the
students believe that learning takes place better in physical classrooms than
online. Further, students felt that online education affected their health as
they developed insomnia due to excessive screen-time and stress.
Sheela Sundarasen et.al [4] in a study on the psychological impact of

COVID-19 and lockdown among university students in Malaysia reiterates
that stressors were predominantly financial crisis, remote online learning
and uncertainty regarding academics and career (9). Similar empirical
research conducted in Bangladesh by Md. Jamal Hossain et al. [5] revealed
that 60% of university students showed extreme fear of academic delay
(FAD) and stress. Also, unforeseen disruptions in academia, sudden shift
to e- learning and assessment, technophobia and lack of proper internet
access were seen as major contributors of FAD and stress among students.
Mirna Fawaz et al. [6] in a cross-sectional quantitative research look at the
implications of online learning on Lebanese undergraduate university
students. This online survey uses the depression, anxiety and stress scale-
21 (DASS-21) questionnaire and the findings have shown that majority of
the students did not explicitly show any psychological symptoms yet had
moderate levels of depression and anxiety. Yet another cross-sectional,
web-based online survey consisting of DASS-21 questionnaire was
conducted by Vidyadhara et al. [7] to examine the impact of COVID-19 on
Pharmacy students in South India. The results have shown that 26% of
respondents experienced severe to extremely severe depression and 31.5%
experienced severe to extremely severe anxiety.
Resilience is the key to handle the trauma and stress caused by the
pandemic in various aspects of life like education, career, family and so on.
Elizabeth A. Hoge et al. [8] in their paper titled “Resilience: Research
evidence and conceptual consideration for post-traumatic stress disorder”
examines resilience from the perspective of decreased vulnerability to post
traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) in reaction to trauma. The paper asserts
that resilience stems from psychological variables like positive or action
oriented coping styles, self-control, social support and cognitive abilities.
However, a study by Melissa R. Dvorsky et al. [9] shows that youth may be
well prepared to deal with COVID-19 related anxieties through learned

strategies like deep breathing and challenging catastrophic thinking. Ryan
Michael Oducado et al. [10] study on Philippines graduate students
indicates that students with increased ability to bounce back (resilience) are
better equipped to tackle stress and anxiety. In other words, higher
resilience lowered stress and fear among students.
Data collection and findings. The present study involves 30 respondents,

aged between 20 and 25, pursuing their higher education in various private
colleges in Andhra Pradesh. They have been attending online classes from
September 2020 and have completed at least one semester in remote online
learning mode. Focus group interviews were conducted individually and
virtually, due to COVID-19 restrictions, over a period of two weeks. Most
of the questions in the interview were designed to understand if stress and
anxiety increased due to remote online learning and how these
psychological factors impeded learning capabilities of students. Secondly,
the questions tried to elicit the major causes of these psychological factors
in an online learning environment. Also, Zung’s self- rating anxiety scale
was administered through Google form at the end of each interview. This
self- rating scale employs a Likert type scale of 1-4 with responses ranging
from “a little of the time” to “most of the time”[11] and has good
psychometric properties with Cronbach’s alpha value of 0.897 [4]. The sum
of scores is converted into an “anxiety index” and higher the value in the
anxiety index, higher the anxiety levels [4][11]. While the focus group
interviews were essential in understanding the respondents’ awareness of
anxiety and stress levels and its impact on their learning capabilities,
Zung’s self- rating anxiety scale was pivotal in assessing the level of anxiety
experienced by students. The juxtaposition of results from focus group
interviews and Zung’s scale produced a compelling finding where 30% of
the respondents are not consciously aware of their anxious state pertaining
to online learning. The findings are presented in Table 1.
Percentage of Some responses indicative Stressors

respondents of stress and anxiety (focus
group interviews)
Respondents “I feel disconnected in an Uncertainty of exams and

aware/conscio online class”; “my eyes career, a sense of loneliness and
us of anxiety hurt/pain staring at the fear of being left out due to lack
levels- 70% screen”; “not able to of social interaction, lack of
concentrate because I am infrastructure/ gadgets,
worried about my internet physical health issues like
connectivity/strength” headaches, back pain and
sleeplessness
Respondents “I feel drained and Fear of the pandemic, lack of

unaware and exhausted after online purpose in life and certainty in
unconscious of classes”; “not interested in life, headaches and insomnia, a
anxiety levels- learning”; “no use of sense of loneliness
30% learning when life is
uncertain”
Table 1. Responses and Stressors
The second category of respondents who are not conscious of their anxiety
levels but displayed high anxiety in Zung’s scale are more vulnerable to the
adverse effects of stress. Also, a similarity that most of the respondents
shared in varying degrees, irrespective of conscious and unconscious
anxiety levels, is a lack of motivation or purpose in life. This could indicate
an absence of well- being and Adam Grant [12] calls this a void between
depression and flourishing. Grant terms this as “languishing, the neglected
middle child of mental health.” This stage is characterized by the absence
of explicit symptoms of mental illness, and it slowly brings down
motivation and weakens the drive to achieve in life. As Grant suggests, the
concept of “flow” would be an antidote to languishing, where individuals
immerse themselves in activities or projects or meaningful challenges that
avoid languishing.
Thus, there is a need to develop pedagogies and learning environments

that are not only learning-centric but also resilient and motivating at times
of crisis like the pandemic. Julie Mackey et.al [13] in their article titled
“Blended Learning for Academic Resilience in Times of Disaster or Crisis”

highlights the potential of responsive blended pedagogies in providing
access to continued learning opportunities and enabling student
engagement at times of crisis. Blended learning has many definitions
depending of the context of its implementation (online course or modeling
schools on blended format), needs of students, school or institution
requirements and reasons why one adopts a blended course. Thus, there is
no simple definition of blended learning. For instance, Martin Oliver and
Keith Trigwell [14] in their article, “Can Blended Learning Be Redeemed?”
argue that there is a lack of clear definition for blended learning and
identify three definitions proposed by Whitelock & Jelfs. They are:
1. Integrating traditional learning with web-based online approaches

(drawing on the work of Harrison);
2. Combining media and tools employed in an e-learning environment;
and
3. Combining a number of pedagogic approaches, irrespective of learning
technology use (drawing on the work of Driscoll) (p.17).
However, it is not the theoretical definition that is of concern but the

practical effectiveness that it brings to pedagogy. The primary reasons why
one might opt blended learning could be increased access to knowledge,
cost effectiveness, social interaction and interconnectedness. Garrison, D.
R., & Vaughan, N. D. [15] in their book Blended learning in higher education:
Framework, principles, and guidelines mention the key assumptions of
blended learning design as a thoughtful integration of face-to-face and
online learning, a basic rethinking of course design to optimize student
engagement and restructuring traditional class contact hours (p 5).
As discussed earlier in the paper, psychological factors like anxiety and

stress, that impede learning capability of students, stem largely from a
sense of isolation or alienation, lack of purpose and certainty in their
academics and physical ailments like headaches due to increased screen-
time. Therefore, the key elements of blended learning can be innovatively
re- interpreted to foster resilience among students and reduce anxiety
levels.
Blended learning models are context dependent and factors to consider

while selecting a blended format include the needs of learners, school or
institutional requirements, reasons why one selects blended learning and
the type of course one selects. Hockly [16] notes that blended learning in
primary and secondary school contexts, mostly in North America, includes
learners working individually with educational software, on computers in
the school building, in the classroom or in a separate computer lab. Blended
Learning Universe or BLU [17], an online hub packed with blended-
learning resources for educators, curated by Clayton Christensen Institute
offers eight models of blended that can be employed by primary and
secondary schools in the Unites States. Some of the models are station
rotation model, lab rotation model, flex model, individual rotation, flipped
classroom, A La Carte and Enriched virtual. Schools that employ blended
learning approach select and follow any one of these models. Also, Staker
and Horn, M. [18] in “Classifying K-12 blended learning” worked with a
typology of four models- Rotation model, Flex model, Self- blend model,
Enriched- virtual model. In a Rotation model, a student rotates on a flexible
schedule between learning modalities, at least one of which is online
learning. In a Flex model a student moves on “an individually customized,
fluid schedule among learning modalities, and the teacher-of-record is on-
site. The teacher-of-record or other adults provide face-to-face support on
a flexible and adaptive as-needed basis through activities such as small-
group instruction, group projects, and individual tutoring” (p.12). The
above-mentioned blended models are unique in the sense that both face-to-
face and online learning happens with the physical boundaries of the
school. This enables social interaction where students do not feel isolated
or alienated in the learning process. Also, The International Commission on
the Future of Education [19], established by UNESCO, in its 2030 agenda
connected to sustainable development reveals that one cannot return to the
world as it was before and suggests an action plan for educators to navigate
through the pandemic crisis and its aftermath. One of its key nine ideas is
to preserve schools as physical space of collective learning as opposed to
other spaces of learning like remote online and blended learning provides
the room for preservation.
Yet another important aspect of blended learning is to re-conceptualize or

re-define the role of teacher and students. The success of any blended
learning course is highly dependent on the mindset and willingness of a

teacher to explore technology and creative ways of delivering of the
content. It does not mean that a teacher should be an expert in technology
but have skills to adapt technology to create student- centric activities. In
re-defining the role of the teacher for blended learning, Robert Schwartz
and Michael Horn [20] provide key shifts in the role of a teacher. The shifts
are:
• From a lecturer to a facilitator, who does not impart knowledge in

the traditional sense, rather facilitates learning process. However,
lectures still remain relevant because lectures leverage praxis and
theory.
• From explainer to the intervener with the student at the right time
for their needs.
• From a mentor to a counselor focusing on the content, skills, needs
and mindsets of students.
On the other hand, creating an ideal student learning environment is

pivotal. Elements of an ideal student learning environment include student
ownership, personalized learning, mastery-based education and
relationships (Schwartz, R and Horn, M). Student ownership puts students
in charge of their learning and aware of their responsibilities as a learner.
The idea of personalization moves away from a set curriculum and pace of
learning for all students and implies that students get “what they need
exactly when they need it.” Personalized learning in turn emphasizes
mastery- based learning where mastery over a concept is the only constant
and time is only relative- some student’s learner faster, some at a slower
pace but mastery matters before taking an assessment.
Assessments in an online learning environment could be stressful and

demanding. Nevertheless, the framework of rubrics could ease the
uncertainty around assessments and exams as it provides clarity to
students. Remy Fermont [21], an Educational Consultant at Utrecht
University, Rotterdam defines rubric as a scoring tool to evaluate students’
performance based on a range of criteria. Therefore, a rubric tells both the
teacher and the student what is essential for grading and its advantages are
manifold. Firstly, a rubric increases the quality of assessment by providing

focus and attention to specific parts of content or skills learned. Secondly,
it is essential in giving constructive feedback to learners and lastly, it
ensures objective, focused and consistent evaluations by promoting a level
of correspondence between evaluators.
Further, Fermont explains different types of rubrics, namely, holistic,

analytic and single point rubric. Each of these rubrics has different
advantages based on the context of use. For example, a holistic rubric is
used to score an overall process as a whole and not the individual
components while an analytic rubric is used to identify and assess different
components of a process.
Example 1: Holistic rubric for an oral presentation (done F2F) on online

readings/activities.
Maximum points-5 Minimum points- 3
Points/ Level of Description

performance
5 The presentation indicates an in depth understanding and
critical interpretation of concepts posted online through
lecture videos/ reading assignments.
Exhibits an analysis of online activities in relation to lecture
videos
Well- structured, focused presentation and ideas are clearly
communicated
Appropriate use of vocabulary and language with no
syntactic or grammatical errors
Maintains eye-contact with audience throughout while
presenting and effective use of non- verbal communication
through gestures.
4 Presentation indicates a basic understanding and
interpretation of concepts posted online through lecture
videos/ reading assignments.
Completes online reading assignments/ activities but does
not establish their relevance to lecture videos.
Well- organized presentation but lacks focus due to which

ideas are not communicated
Use of vocabulary, a few grammatical mistakes
Makes an attempt to look at the audience while presenting
3 Presentation suggests basic understanding of concepts but
lack of interpretation
Incomplete online reading activities/assignments,
Lack of organization in presenting ideas
Minimal use of vocabulary, syntactic errors, concord
No eye-contact while presenting
Example 2: Analytic rubric for an oral presentation (done F2F) on online

readings/activities. Maximum points-5
Evaluation Excellent (5) Very Good (4) Good (3)

criteria
Content The presentation Presentation Presentation suggests
(Max 2 indicates an in depth indicates a basic understanding
points) understanding and basic of concepts but lack of
critical interpretation understanding interpretation
of concepts posted and Incomplete online
online through interpretation reading
lecture videos/ of concepts activities/assignments,
reading assignments. posted online (1 point)
Exhibits an analysis through
of online activities in lecture videos/
relation to lecture reading
videos assignments.
(2 points) Completes
online reading
assignments/
activities but
does not
establish their
relevance to
lecture videos.
(1.5 points)
Structure of Well- structured, Well- Lack of organization

presentation focused presentation organized in presenting ideas
(Max1.5 and ideas are clearly presentation (0.5 point)
points) communicated but lacks focus
(1.5 points) due to which
ideas are not
communicated
(1 point)
Use of Appropriate use of Use of Minimal use of
language vocabulary and vocabulary, a vocabulary, syntactic
and language with no few errors, concord
Presentation syntactic or grammatical No eye-contact while
skills like grammatical errors mistakes presenting (0.5 point)
eye- contact, Maintains eye- Makes an
gestures etc. contact with attempt to
(Max 1.5 audience throughout look at the
points) while presenting and audience while
effective use of non- presenting (1
verbal point)
communication
through gestures (1.5
points)
Thus, a rubric not only provides a framework for assessment and

constructive feedback but also ensures connect between online and F2F
activities- the soul of blended learning. This in turn gives students a sense
of certainty and clarity about what they are learning and why they are
learning.
Conclusion
The rationale of the paper was twofold. It tried to establish the presence of
stress and anxiety due to continued remote online learning among students
of a particular age- group. Findings revealed that students experienced
anxiety and stress at varying levels that impeded their learning ability and
identified stressors. Further, the paper suggested resilience as necessary
impetus to lower anxiety levels and explored the ways in which core
elements of blended learning could be re-interpreted to instill a sense of

purpose and certainty in students by making them agents of learning
process, thereby, fostering resilience in adapting to the new normal.
However, the present study is not without limitations. This study was
cross- sectional, involving only a particular age- group, hence, findings
cannot be generalized. Further, the cross- sectional nature of the study does
not take into consideration changes or trends over a period of time. There
is a need for longitudinal study to understand the impact of continued
remote learning on mental health and the influence of other factors like age,
gender, socio-cultural and economic background and so on.
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and-why-would-you-use-them-uODX8
134 Lessons for the Modern World from an Ancient Culture
Chapter 12
Lessons for the Modern World from an
Ancient Culture: Some Reflections on
Aboriginal Culture and Literature.
Minimol P. G.
School of Management Studies, National Institute of
Technology Calicut, Kozhikode, India
Abstract. One of the topics over which the world nations are brainstorming is
sustainable development. Various proposals and models are prepared to
achieve this goal. Along with such measures what has to be given importance
is the inculcation of culture among people that values nature. Knowledge of the
Indigenous or Aboriginal culture can help us in achieving this goal as the very
foundations of indigenous and Aboriginal cultures is the deep connection that
these communities have with nature. The specialty of the cultures nurtured by
these communities is that it is impossible to separate nature from their culture.
Nature/culture or man/nature binary thinking has no place in the culture. A
closer look at the culture of Aboriginal communities of Australia, which is
considered as the oldest surviving cultures of the world reveals that they have
a world view which is quite relevant today when the global society is affected
by the problems like climate change, environmental degradation, scarcity of
resources, etc. Some of the cultural practices and the knowledge which they
consider sacred passed on to them by their ancestors through storytelling have
practical possibilities in the modern world. Knowledge of these cultures and
their practices can make nonindigenous communities across the world sensible
towards nature and the environment. Literary works of Aboriginal writers play
an important role in disseminating the knowledge and culture of the
Aboriginal communities. This paper tries to explore the Aboriginal culture and
literature.
Keywords: Aboriginal, Climate Change, Sustainability, Cultural Knowledge

In the march of humanity towards modernity and development, it has

made its position in a crisis. Various issues related to nature and
environments have created great challenge for man that has the ability to
affect the future of the planet itself. Development should orient towards
sustainability lest living becomes a form of mere survival. Voices are heard
from various corners of the world to take measures to protect nature and
preserve its diversity. What is more important today in this crisis is
attitudinal and behavioral changes towards nature and in the use of its
resources. Scientists, engineers, activists, academicians and others who
have concern for nature are doing their part in making the world realize
the importance of protecting nature, its resources and its diversity. In order
to bring about desirable positive changes, there is a need to look at some
alternatives to all those philosophies, principles, knowledge systems,
traditions and practices which discrete human from nature. The waves of
modernity which has its epicenter at the western philosophies and
epistemology have had hit the world in such a manner that western
cultures, practices and thoughts dominate all other cultures of the world.
There is a need to rethink, refashion and redefine all the supportive terms
of modernity like progress, development, advancement etc. which place
man at the center and nature at its periphery. Modernity has in fact placed
those non-western cultures especially indigenous cultures which give
priority to nature at inferior positions. But these cultures and the
knowledge born out of them which were disdained by the modern world
can be those alternatives from which modern humanity can take lessons to
improve its relationship with nature. One such culture which has plenty to
explore for the modern world for its concern for nature is the Aboriginal
culture of Australia.
Culture/s of Aborigines and Torres Strait Islanders date/s back at least fifty
thousand years. Their culture thus, is one of the oldest continuing cultures
of the world. Aboriginal culture comprises of different communities
occupying different regions of Australia and its islands having different
languages, beliefs, customs and practices and these communities form 3.3%
of Australia’s population. Similar to the unique flora and fauna of
Australian continent, the culture and practices of Aboriginal Australians
are also unique. Their art, dance, music and literature which is primarily
oral in nature reflect their values and beliefs. For a long time, in fact for
centuries, the Aboriginal culture and their knowledge remained
unacknowledged and undervalued. Although Aboriginal people were,
now being recognized as the original inhabitants of the Australian
continent, the official history of Australia did not acknowledge it. The
Aboriginal people of Australia are in a continuing fight for their lost lands,
sovereignty and legacy. With the terra nullius narrative about the land, they
legitimized the colonial narratives which resulted in the alienation of
Aboriginal people from their traditionally owned lands. Capitalism and
modernity that accompanied European settlement in Australia brought
considerable changes in the land and other natural resources use pattern.
In the European narratives the Australian landscapes were ‘challenges,’
‘unique, ’unimproved land,’ or ‘battler’s block’ (The Politics of
Indigeneity). Colonialism began to change “wilderness into property” and
‘improvements’ in the land with a total neglection towards the Aboriginal
communities and their relationship with the land.
Colonialism in Australia was a traumatic experience. It had personal,

familial, cultural, natural and societal repercussions. Children were
removed from their family; people were taken to ‘reserves and ‘missions,’
Aboriginal people lost their right over lands and resource management.
And all of these injustices and overexploitation of natural resources
continued for a long time. Climate change triggered disasters began to hit
Australia too. Heatwaves, bushfires etc. are causing great damage to the
continent. And concerns over water resources are also increasing in
Australia like many other parts of the world. At this critical moment
governments and other Authorities concerned are looking for solutions in
the Indigenous resource management practices. Their culture and
knowledge are being studied and explored now.
One of the primary features of the Aboriginal culture is the importance it

gives to nature and the reverence that it attaches to land. Among Aboriginal
communities of Australia land has an exceptional status which is quite
absent in the modern western culture. It is not a property that can be used
and exploited by human beings. They prefer the term ‘country’ for land.
The Aborigines of Australia hold the view that their ancestors have created
the land with all its features during Dreamtime and spirits of their
ancestors are constantly watching and guiding them. With these sacred
places where they believe their ancestral beings have travelled through or
have returned to, they have a deep connection, and they believe that the
spirits of their ancestors run through each one of them. In the words of
Ambelin Kwaymullina,
“For Aboriginal peoples, country is much more than a place. Rock,

tree, river, hill, animal, human – all were formed of the same
substance by the Ancestors who continue to live in land, water, sky.
Country is filled with relations speaking language and following
Law, no matter whether the shape of that relation is human, rock,
crow, wattle. Country is loved, needed, and cared for, and country
loves, needs, and cares for her peoples in turn. Country is family,
culture, identity. Country is self.”
Country is the source of learning and creative expressions. The Aborigines

believe that the ancestors of the land have prescribed them some ways to
live on this country which they call as the Aboriginal Laws. These Laws are
passed on from one generation to the other through storytelling. The stories
narrated by the elders of the communities are store house of the Knowledge
about their land and its Laws and these stories also include the creation
stories.
The creation stories and myths vary in each community of Aboriginals but
thematically they have similarities. One of the most popular images that
appear in the art, songs and literature of the Aboriginal communities is the
rainbow serpent. Myth of the rainbow serpent exists in the stories of most
of the Aboriginal communities. They believe that the huge serpent lives in
the waterbodies like river, pool or some water holes. To the Nyungar
community of Aboriginal people who occupy the south-west corner of
Australia Waagal is the creative spirit. They believe that the rivers,
wetlands and coastal lakes are the dreaming tracks of Waagal. Boodjar is
the word used by the community to refer to their country. In Nyungar
belief “throughout the boodjar, 3 waterways are interconnected with the
Dreaming tracks of other ancestral spirits who travelled across the country.
These ancestral spirits encounter each other and in the course of these
encounters created the features of the landscape such as hills and even the
stars” (Stocker et al.). Wandjina is the supreme creative spirit in the

mythologies of Aboriginal people living in the Kimberly region of
Australia. The people believe that Wandjina, the rain spirit is responsible
for the extreme seasons in this region (Singing the Country).
A. R. Radcliffe in his article, “The Rainbow Serpent Myth of Australia”

brings together the rainbow serpent myths of different Aboriginal
communities. He points out that “the rainbow serpent may come to occupy
an important place in the beliefs and customs relating to medicine-men and
the practice of magic” as it is associated with quartz crystals. Many
Aboriginal communities consider rock crystals as having some magical
powers. The aboriginal people living in the Boulia District of Queensland
believe that Kanmare “a supernatural water-snake with a mane-like head
of hair” gives power to the medicine-men of the tribe. Andrenjinyi is the
rainbow serpent in the Aboriginal stories of Pennefather River, North
Queensland. It has the power to stop the rain started by their enemies
according to the mythology of the community.
Although it has many names and different stories, its dominating presence
in the songs and stories suggests the powerful influence it has on the
cultural knowledge of the Aboriginal communities which is crucial in
determining their worldview. Due to its connection to water, it is always
considered as the giver of life. There are many myths of rainbow serpent
which associate it to fertility. It is the rainbow serpent who is responsible
for the abundance of food as it can propagate plants. In most of the myths
the rainbow serpent has a destructive side as well. The stories about
Magalim, the serpent in mythology of the Feranmin people narrates its
creative as well as destructive power. He causes rain and increases
groundwater which is linked to growth and fertility. It creates earthquakes
when gets agitated and its presence in the earth make earth strong. “If not
for him, the mountains would crumble away and the earth loses its
stability,” writes Robert Brumbaugh. The most important part of these
stories is that they are narrated orally. The Aboriginal communities did not
possess written language. The elder people kept these stories in their
memories and passed on to the younger generations. The elders were
respected and revered for they had knowledge about the ‘country’ with
them.
It is with the arrival of the European settlers in the continent that written
form of language began to establish in Australia. These stories and songs
about their country, its creation and the cultural knowledge and Laws
embedded in them are reflected in the literature written by Aboriginal
Australians. Their care and concern for nature find reflections in their
writings as well. Oodgeroo Noonuccal, Kim Scott, Sally Morgan, Jack
Davis, David Unaipon and Alexis Wright are some of the Aboriginal
writers who write in English. Their works explored their culture, customs
and practices. There is resistance in the writing of Aboriginal writers.
Oodgeroo Noonuccal’s poems are noted for the portrayal of Aboriginal
plight and voice she raises against the injustice. She was a political activist
too who was not afraid to speak against the anti-Aborignal policies of the
Government of Australia. As she was an Aboriginal person, she was
rejected for nurse’s training. Municipal Gum (1960), A Song of Hope (1960),
Kath Walker in China (1988) are some of her works. Alexis Wright’s novel
Carpentaria which celebrates history, culture and heroism of Aboriginal
communities deserves the title of epic. The novel has won Australia’s
prestigious Miles Franklin Award. It also exposes the trauma,
disillusionment, desperation and dispossession that colonialism has
brought into the culture and people. Wright writes in Carpentaria, “A
nation chants, but we know your story already.” And “The ancestral
serpent, a creature larger than storm clouds, came down from the stars,
laden with its own creative enormity. It moved graciously …” (1). She has
two other novels to her credit Plains of Promise (1997) and The Swan Book
(2013). She engages actively in the politics of Australia and her political
stands are clear both in her fiction and non-fiction works.
Mary Graham, an Aboriginal philosopher in her article “Some Thoughts

about the Philosophical Underpinnings of Aboriginal Worldviews”
identifies two basic types of relationships that exist in Aboriginal
Communities. First one is the relationship that people have with the land
and the second is the relationship that people have among themselves.
Graham says that there are two 4 axioms that underpinned Aboriginal
relationship with the land. They are “The Land is the Law” and “You are
not alone in the world.” The first axiom says that land is the basis for all
meaning. It is a sacred entity and not a property. Aborigines believe that
‘human-ness’ of a person is determined by the way he or she treats the land.

And as land is sacred, it is the responsibility of the people to look after it.
The Aboriginal kinship system which organizes communities into clans of

which the second axiom is about has bestowed each clan with certain
responsibility towards their land. Loyalty to the community is far more
important than their individuality. Each of these clan group is assigned the
responsibility of certain places. They are the custodians of that place with
responsibility to renew flora and fauna of that part of the land. Nyungar
community considers themselves as the custodians of the coastal region.
They adopted certain methods to ‘care for the land’ or land management
methods. “Whadjuk Nyungar traditionally manipulated the coastscape by
engineering shelters and manipulating water flow through technologies
such as fish traps and gnamma holes (natural rock holes modified for water
collection and storage)” (Stocker et al.) The Aboriginal communities claim
that their practices of burning bushes help in reducing the devastating
bushfire. Alexis Wright in her article “Indigenous People Know How to
Control Fires” states that “We were raised with the knowledge that our
ancestors have adapted to changing climatic conditions here for
millenniums.” She talks about ‘Jigija Indigenous Fire Training Program’
lead by Murrandoo Yanner of Waanyi community. This program teaches
some of the techniques employed by their ancestors in fighting fire to
pastoralists, volunteer firefighters, indigenous rangers and the mining
industry. Mosaic cool-fire burning is one technique taught here. In this
technique low-intensity fire is created with burning small patches during
the cool seasons which reduces the burning materials in the dry seasons.
She says that Mr. Yanner gives training in creating wildlife corridors “a
continuous refuge of native habitat that allows wildlife to escape
summertime.”
More than any other community, indigenous communities especially

Aboriginal communities show concern for climate change and destruction
of the natural environment partly because their very existence is
determined by the connection with nature and natural landscape around
them. And partly because their stories bear the knowledge of climate
change and the responsibilities that they have towards their land in
protecting, renewing and rejuvenating the land as in the case of Nyungar
stories of sea level rise after the end of ice age. Sea for these people was not
a separate entity from the land but a continuation of the land. The
community’s belief says that the whales carry the spirits of the dead people
who were buried beneath the water when the sea level rose (Stocker et al.).
The Aboriginal mythology is contributing towards the development of the

discipline Geomythology. In Geomythology myths are considered as oral
records of natural events. In the article, “Australian Aboriginal
Geomythology: Eyewitness Accounts of Cosmic Impacts?” Duane W.
Hamacher 1 and Ray P. Norris illustrate it as follows:
One of the most well-documented examples of geomythology in

Australia are the stories describing the volcanic eruptions that
formed the Eacham, Barrine, and Euramo crater lakes in
Queensland, which formed over 10,000 years ago. The stories
describe the region as covered in Eucalypt scrub as opposed to the
current rainforest. This was later confirmed by the analysis of fossil
pollen found in the silt of these craters, which showed the current
rainforest to be 7,600 years old. The Australian Heritage Commission
includes these stories on the Register 5 of the National Estate and
within Australia's World Heritage nomination of the wet tropical
forests as an “unparalleled human record of events dating back to
the Pleistocene era.”
If we promulgate this worldview into the non-indigenous communities

across the world, it will bring positive changes in the way they treat nature.
If outsiders of the Aboriginality could imbibe these philosophies, it would
become an addon in the effort to protect nature and wellbeing of humanity
around the globe. A complete turn back from western science, technology
and engineering and a complete adoption of the Aboriginal techniques in
our journey towards sustainability is not possible. We should try for a
‘third space’ (Stocker et al.) where both the world views and practices
interact and gain from each other.
References
Brumbaugh, Robert. The Rainbow Serpent on the Upper Sepik. https://www.jstor.

org/stable/pdf/40462298.pdf?refreqid=excelsior%3Aa4c7f284a86272f48c58e2b101608
1dc.
Graham, Mary. “Some Thoughts about the Philosophical Underpinnings of Aboriginal
Worldviews.” http://australianhumanitiesreview.org/2008/11/01/some-thoughts-
about-thephilosophical-underpinnings-of-aboriginal-worldviews.
Hamacher, Duane W. and Ray P. Norris. Australian Aboriginal Geomythology:
Eyewitness Accounts of Cosmic Impacts? https://arxiv.org/ftp/arxiv/papers/
1009/1009.4251.pdf.
Kwaymullina, Ambelin. "Seeing the Light: Aboriginal Law, Learning and Sustainable
Living in Country" [2005] IndigLawB 27; (2005) 6(11) Indigen http://www5.
austlii.edu.au/au/journals/IndigLawB/2005/27. htmlous Law Bulletin 12.
Laura Stocker, Leonard Collard & Angela Rooney (2016) Aboriginal world views and
colonisation: implications for coastal sustainability, Local Environment, 21:7, 844-
865, DOI: 10.1080/13549839.2015.1036414.
Radcliffe-Brown, A. R. The Rainbow Serpent Myth of Australia.
https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/2843596.pdf?refreqid=excelsior%3A835e283a4d602
1616a4700d1740e91f7.
Richard J. Martin, Philip Mead & David Trigger (2014) The politics of indigeneity,
identity and representation in literature from north Australia's Gulf Country, Social
Identities, 20:4-5, 330-345, DOI:10.1080/13504630.2014.997201
Singing the country: Understanding the Aboriginal creation story. https://www.world
footprints.com/singing-the-country-understanding-the-aboriginal-creation-story/
Wright, Alexis. Carpentaria. Navayana. New Delhi. (2006).
Wright, Alexis. Indigenous People Know How to Control Fires. https://www.formsof
worldliterature.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/01/Alexis-Wright-NYT_.pdf.
144 Stabilising Farmers’ Income through Pradhan Mantri Fasel Bima Yojana
Part Five
TECHNOLOGY FOR ALL
Chapter 13
Stabilising Farmers’ Income through Pradhan
Mantri Fasal Bima Yojana: An Overview
Saurabh Bharne1 and Dr. Pushpender Yadav2
Abstract. Agriculture in India has always been susceptible to various natural

calamities and several other risks due to its diverse topography and dynamic
weather conditions. Indian farmers, especially the small farmers, suffer great
capital loss from the adversity of such calamities. It is also noticed that the
‘calamity-led financial loss’ has been one of the main reasons behind farmers
being stuck in the web of an everlasting debt. To address such agricultural loss
related issues, the Indian Government came up with a crop insurance scheme,
named Pradhan Mantri Fasal Bima Yojana (PMFBY) in 2016. PMFBY is an
umbrella scheme mapped out in line with the theme of One Nation-One
Scheme by replacing and refining previous such schemes. The issue of
stabilising farmers’ income has been considered one of the central objectives of
the scheme, and thus a proper roadmap is formulated for attaining the desired
results. The roadmap includes various mechanisms and provisions which
ultimately aim at eliminating the farmers’ capital loss and providing financial
support to them. This paper, through focusing on the Pradhan Mantri Fasal
Bima Yojana, tries to look over the considerations of the risks leading to
financial disturbances to farmers, as well as the proposed mechanisms to
address such issues from the government’s side. Further, it tries to locate the
position of the scheme in its path of progress by assessing its achievements in
various spheres. The ultimate objective of this paper is to present an overview
of the PMFBY pertaining to provide the stability to farmers’ income.
Keywords: Agriculture, Calamities, Crop Insurance, PMFBY, Farmers’ Income
1
Research Scholar, Department of Humanities and Social Sciences, Maulana Azad
National Institute of Technology, Bhopal, India
2
Assistant Professor (Grade-1), Department of Humanities and Social Sciences, Maulana
Azad National Institute of Technology, Bhopal, India
1. Introduction
India, with two-thirds of its total population of about 1.3 billion engaged in
agriculture-related activities, is an agriculturally important country.
Agriculture becomes the largest source of livelihood for Indians as it
employs to around half of them directly, whilst around two-third Indians
are dependent on agriculture and its allied sectors. The respective sector
plays a significant role in the Indian economy as well where it currently
shares almost 20% of the country’s total Gross Domestic Product (GDP)
(Kapil, 2021). However, the agricultural activities are, more or less, limited
to rural India and 82% of total Indian farmers are small and marginal
(FAO).
Like the other tropical countries, Indian region too possess variety in the
ecosystems by having different topographical features in its different parts,
where natural features like soil, climate, vegetation etc., characterize them.
The variation in the climate can be noted from South to Northern parts of
India, where it is humid and dry tropical in the former and temperate
alpine in the later. The diverse climatic conditions in Indian subcontinent
greatly dominate the agriculture patterns in the country; consequently, a
vast diversity in agricultural production in its different parts is evident. The
small landholding is another reason behind diversity in crop cultivation in
the same region.
These varieties in climate and topography make the region prone to various
natural calamities and other risks. Flood, hailstorm, drought, crop diseases
etc. are very common adversities which Indian agriculture faces every year;
hence the Indian farmers suffer a substantial amount of yield loss. Climate
change affects the environment additionally and as a result, cases of
irregularities in rainfall’s regional patterns are continuously increasing in
India. 2019-20 had been the worst year for Indian agriculture as 8.5 million
hectares of crop land loss was noted during the period due to such
calamities (Pandey, 2020). These calamity-led losses not only discourage
the farmers from being in the field but also disturb their financial
management and capabilities. Many farmers, especially the small farmers,
get affected by them majorly, and, as a result, get stuck into the web of an
everlasting debt. Such unfortunate events are considered as the central

reason behind the continuous incidents of farmers’ suicides in India.
“Insurance is critical to protecting farm incomes in a country where 54% of

the sown area lacks irrigation and 12 million hectares, on an average, suffer
annual weather shocks” (Haq, 2018). Considering this vulnerability of
farmers to the agriculture risks and to address their grievances better, the
Indian Government picked the ‘Better Crop Insurance’ as a suitable
redressal mechanism. Subsequently, Indian Government launched the new
crop insurance scheme in 2016, named Pradhan Mantri Fasal Bima Yojana
(PMFBY). Though some crop insurance schemes were already being run by
both, Centre and state governments earlier, their inadequate performance
led to the introduction of the PMFBY. “Stabilising farmers’ income to
ensure their continuance in farming” has been pointed as one of the key
objectives of the Modi government’s flagship crop insurance scheme
(Jadhav, 2021).
2. Pradhan Mantri Fasal Bima Yojana (PMFBY)
Pradhan Mantri Fasal Bima Yojana, which is the world’s largest crop
insurance scheme today, in terms of farmer participation (Livemint, 2021),
was launched in 2016 by PM Modi with the aim to provide risk cover to the
farmers from the agricultural adversities and to provide them financial
support in such events of crop failure. Through the provisions of affordable
and highly subsidized premiums for farmers, the scheme aims at reducing
the premium burden on farmers and ensures an early settlement of crop
assurance claims for the full insured sum (MA&FW, GOI, 2016). The risks
from pre-sowing to post-harvest are considered under the PMFBY in order
to protect farmers from capital losses. The central objective of the scheme
is to stabilise the farmers’ income by supporting their agricultural
production and securing the flow of credit into the agriculture sector.
This umbrella scheme i.e., PMFBY, merges several previous crop insurance
schemes and conceives a better design by diminishing their drawbacks. It
was mapped out following the theme of “One Nation–One Scheme”, and
replaces earlier two schemes, i.e., National Agricultural Insurance Scheme
(NAIS) and Modified National Agricultural Insurance Scheme (MNAIS).

However, the Weather-Based Crop Insurance Scheme (WBCIS) remains in
place, though its premium rates have been made the same as in PMFBY
(Kumar, 2017). The state governments are authorized to decide whether to
go with PMFBY, WBCIS or both in their respective states.
2.1 Developments in the scheme
Administering a national crop insurance scheme in India is, nevertheless a

tough task. Here, the vast diversity of agro-climatic zones and crops is not
only the major challenge in the way of such policies, but attracting small
farmers towards insurance, satisfying the other stakeholders and
enhancing system’s capacity for proper implementation of such
programmes, are equally challenging tasks to execute. Thus, the central
government remained open to the feedback on the scheme, and as a
positive response, it revamped the scheme’s operating guidelines twice in
its 5 years tenure (2018 and 2020), to make it more equipped to achieve the
desired goals.
3. Traits and mechanism of PMFBY pertaining to stabilise

farmers’ income
3.1 Covering maximum number of farmers
As the Central government opines that the “easy and affordable crop
insurance” is a milestone initiative for stabilizing Indian farmers’ income;
they set a target to cover more than 50% of the country’s total farmers under
the PMFBY (The Economic Times, 2016). Thus, aiming to cover maximum
farmers for crops insurance, the scheme considers all the farmers, either
loanee or non-loanee, who are cultivating notified crop in a notified area,
as eligible for enrolment under it for the respective season. The scheme also
considers the tenant farmers and sharecroppers for the same (See fig. 1).
Talking about the small and marginal farmers, they account for 84% of total
farmers enrolled under the scheme now (Livemint, 2021). The scheme has
been made fully voluntary for all the farmers from Kharif 2020 (Iyer, 2020).
1 668,46
2019-20
695,31 Tenant Farmer
Applications
Sharecropper Farmer
914,37 Applications
2018-19
615,71
0 500 1000 1500 2000
Fig. 1. Sharecroppers and Tenant Farmers covered under PMFBY & RWBCIS (In ‘000s)
Source. Report of Standing Committee on Agriculture (2020-21), Ministry of Agriculture
and Farmers welfare.
To attract and encourage the farmers, including small and marginal

farmers towards crop insurance, PMFBY suggests the stakeholders,
especially states, to conduct the awareness campaigns and even compel the
Insurance companies to use 0.5% of gross premium collected by them for
publicity of benefits of the scheme.
3.2 Incorporating more crops under scheme’s ambit
Considering the variations in crop cultivation throughout the country,

PMFBY permits state governments to notify crops for Rabi and Kharif
seasons in their respective states, which includes food crops (Cereals,
Millets and Pulses), oilseeds, and annual commercial/ horticultural crops.
The revised guidelines 2018 provide for covering Perennial horticultural
crops for insurance on a pilot basis (STANDING COMMITTEE ON
AGRICULTURE (2020-2021), MA&FW, 2021). This feature of incorporating
more crops under PMFBY makes it more inclusive and eliminates any
chances of farmer’s exclusion from the scheme.
3.3 Highly subsidised and affordable premiums for farmers
By not putting a heavy load on farmers’ pockets, the PMFBY ensures

affordable premium rates for farmers so that they don’t have to pay much
for securing their yields from any adversities. Under the scheme, farmers
have to pay only 1.5 per cent of the value of the sum insured or the actuarial
rate, whichever is less, for Rabi, 2 per cent for Kharif and 5 percent for
commercial crops. Unlike previous crop insurance schemes, there is no cap
on government premium subsidies under it. The central and state
governments’ share in the balance premium is 50:50, except in North-
Eastern states where it is 90:10.
The following chart (See fig. 2) depicts that the farmers’ share in premium
has been very low against the Gross premium paid to insurance companies
under the PMFBY. Measuring the percentage of farmers’ share, it has been
18.83, 17.04, 16.46 and 14.07 for the years 2016-17, 2017-18, 2018-19 and
2019-20 respectively, which shows that it has been decreasing year by year.
35000 32033
29060
30000
24670
25000 21654
20000 Gross Premium
15000 Farmers' share in
Premium
10000
4078 4204 4785 4510
5000
0
2016-17 2017-18 2018-19 2019-20
Fig. 2. Gross Premium and Farmers’ share in Premium under PMFBY & RWBCIS (In
Crore)
Source. Data compiled by authors from PMFBY Website.
3.4 Covering risks for the entire cropping cycle
Different regions of India are prone to different calamities and risks. Thus,
PMFBY, being an “Area Approach based Crop Insurance”, where Village
Panchayat is notified as the unit of insurance, considers a range of risks
responsible for the yield losses. The scheme covers risks from the pre-
sowing to post-harvest stages on the notified area and individual basis.
On notified area basis.
Yield losses (Standing crops). PMFBY provides insurance cover for yield
losses due to non-preventable risks, e.g., natural fire and lightening, storm,
hailstorm, and cyclone, flood, inundation and landslide, drought, dry
spells, Pests/ Diseases etc.
Prevented sowing The scheme also provides insurance cover to the insured
farmers in the cases where they intended to sow a notified crop but failed
due to the adverse climatic condition. In such cases, they can claim claims
up to 25% of the total sum-insured.
Individual farm basis.
Post-harvest losses. PMFBY provides coverage for up to 14 days to the crops

which are required to be dried in “cut & spread” condition after harvesting,
against the “specific perils of cyclone/cyclonic rains, unseasonal rains
throughout the country.”
Localised calamities. Coverage is available to the losses arising out of the

identified localised risks like hailstorm, inundation etc., affecting the
isolated farms in the notified area. The revamped guidelines 2018 include
the provision of providing add on coverage for “crop losses due to attack
of wild animals” on a pilot basis.
3.5 Technological interventions to quicken the pace of

implementation
The PMFBY focuses on the use of innovative technologies to ease and

quicken the scheme-related processes at all levels. To pace the execution of
the scheme, all the stakeholders are attached to a common digital platform
where they have to make entry of their share of duty so that the
implementation-related delays can be ignored, and the process can be run
smoothly. This step is very helpful for ensuring early settlement of claims
and timely payments to the farmers. A dedicated website and app for
PMFBY have been launched for the farmers where they can register their
claim as well as check the status of their applications.
To help the states in the scheme’s better implementation, PMFBY includes

use of scientific tools like drones, for performing Crop Cutting Experiments
(CCE) and the use of Remote sensing technology in risk classification.
Through these interventions, a better observation and calculation of risks
and losses is done, which ultimately help the farmers to perform
agriculture accordingly and to get legit benefits out of the scheme.
3.6 Strictness towards delay in payment settlement
Observing the pattern of delay in payments, PMFBY carries out strict steps
against it. The revamped guidelines 2018 add provisions of penalties for
States, Insurance firms and Banks, where each of them is liable to pay a 12%
interest rate per annum in cases of delay in transfer of payments from their
sides (DAC&FW, MA&FW). This step is crucial for keeping the farmers
encouraged in agriculture, even after experiencing the yield loss, as it
attempts to ensure the timely claim settlement so that they can continue
their agricultural activity with the reimbursed amount.
4. Locating PMFBY on the progress path
Though the PMFBY seems to be a well-designed scheme and a lot of efforts

have been put into make it more equipped for achieving the desired goals,
it lacks in meeting its targets. The government set a target to cover more
than 50% of total Indian farmers under the scheme in the next five years
after its launching, but only 29 crore farmers, out of around 100 million,
have so far insured their crops under the scheme (The Economic Times,
2021). Similarly, in spite of a continuous increase in budgetary allocation
by the union government for PMFBY, which is INR 16000 crore for 2021-22
(INR 305 crore more than last year’s) (Livemint, 2021), the scheme seems to
lose the confidence of its stakeholders. Factors like decreasing farmers’
enrolment and states’ defection from it indicate the omission of the scheme
in satisfying them and consequently, missing its very desire of stabilising
farmers’ income.
A bunch of factors can be considered as major hurdles in the PMFBY’s

success path as well as responsible for the scheme’s stumbling in achieving
its goals.
4.1 Low farmers’ cover
The PMFBY has succeeded in covering only 30% of the total Indian farmers
for securing their yields through crop insurance till now, which is very
unsatisfying as the scheme holds the target to attract and provide security
to maximum Indian farmers from the capital loss.
Continuous cases of states’ defection from the scheme are another worrying
factor related to lowering the farmer enrolment under the scheme.
4.2 Low beneficiary ratio
The Beneficiary ratio, being one of the most important indicators in the
context of PMFBY, indicates the ratio of the number of farmers who
benefitted out of the total number of farmers insured under the scheme. As
can be seen from the following chart (See fig. 3), the number of farmers who
benefitted is very less against the total number of farmers insured and the
measured beneficiary ratio has been 0.26, 0.33, 0.38 and 0.36 for the year
2016-17, 2017-18, 2018-19 and 2019-20 respectively. The data depicts that
the beneficiary ratio has been low every year under the PMFBY which
questions the viability of the scheme.
700
612,9
583,7 577,2
600 532,7
500
400
Farmers Covered
300 Farmers Benefitted
221,6 224,7
156,5 176,8
200
100
0
2016-17 2017-18 2018-19 2019-20
Fig. 3. Farmers Covered and Benefitted under PMFBY & RWBCIS (In Lakh)
Source. PMFBY Website.
4.3 Delay in timely claim settlement
The pattern of delaying the claim settlement to the farmers under PMFBY
becomes the central factor leading to farmers’ disappointment with the
scheme. It also results in farmers’ discouragement with the agriculture as
they, especially small and marginal farmers get short of money for
performing agricultural related activities in the next season right after
suffering from the capital loss without being compensated on time.
Conclusion
PMFBY, no doubt, has got a better design and roadmap for securing
farmers’ agricultural production from various calamities and providing
them financial stability to continue the farming at full pace. Also, the central
government’s positive responses to the feedback coming from different
sides were intended to intensify the scheme for achieving its desired goals.
However, the scheme has not performed accordingly and its poor results
on some major indicators have been noted. It is analysed that due to some
identified factors, the scheme seems to lose its viability, and thus there is a
strong need to get rid of such obstacles so that the scheme’s pace of progress
can be quickened.
The timely payment and settlement of a claim must be ensured on a priority

basis in order to provide timely financial support to farmers so that they
can continue their agricultural activities without being financially short. It
will also encourage and attract the other farmers toward crop insurance.
Subsequently, winning confidence of the stakeholders, especially states, is
necessary to increase the enrolment of farmers under PMFBY, as well as to
improve its implementation process throughout the country. Ultimately,
the PMFBY’s roadmap for stabilising the farmers’ income can be
streamlined only after overcoming the identified challenges, and by
enrolling and benefitting maximum number of farmers with an upgraded
time bound mechanism.
References
DAC & FW, MA & FW. (n.d.). Revamped Operational Guidelines of "Pradhan Mantri
Fasal Bima Yojana". Retrieved September 12, 2021, from Pradhan Mantri Fasal Bima
Yojana: https://pmfby.gov.in/pdf/Revamped%20Operational%20Guidelines_17th
%20August%202020.pdf
FAO. (n.d.). FAO in India. Retrieved September 12, 2021, from Food and Agriculture
Organization of the United Nations: http://www.fao.org/india/fao-in-india/
india-at-a-glance/en/
Haq, Z. (2018, November 4). India’s flagship crop insurance scheme a big leap but needs
fixes. Hindustan Times.
Iyer, S. (2020, December 7). States Defect from India’s Central Crop Insurance Program.
Retrieved September 12, 2021, from AIR Worldwide: https://www.air-worldwide
.com/blog/posts/2020/12/states-defect-from-indias-central-crop-insurance-program/
Jadhav, R. (2021, August 9). Are farmers reaping the benefit of PM Fasal Bima Yojana?
Business Line.
Kapil, S. (2021, January 29). Agri share in GDP hit 20% after 17 years: Economic Survey.
DownToEarth.
Kumar, C. B. (2017). PRADHAN MANTRI FASAL BIMA YOJANA: AN ASSESSMENT.
New Delhi: Centre for Science and Environment.
Livemint. (2021, February 8). Govt allocates ₹16000 crore for Pradhan Mantri Fasal Bima
Yojana for 2021-22. Livemint.
MA & FW, GOI. (2016). PRADHAN MANTRI FASAL BIMA YOJANA (PMFBY).
Retrieved September 12, 2021, from Pradhan Mantri Fasal Bima Yojana:
https://pmfby.gov.in/pdf/New%20Schemes-english_.pdf
Pandey, K. (2020, July 31). Warning bell: Extreme weather is hitting India’s farmlands
harder. DownToEarth.
Standing committee on agriculture (2020-2021), MA&FW. (2021). PRADHAN MANTRI
FASAL BIMA YOJANA - an evaluation. New Delhi: LOK SABHA SECRETARIAT.
The Economic Times. (2016, March 14). Government aims to bring 50% farmers under
PMFBY in next few years. The Economic Times.
The Economic Times. (2021, January 13). PMFBY completes 5 years: Tomar says 29 crore
farmers enrolled so far; urges others to take one soon. The Economic Times.
Chapter 14
Demographic Profile and ePayment Usage:
An Empirical Analysis of Selected Cities
of Punjab
Anu Sahi1 and Vikas Choudhary2
Abstract. This paper is a niche attempt to unveil the awareness of e payment

system, usage of e payment gateways and preferences of various payment apps
and perceived benefits among individuals in Punjab. The findings revealed a
high level of awareness regarding e payment system and the most widely used
payment app was Paytm followed by Google pay. The results highlighted that
irrespective of the education level of customer, there is no difference in usage
of e payment services. Application of multinomial logistic regression explored
time saving and convenience most significant perceived benefits of e payment
system.
Keywords: Demographics, E-payment, Awareness, Perceived Benefit
1
School of Management Studies, Apeejay Institute of Management & Engineering
Technical Campus, Jalandhar, India
2
Department of Humanities and Social Sciences National Institute of Technology,
Kurukshetra, India
158 Demographic Profile and ePayment Usage
1. Introduction
The world has been drastically impacted due to the advancement of

technology and particularly the banking sector has seen tremendous shift
from traditional payment system, to electronic payments. The emergence
of World Wide Web and internet technology pushed the financial service
providers to make use of novice delivery channels including e payment
system to sustain competitive advantage (Jenkins,2007; Lin et al., 2015). An
electronic payment is a financial exchange that takes place in an online
environment wherein an intermediary act as an electronic bank, which
converts outside money into inside money, which is circulated within
online marketplace (Kalakota and Whinston (1997). The transition in
banking services have tried to shift the individuals mind set from
traditional to electronic payment system, though the awareness, usage and
perceived benefits still varies across regions and countries (Dahlberg, et.
al., 2008). This paper contributes to the literature in many ways. First, we
have tried to test the awareness, usage and perceived benefits of e payment
gateways among selected respondents of North Indian State Punjab.
Second, we tried to understand the individual behavior that during
pandemic situations, how the individuals respond to their payment needs.
Thirdly, study tried to explore the relation between the perceived benefits
of the e-payments in that culture and context. Fourth, studies in review
unveiled that the magnitude of usage and purpose of usage of e payment
varies across regions, which the present study tries to explore specifically.
The paper is organized as follows; section 1 provided the introduction;
Section 2 review of literature; section 3 explains the objectives and
hypothesis; Section 4 consists of research methods; and Sections 5 and 6
revolve around results and conclusion section.
Salehi et al. (2008) described that e payment systems stems from e banking
which refers several types of services through which bank customers can
request information and carry out most retail banking services via
computer, television or mobile phone (Thornton & White (2001). Study
conducted by Wang, et al., (2003) focused on the fact of underutilization of
e banking during the era of 1990s. They also put emphasis on number of
threats concerned with e payment system viz. security threats, and
potential losses Eben (2003). However, the global economy demands the
integration of internet technology into its banking without which it cannot
survive Jasimuddin (2004). So, the diverge implications of e payment
systems has led to number of empirical investigations as ultimately the
customer will make it a boon or bane. Chiemeke, et al. (2006) identified
insecurity, inadequate operational facilities including telecommunications
facilities and electricity supply the major inhibiting factors to Internet
banking adoption in Nigeria. In another study by Sumanjeet (2009)
concluded that despite the existence of variety of e-commerce payment
systems, credit cards are the most dominant payment system. Banknet
India (2009) discovered non- availability of site or connectivity problems as
limiting factors to use internet banking in a survey conducted by them. As
far as mobile banking is concerned, its popularity is limited mainly due to
the SMS charges levied by the banks. In another study by Cheng et al.,
(2009) identified five perceived risks namely physical, performance,
psychological, financial and time loss in the electronic payment system. Das
& Aggarwal (2010) compared Cash and E-payments and concluded Cash
as an expensive mode of payment for the Government. The country needs
to move away from cash-based towards a cashless (electronic) payment
system. However, the usage of e payment system not only increases bank
customers but also hackers and money launderers Eagle (2010). Thakur
(2013) investigated the factors affecting adoption of mobile payment
services. The study focuses that empirical finding indicates mobile
payment services in India which has not been investigated well. Oliveira et
al. (2016) identified the main determinants of mobile payment adoption
and the intention to recommend this technology. Shankar and Dutta (2018)
identified factors affecting mobile payment (m-payment) adoption
intention in India by proposing a conceptual framework based on
technology acceptance model (TAM). Khan et al. (2020) explored the
relation between demographics of generation Z and e payment system,
along with the perceived differences and correlation financial anxiety,
financial advice, and electronic payment system.
3. Need objectives and hypotheses of the study
The perusal of literature unleashes that by undergoing the findings of most

studies, we can argue that the literature on e- payment system is not in
dearth, but the actual usage and preferences of customers are still
inconclusive especially in developing economies. This inconclusiveness
serves as an open ground for more research. The present study tried to
study the awareness, preference and usage pattern of respondents along
with exploring the relation between perceived benefits of e payment
system and their usage.
3.1 Hypotheses of the study
H01: There is no significant association between gender and their e-

payment usage.
H02: There is no significant association between monthly income and e-
payment usage.
H03: There is no significant relation between Perceived benefits of e
payment and gender.
4. Research methods
Individual respondents belonging to varied age, income, educational

background and marital status of Northern Indian state Punjab comprises
the universe of the study. A well-structured questionnaire for e-payment
usage was mainly adapted from the studies conducted by (Gujjar et al.2013;
Sadaf et al. 2012, Jager and Lokman, 1999). The face and content validity of
the questionnaire is checked with the help of two banking professionals
and two members from department of higher education. After all the
preliminary work, the questionnaire was sent to Two hundred and twenty
(220) individual respondents of major cities of Punjab namely Amritsar,
Ludhiana, Jalandhar, Bathinda and Patiala using judgmental sampling
technique. However, the results were finally analyzed and reported only
for two hundred (200) responses only, as ten questionnaires were not filled
correctly, and nine questionnaires were half filled, and one questionnaire
was not filled at all thus making the response rate 67 percent. The response
rate for surveys generally varies from 35-75 percent and 67 percent
response rate can be considered good enough (Dommeyer et al. 2004). The
questionnaire consists of demographic profile of the respondents.
Questions were also asked related to perceived benefits of e payment
systems, frequency of usage, preferences of various e-payment systems.
The model used for exploring the objectives has been depicted in figure 1.
The reliability of the questionnaire was checked using Cronbach Alpha.
The alpha reliability of (0.810) was obtained which shows that the research
instrument is reliable (Olulube, P, 2006; Saunders, Lewis & Thornhill, 2000).
Fig.1. Research Model
5. Results, analysis and findings
The survey based on the study of 200 individual respondents of Punjab

threw light on some interesting as well as striking observations about the
usage of e payment systems.
5.1 Demographic profile of respondents
Demographics Frequency Percentage
Age
Below 18 years 14 7.0
18-30 years 147 73.5
31-45 years 23 11.5
46-60 years 13 6.5

Above 60 3 1.5
Gender
Male 112 56
Female 88 44
Education
Illiterate 4 2.0
High School (10th) 12 6.5
Intermediate (+2) 15 7.5
Degree 75 37.5
Master’s degree 86 43.0
CA 4 2.0
Marital Status
Married 155 77.5
Unmarried 40 40.0
Widowed 2 1.0
Divorced 3 1.5
Profession
Government 10 5.0
Employee
Private employee 27 13.5
Business 17 8.5
Self employed 19 9.5
Student 116 58.0
Housewife 9 4.5
Monthly Income
No Income 32 16.0
Less than 5000 60 30.0
5000-20000 37 18.5
20000-35000 25 12.5
35000-50000 29 14.5
50000 and above 17 8.5
Usage History
Less than 1 year 46 23.0
1-3 years 100 50.0
3-5 years 35 17.5
More than 5 years 19 9.5
Awareness about e- 192 (Yes) 8(No)
payment System
Table 1: Demographic profile
gender
Usage of e
prefer
payment systems chi Cramer’s v significance
not to
level
Male Female say total square
Not at all 7 7 0 14 0.454 0.140 0.454
Daily 25 13 0 38
Once a 37 27 0 64
week
More than 25 20 1 46
once a
week
Once a 18 18 2 38
month
Total 112 85 3 200
Table 2: Gender and usage of e-payment systems

Not Once a More than Once a Cramer’s v

Income Usage at all daily week once a week month
E No 3 7 12 5 5 32 0.156
income
Below 4 12 17 11 16 60
5000
5000- 3 4 12 10 8 37
20000
20000- 3 4 5 8 5 25
35000
35000- 0 8 9 9 3 29
50000
50000 1 3 9 3 1 17
and
above
Total 14 38 64 46 38 200
Table 3: Monthly Income and Usage of e-payment system
Model fitting information
Model Model Fitting Likelihood Ratio Tests

Criteria
-2 Log Chi-Square df Sig.

Likelihood
Intercept Only 465.989
Final 259.597 206.393 120 .000
Table 4: Multinomial regression - model fit summary

Classification
Predicted
more
not at once a than once once a percent
Observed all daily week a week month correct
not at all 9 1 4 0 0 64.3%
daily 2 24 9 2 1 63.2%
once a week 1 7 40 9 7 62.5%
more than once a 1 13 14 14 4 30.4%

week
once a month 0 7 9 4 18 47.4%
overall 6.5% 26.0% 38.0% 14.5% 15.0% 52.5%

percentage
Table 5: Prediction of usage of e payment system
Effect Model Fitting Criteria Likelihood Ratio Tests
-2 Log Likelihood of Chi- df Sig.

Reduced Model Square
Intercept 259.597a .000 0 .
Time saving 319.940 60.344 20 .000
Transactions 302.610 43.013 20 .002

record
Safety 302.586 42.989 20 .002
Convenience 319.831 60.235 20 .000
Trust 302.216b 42.619 20 .002
Reward points 290.479b 30.882 20 .057
Table 6: Likelihood ratio tests

6. Conclusions
The primary objective of the study was to measure the awareness, usage
and preferences of selected respondents of Punjab towards e payment
system. From the empirical research and findings, a number of conclusions
and implications can be drawn. The study revealed no association between
gender and e payment usage and similar result was for income. Further the
prime purpose of using e payment system among surveyed respondents
was online shopping purpose and least used for money transfer among the
surveyed respondents. The most lucrative benefit for usage of e payment
system is saving of time followed by convenience. The survey also revealed
that respondents prefer e payment system due to time saving and it is
convenient, however, trust, transaction cost and reward points have been
ranked lower as the perceived benefits of e payment system by the
respondents.
References
Ashish Das and Rakhi Agarwal (2010) “Cashless Payment System in India-A Roadmap
Technical” http://dspace.library.iitb.ac.in/jspui/handle/
10054/1732
Banknet India (2008), “Bank Customer Survey Research Report on Payment
Systems” was released at Fourth International Conference on Payment Systems held
on January 16, at Mumbai Taj Lands’ End http://www.banknetindia.com/
books/pssurvey.html.
Cheng, A. y., Hamid, N. R. A. and Cheng, (2009), “E. H. Risk perception of the E-payment
systems”: a young adult perspective. 7, 2009
Dahlberg, T., N. Mallat, J. Ondrus and A. Zmijewska. 2008. “Past, Present and Future of
Mobile Payments Research: A Literature Review. Electronic Commerce Research and
Applications.” Research Advances for the Mobile Payments Arena Vol.7(2), pp165-
181
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Ireland”, The International Journal of Bank marketing, Vol. 17 No. 2, pp. 72-82.
Eben Otuteye, (2003), “A Systematic Approach to E-Business Security”, Faculty of
Administration, University of New Brunswick, Fredericton, Canada.
Iyer, A. (2013). Face book of Indian banking, The Financial Express, March p 6.
James A. Odumeru, (2012), “The Acceptance of E-banking by Customers in Nigeria,
World Review of Business Research” Vol. 2. No. 2, pp. 62 – 74, 2012
Jayawardhena, C. and Foley, P. (2000), "Changes in the banking sector – the case of
Internet banking in the UK", Internet Research, Vol. 10 No. 1, pp. 19-
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Mahdi, S. and Mehrdad, A. (2010), E-Banking in Emerging Economy: Empirical Evidence
of Iran, International Journal of Economics and Finance, Vol. 2, No. 1, pp. 201-209
Oliveira, T., Thomas, M., Baptista, G., & Campos, F. (2016). “Mobile payment:
Understanding the determinants of customer adoption and intention to recommend
the technology”. Computers in Human Behavior, Vol. 61, pp.404-414.
S. Srinivasan, (2013), “Role of trust in e‐business success, Information Management &
Computer Security”, Vol. 12 Issue 1, pp. 66 – 72, 2013
Salehi, Mahdi, Ali Mansouri and Zhila Azary. (2008). Islamic Banking Practice and
Satisfaction: Empirical Evidence from Iran, ACRM Journal of Business and
Management Research, Vol. 3, No.2, pp. 35-41.
Shankar, A., Datta, B., (2018). Factors Affecting Mobile Payment Adoption Intention: An
Indian Perspective. Global Business Review, Vol 19(35), pp: 725-895.
Sumanjeet, S. (2009). “Emergence of payment Systems in the Age of Electronic
Commerce”: The state of Act” Global Journal of International Business Research, Vol.
2(2) pp.17-36
Thakur, R. (2013). Customer Adoption of Mobile Payment Services by Professionals

across two Cities in India: An Empirical Study Using Modified Technology
Acceptance Model, Business Perspective and Research, Vol. 1(2), pp17-30.
Thornton, J. and White, L. (2001) Customer Orientations and Usage of Financial
Distribution Channels. Journal of Services Marketing, 15, pp. 168-185.
Wendy Ming-Yen Teoh Siong Choy Chong Binshan Lin Jiat Wei Chua, (2013),"Factors
affecting consumers’ perception of electronic payment: an empirical analysis",
Internet Research, Vol. 23 Issue 4.
Chapter 15
Inclusive Design for Higher Education
Institutions: Connecting Web Content
Accessibility Guidelines and Universal Design
for Technology-Enabled Blended Learning
Surbhi Sethi1; Manju Singh2
The article reviews Web Content Accessibility Guidelines (WCAG) and

Universal Design for Learning (UDL) in technology-enabled blended learning
through the lenses of social welfare and access equality. It further scans these
discourses in the escalating coronavirus pandemic conditions. The COVID-19
pandemic had already ushered in a “new normal” for higher education systems
globally. The universal shutdown of higher education institutions around 192
countries heightened concerns about the vulnerability of long-term learning
losses. Rising cases of university dropout rates, students suffering in
curriculum learning have led some to predict losses of 1-1.5 years of formal
education, and have given rise to social injustice, inequality, inequity, and the
digital divide (World Bank, 2020). Under the unprecedented situation of the
pandemic, many institutions have adopted various approaches for the
development and successful facilitation of teaching and learning to support
home-confined students and educators with undisruptive learning. Indeed,
this pandemic has become a growth opportunity for transforming the whole
concept of education ecosystem by more inclusive and sustainable integration
of Technology-Enabled Blended Learning into mainstream education. This
education model opens the way for critical investigation of the existing
practices and how they can be further embraced to improve quality, access
equality, social welfare, inclusion, and lifelong learning, as emphasized by
SDG4 in post-COVID-19 world.
1
Research Scholar, Department of Humanities and Social Sciences, Malaviya National
Institute of Technology Jaipur
2
Professor, Department of Humanities and Social Sciences, Malaviya National Institute
of Technology Jaipur
170 Inclusive Design for Higher Education Institutions
Keywords: Technology-Enabled Blended Learning, COVID-19, Web Content

Accessibility Guidelines (WCAG) and Universal Design for Learning (UDL),
Higher Education Institutions, Inclusive Design
1. Introduction
The COVID-19 pandemic has changed the way humans live, consume,
interact, and procure. It has altered the fundamental aspects of living, and
teaching and learning have been no exception. It has accelerated digital
transformation by moving in-person education to online education. This
emergency remote teaching and learning have led to a better
understanding of all the derivations of online education among the
stakeholders. Several attempts have been made to ensure the learners
continue to learn by providing active online delivery of lectures, e-
assessment, online collaboration, and e-evaluation. However, these
practices have also highlighted the limitations in existing traditional
systems of education that are highly dependent on the concept of the
simultaneous presence of students and teachers in the same place and at
the same time. The World Economic Forum (WEF) noted that the
traditional education ecosystem is becoming irrelevant and is certainly in
crisis. The unprecedented situation of COVID-19 has forced conventional
methods and processes to be overhauled. Around the globe, the institutions
have become aware that this pandemic in near future will lead to a
paradigm shift in education. This forced shift will lead to sustainable
change. Educational institutions are moving toward a sustainable
educational ecosystem that is relevant to all the stakeholders, products, and
processes. Educational institutions have realized that the system is much
more than just content, assessments, and evaluation but also social justice,
access equality, quality, emotional relationships, and lifelong learning, as
emphasized by SDG4. It has become clear that inequality, social injustice,
and the digital divide have worsened during COVID-19 pandemic,
requiring a complete mind shift to inclusive and sustainable measures. Web
Content Accessibility Guidelines (WCAG) and Universal Design for
Learning (UDL) both seek to increase the curriculum access and reduce
barriers of learning for students.
Amidst the education disruption brought forth by the pandemic, there are
various students that do not have a proper access to the learning materials,
have a good learning environment or an overall good learning experience
because of lack of resources. Likewise, there are many learners who want
to improve their skills and upgrade them but are not able to do within the
stifling boundaries of traditional system of education. Digital learning
platforms are changing the existing practices of teaching and learning.
They are modifying the existing conventional features, including
textbooks, lab-experiments, lectures, seminars, assessments, and
evaluation for education reform. While students and teachers can access
these resources via laptops, desktop computers, and mobile phones and are
available to learners in rural areas. However, due to the large access gap
and inequities in digital infrastructure, socioeconomically disadvantaged
students would be excluded from learning possibilities. Most importantly,
such exclusion may worsen the massive and systemic socio-economic
inequities in educational opportunities and learning outcomes.
Concurrently, various technological, pedagogical, economic, and social
issues need to be considered thoroughly before opting for a major shift in
the education system in India. The pandemic has underlined the
importance of openness in the overall education system and has also
highlighted issues, such as alternative safety, ethics, privacy, assessment
and evaluation methods. Indeed, this pandemic has become a growth
opportunity for transforming the concept of education system by more
sustainable and inclusive integration of Technology-Enabled Blended
Learning into mainstream education. This education model opens the way
for critical investigation of the existing practices and how they can be
further embraced to improve access, creation, and refinement of
knowledge during and beyond the COVID-19 pandemic. With a mission of
adapting, adjusting, and adopting, this article reviews Web Content
Accessibility Guidelines (WCAG) and Universal Design for Learning
(UDL) in technology-enabled blended learning through the lenses of social
welfare and access equality. It also scans these discourses in the escalating
coronavirus pandemic conditions.
2. Conceptual framework
The coronavirus pandemic is recognized as a watershed, disruptive

moment distinguished by unprecedented situations worldwide.
Researchers have identified it as a black swan, predicting that this situation
has already catalyzed permanent change in the processes, people, and their
linkages to the ecosystem of education. The COVID-19 pandemic forced
education systems into the grand experiment in emergency teaching and
learning. This emergency transition from traditional in-person education to
online education is changing the existing educational practices. It allows
for self-paced learning, peer learning, remote collaboration, virtual labs,
spaced repetition and mastery learning. It can play a significant role as an
education enabler by providing a “dynamic digital scaffold”—a model for
blended learning that combines in-person learning and online approaches
to help teachers improve delivery mechanism at scale by customizing the
students’ learning experiences (Willcox, K.E., et al., 2016). Innovative
technologies in online teaching and learning paradigm are modifying the
existing conventional features, including lectures, assessments, and overall
evaluation. Thus, technology-enabled learning (TEL) provides students
with opportunities to interact with peers and teachers beyond the bricks-
and-mortar structure, thereby, improving the teaching-learning
pedagogical practices and learning outcomes (Kirkwood, et al., 2016).
Blended learning (BL), a variant of Technology- Enabled Learning, is the
amalgamation of face-to-face teaching and online teaching (Porter, Wendy
W., et al., 2014), is widely seen by some as the “new traditional method”
(Ross, et al., 2006) or the “new normal” in lecture delivery (Anders, et al.,
2011).
Universal design for learning (UDL) directs the development of flexible

academic programmes and design elements of supporting academic units
at a technology-driven worldwide institution (Gronseth,2018). Faculty,
staff, and administrators all have a moral obligation to ensure that all
students have equal access to educational opportunities. Adherence to
UDL principles provides accessible academic programmes and recognises
that people differ in their ability to obtain educational and research
experiences as well as their geographic location. This article views TEL as
“building blocks” in the construction of learning as a dimension and of
flexible education practices. The benefits of using Technology-Enabled

Learning include flexibility in teaching-learning practices, a higher level of
digital literacy, augmentation of audiences in the learning opportunities,
enhancement in the learner and faculty engagement (Kirkwood, et al.,
2016). This article also notes the COVID-19 inspired shift to the practice of
flexibility and openness in the education ecosystem, linked to the use of
open pedagogies, technologies, assessments, and evaluation (Huang, et al,
2020), which are supported by approach of social justice in terms of
expanding access equality, equity, and quality in education.
3. Methodology
The study is descriptive in nature and tries to explore the Web Content
Accessibility Guidelines (WCAG) and Universal Design for Learning
(UDL) in technology-enabled blended learning environment. Amidst the
education disruption brought forth by the pandemic and the sudden
transition from in-person education to online education it explores the
WCAG and UDL through the lenses of social justice and access equality. A
systematic literature survey was done in detail for the study. Further, some
recommendations to address the educational disruption caused by the
pandemic and how these can build up a long-term resilient education
system in context of learner variability and development dynamics is also
presented. The research method is descriptive research and the research
tool used for analyzing the data amassed from various sources for this
study is content analysis. The study is completely based on the secondary
data. Secondary sources of data used in this study are journals, reports,
websites, research papers, search engines, academic publications and
scholarly articles. Reports on Technology-enabled learning were also
analyzed and updates on progress was compared with the analyses from
the extant literature reviewed.
This article acknowledges its strengths and limitations. The strength of this
study lies in its ability to showcase a holistic view of WCAG and UDL. In
addition to its strength, there are some weaknesses to acknowledge. First,
the practices that are analyzed in this article may not sufficiently reflect the
whole reflexes to interruption of education due to COVID-19. Second, the
suggestions that are reported in this article by researchers subject to their

own interpretation and can be subjective to some extent.
The study was guided by the following research questions:
1. What are the practical applications of WCAG and UDL for the
design of inclusive blended course?
2. What components of WCAG and UDL must be connected in order
to build a long-term resilient education system during any crisis
contexts?
4. Analysis and findings
4.1 Applications of WCAG and UDL for the design of inclusive

blended course
The Web Content Accessibility Rules (WCAG) 2.0 and 2.1 are a collection
of comprehensive guidelines for making web content more accessible to
people with a wide range of disabilities (Dalton,2017). The WCAG is
divided into four principles, which are the fundamental requirements for
web content to be considered accessible.
• Perceivable:- In order for it to be perceivable, users must be able to

perceive it in some way, using one or more of their senses. The
important thing to remember is that text can be transformed into
other formats that individuals with impairments can understand.
It can be read aloud by a screenreader, translated to large print, or
displayed on a braille display, for example. Multimedia such as
photos, audio, and video are examples of non-text content. Provide
alternatives to audio-only and video-only content that has been
pre-recorded. Provide captions and transcripts for web-based
video and live video and background noise should be kept to a
minimum in prerecorded audio recordings that predominantly
include speech, so that the information may be clearly
comprehended.
• Operable:- It means user interface components and navigation

must be operable. Unless it is impossible to do so, all functionality
should be accessible via keyboard controls (e.g., freehand
drawing). Built-in controls should be used whenever possible (e.g.,
tabbing through form controls), and bespoke functionality should
only be added when absolutely necessary.
• Understandable:- Information and the operation of the user
interface must be understandable. Definitions for technical terms,
jargon, and idioms/slang should be provided whenever they are
used. The site should have a dictionary of such words/terms that
you can link to when they appear. Context should not be changed
suddenly when data is entered into a control or a setting is
modified. Before the change takes place, the user should be
warned/advised.
• Robust:- It states content that can be reliably understood by a wide
range of user agents, including technologies. It focuses on ensuring
content as compatible as possible with both existing and future
user agents (e.g., browsers). Content should be well-formed so that
browsers and other user agents, such as screenreaders, can parse it
correctly.
Workable design for such groups enables more access for a wider range of
users, and this inclusive design approach helps learners on digital
platforms overcome barriers (Kumar & Wideman, 2014). Enhancing
accessibility in course design enables learners to select alternatives that are
aligned with their learning preferences in areas such as participation and
content presentation (Rogers-Saw, Carr-Chellman, & Choi, 2018).
The universal design for learning (UDL) allows for flexibility in how
material is delivered, how students respond or exhibit their knowledge and
abilities, and how students are engaged. All products and settings that
directly or indirectly assist teaching and learning in higher education are
included in the scope of UDL applications. The UDL action and expression
guideline of offering options for physical action is addressed by
compatibility with assistive technologies, which promotes options for
perception and access.
• Offering students choices about how they engage, learn

knowledge, and demonstrate what they've learned is a major
component of the UDL framework. Giving students options does
not imply that they are free to do whatever they choose. Rather, it
implies you can come up with a number of pedagogically good
solutions for engaging, learning, and assessing students.
• It's vital to ask in blended learning contexts about the course
content accessibility, course expectations, and communication.
Asking explicit questions and collecting feedback on accessibility
from students at the start and during the course will allow students
to interact with one another and facilitate troubleshooting at all
times.
• Students benefit from clear communication across different media
in a variety of ways. The formation of procedures, a method of
contacting the instructor, and a method of interacting both
formally and informally are all examples of clear commutation.
• Create a summary of the criteria and fast references by describing
them. Describe the course's expectations and include both positive
and bad examples.
• Organizing students into pods or small groups reduces the risk of
engaging the entire class, when student behaviours are
unpredictable. Humans thrive in small groups where they can
easily build communication systems, trade ideas, and resolve
conflicts.
It entails thinking about how options might be incorporated into each

course feature, the UDL framework can be used to a course's learning goals,
materials, procedures, and assessments. It also reduces barriers to learning,
provides appropriate accommodations, supports, and challenges, and
maintains high success goals for all students, including those with
impairments and limited English proficiency.
4.2 Connecting WCAG and UDL framework in order to build a

long-term resilient education system during any crisis contexts
Applying WCAG and UDL criteria to technology-enabled blended learning

courses can improve the student experience, especially for those on the
margins. Inclusive design methods that follow the WCAG and are founded
in the UDL framework can handle the different requirements of all learners,
making accessibility a worthwhile aim to pursue. Learners should be able
to understand course materials as well as the interfaces of course websites
and tools. It ensures that all students have equitable access to learning
opportunities. Flexible approaches to education and information
presentation are emphasised in UDL, making it easier for students to tailor
and adjust content to meet their unique learning needs.
• The UDL representation guideline of personalization and multiple

ways of displaying information provides possibilities for
perception. Individuals with sensory issues may have trouble
differentiating features such as shape, colour, size, visual position,
orientation, or sound. When these traits are present in content,
descriptions can be provided so that the information is presented
in a variety of formats. Enhancing contrast and student competence
in differentiating the core material from any surrounding pictures
or sounds can help discern significant components of content.
• The operable area is linked to the UDL principle of giving
numerous modes of action and expression, and it improves
accessibility for persons who use assistive technologies. Keyboard
navigation functionality, as well as a gateway to access via
numerous devices, improves usability. Adjustable timings can also
be used because they give users enough time to read and use the
content (Harding,2010).
• When digital course materials and activities appear and function
in ways that students expect, they are more likely to be understood.
This not only assists students in finding course materials, but it also
minimises superfluous cognitive burden, allowing users to devote
more of their focus, time, and attention to course activities (Aksoy,
2017).
• The UDL action and expression guideline of offering options for

physical action is addressed by compatibility with assistive
technologies, which promotes options for perception and access.
• Instructors and course designers can also utilise tablets and
smartphones to see course materials and try out tools, albeit the
display and operability of mobile technologies may differ when
touch is used for navigation vs access via a desktop computer with
a keyboard and mouse.
The main goal is for students to become more self-directed and purposeful.
Students may require study skills resources to be able to more consciously
allocate their time and attention to the course activities if supported
structures are provided as part of the course design. Giving Stakeholders a
variety of tools and formats to choose from allows them to find the ones
that best suit their requirements and preferences. Instructors may find that
a diversity of learning presentation alternatives makes evaluating student
learning more engaging and pleasurable since they may see a number of
products and forms that reflect different learner skills, preferences, and
interests. Faculty, staff, and administrators all have a moral obligation to
ensure that all students have equal access to educational opportunities.
Adherence to UDL principles provides accessible academic programmes
and recognises that people differ in their ability to obtain educational and
research experiences as well as their geographic location.
5. Discussion and conclusion
This article has attempted to review Web Content Accessibility Guidelines

(WCAG) and Universal Design for Learning (UDL) in technology-enabled
blended learning through the lenses of social justice and access equality. It
further scans these discourses in the escalating coronavirus pandemic
conditions. Adopting technology-enabled blended learning in higher
education could help the institutes to focus on continuous evaluation and
usage of alternative methods of assessment. However, this understanding
of assessment and learning is complicated. Instructors and course
designers can use inclusive design to increase accessibility in online and
blended course materials and activities. Recently, lack of internet, lack of
bandwidth, training of teachers has been a matter of debate. In its

descriptive research, it explored these analyses in the escalating
coronavirus pandemic conditions. The findings and analysis suggest that
preventing the teaching and learning crisis from becoming a catastrophe
needs to be a top priority for all the stakeholders viz. policymakers, leaders,
faculty members, and students, think tanks, industry, and the entire
community. Education is a global common good and is a driver of
economic growth, sustainable development, and inclusive peaceful
societies. This pandemic has provided a growth opportunity to reflect on
the loopholes of the old world and move towards a world geared forward
to collaboration, community service, interaction, and equity. Therefore,
higher education institutions must lay emphasis on providing multiple
technologies solution to reach every student by unfolding instructional
strategies that does not harm those who are excluded from the system due
to lack of any means. The advent of technology-enabled learning, combined
with rapid improvements in internet connectivity, has begun to usher in
huge changes in higher education. The pandemic's disruption of academic
activities has accelerated this embrace of technology.
The following opportunities from the technological (the rise of online

learning) to the entrepreneurial (the policymakers and traditional
institutions alone are unable to solve our education challenges) to the
cultural(the growing willingness to participate in alternative education
pathways) are transforming the landscape of higher education. The
changing digital landscape is impacting teaching and learning within
higher education system (Gardiner 2015). The sector is anticipating huge
scalability of blended learning, in response to the pandemic and
technological advancements. Blended Massive Open Online Courses have
arisen as a blended learning strategy that involves the use of in-person
learning in classrooms and combines it with MOOC platform-supported
activities in the Higher education context. Blended learning draws the
opportunities of in-person learning and online learning to enhance
traditional ‘classroom’ teaching and support innovative, constructive, and
interactive appropriate designed learning anytime and anywhere (Thai,
N.T.T., et al., 2017). By implication, to cope with future calls and strengthen
the resilience of education systems, at every level the institutions, the
communities must be empowered with sufficient policy and infrastructure

support to deliver quality education in the new classroom context.
Technology-Enabled Blended learning support interactive, collaborative
teaching and learning at any time and at any place (Thai, et al., 2017). This
has essentially become a necessity and is certainly the bedrock that truly
supports quality, openness, and expansion as identified in this article. Each
institution must strike the most appropriate balance of various
technologies and resources to enhance the learning paradigm without
sacrificing equity and inclusion.
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Chapter 16
Media and Development: The Future of
Women’s Health
Anushka Srivastava1 and Ajay Kumar Samariya2
Abstract. The concept of development has various connotations and

interpretations depending upon the way one perceives it. Development can be
considered as both a static state and a dynamic process. Development is
considered a multi-dimensional process that involves the reorientation of the
entire social system. It is often seen as a process that improves the quality of
living conditions of any society. The quality of life includes the physical, social,
psychological and economic factors as well. Among all the factors and various
socio-economic indicators, an individual's health is considered crucial in the
development process. Major world organisations have emphasised the
importance of good health and, 'Health for All' is amongst the significant goals
of the Sustainable Development Goals for 2030. Achieving good health for
every individual has been the central aim for all societies. Globally, in the past
many years, the need of giving special attention to women in the development
process has increased. However, women are still facing several challenges to
living a healthy and balanced life. Thus, it seems that there is a growing need
to understand the status of women's health in society. In addition, it is assumed
that women's health depends on how they deal with their issues at the
individual level. Improving access to health information, instructing them
about health and providing information via appropriate communication
channels can help women make well-informed decisions. For the proper flow
of health information to its people, media is often seen as a powerful tool; hence
it is its responsibility to take development to its people. Its exceptional ability
to reach out to a vast heterogeneous audience over a large geographical area
serves the nation to fulfil the purpose. Therefore, in this qualitative study, we
have highlighted the media's potential and traced what interventions can be
made through media to achieve the desired goal for development and health
1
Department of Culture and Media Studies, Central University of Rajasthan, Ajmer,
India
2
Department of Public Policy, Law and Governance, Central University of Rajasthan,
Ajmer, India
184 Media and Development: The Future of Women’s Health
awareness to women. Also, it was identified that media should be given the
prime role and responsibility in disseminating health awareness messages to
women.
Keywords: Health Awareness, Women Health, Sustainable Development

Goals
1. Introduction
India, the world’s largest democracy, a country which is culturally

diversified, geographically wide, and densely populated faces various
challenges. The challenges in its broader picture are corruption, gender
inequality, health, illiteracy, infrastructure, pollution, poverty, and
women’s safety. Amongst all the challenges, health is identified as a major
challenge for the overall development and growth of any country. The
National Policy for Women’s draft, 2016 has put health as the top-most
priority area in context to empowering women (MoWCD, 2016). Since 1978,
with the Alma-Ata Declaration it was emphasised that “…mass media can
play a supportive educational role…[and] help to popularize primary
health care” (WHO, 1978, p. 48).
Thereafter, numerous literature, mainly Flora & Cassidy (1990),

Brannstrom & Lindblad (1994), Sood et al.(2006), Sharma & Sharma (2007),
Bien et al. (2016), Gautam (2017), Gelaye et al. (2020), and Sern & Zanuddin
(2015) have also highlighted the media’s potential to disseminate and
educate people with the health-related information. Thus, this study has a
purpose to explore the media's potential and trace different interventions
to achieve the desired goal for development and health awareness to
women.
2. Methodology
This is an exploratory study, and it intends to identify the scope of media

interventions to be made regarding the health awareness messages. In this,
the available literature has been systematically reviewed using secondary
data sources for data collection. Further, in this qualitative study, we have
highlighted the media's potential and traced what interventions can be
made through media to achieve the desired goals for development and
health awareness in women. Moreover, this study highlights the historical
background of the significant steps taken for bringing women’ health into
the spotlight.
3. Development and health
In the 21st century, the notion of development has undergone

revolutionary changes. The word development has different annotations
and understandings depending upon the one who perceives it. It is often
associated with modernisation, industrialisation, and the progress of
society, growth, or social change. It means the concepts of development
have been changing with time. The concepts and issues related to
development have constantly changed globally because of the worldwide
changes in the social environment, economy, politics, technology, and
communication perspectives (Narula, 2018). Development is not confined
to the sheer upliftment of the economic status of a country; instead, it
involves several concerns that are relevant to the welfare of the people
living in the country. Today, development is seen as a complex and
participatory process that aims to improve people's living conditions in a
society. However, there has been much debate and disagreement on what
constitutes ‘improved living conditions’ and how they should be achieved
(Melkote & Steeves, 2015).
The most essential and dynamic aspect of development is the efforts put up
by all the development agents. Narula, in the book ‘Development
Communication: Theory and Practice’, talks about the development efforts
that comprise ‘Development Awareness’, ‘Motivation for Development’
and ‘Participation in Development’ (Narula, 2018). These three efforts have
equal importance in the development process as they are interdependent.
We can make the people living in a society aware of the various aspects of
the development and motivate them to participate in the development
process. The other factors about the development of a nation mark its well-
being in all dimensions. The well-being of a nation can be measured in
terms of their access to quality education, proper healthcare facilities,
freedom to live their life with equality in all ways. For the past few decades,
the focus on development issues has been on economic, social, political, and
poverty reduction factors. Significant attention was given to improving the
quality of life of the masses. The quality of life includes the physical, social,
psychological, and economic factors as well. The socio-economic indicators
of development include education, income, health, employment, and
housing and amenities (CBHI, 2020). Among all the factors and indicators
of development, as mentioned above, an individual's health is considered
crucial in the development process. A healthy person can work efficiently
and effectively in its life for their education, employment, and other
aspects. In addition, it was seen that even after several years of the
independence, more than 35% of the Indian population suffers from severe
ailments that adversely impact the quality of life of people (Kumar S. , 2015,
p. 17). Therefore, the need to emphasise on health is of great importance.
Major world organisations World Health Organizations (WHO), United

Nations (UN), United Nations Children Fund (UNICEF), and United
Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) have
been concentrating on health. The agenda, ‘Health for All', is the essential
goal of Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) to be achieved by 2030. The
Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) was initiated and discussed at the
Rio+20 UN Earth Summit (Pedersen, 2018), where it was advised to design
new goals after analysing the outcomes of the Millennium Development
Goals (MDGs). The MDGs were designed by United Nations and its
member states to be achieved by 2015, where global health was seen as a
priority agenda for the 21st century (Debas, 2013).
4. Women’s health
Development impacts different people differently, often with a much more

negative impression on women especially. This can destabilise the
women's role, status, health, living and position in the society and therefore
extends their disparity in the society. Women’s health is influenced by
several factors such as family, education, gender disparities, status,
poverty, access to healthcare facilities, awareness about their health etc. The
renaissance about women’s issues stemmed in the UN’s Declaration of
considering 1975 as the International Women's Year and the decade from
1975-1985 as Women's decade due to the international acknowledgement
of the problems women face around the globe (Ojha, 2011). The emphasis
on women was brought up in four International Women Conferences
organised by United Nations, which took place in Mexico City (1975),
Copenhagen (1980), Nairobi (1985) and Beijing (1995).
The conference of 1975 “The World Conference of the International

Women's Year”, Mexico was the first international conference focusing
women where 133 governments participated. This conference defined a
global action-plan to implement the objectives of the International
Women's year that presented a set of guidelines for the development of
women through 1985 (UN Women, n.d.). The second conference of the
United Nations for Women' was held in Copenhagen (1980), where 145
Member states reviewed the progress in implementing the goals set by the
first world conference, which focused on employment, education and
health. This conference called for more robust national measures which
ensure improvements in protecting women's right to inheritance,
nationality, and child custody. The third conference took place in Nairobi
(1985), “World Conference to Review and Appraise the Achievements of
the UN Decade for Women” with a mandate to establish concrete measures
that prevailed over the obstacles in achieving the decade's goals. One
hundred fifty-seven member states took part in it. The governments of the
member states adopted the strategies for the betterment of women,
emphasising the measures to achieve gender equality at the national level
and encouraging women's participation in development and peace-related
efforts. One major landmark was the World Conference on Women in
Beijing,1995 (UN), which marked a substantial milestone in the global
agenda for gender equality. 189 countries adopted this declaration and the
platform for action, with the agenda for women's empowerment. Women
and health are one of the critical concern areas under this declaration, and
other concerning them were women and poverty, violence against them,
women and the economy, human rights of women, women and media,
women and environment, etc.
Another major achievement was the Millennium Summit, held in the 55th
General Assembly of the United Nations framework in 2000, where the
Millennium Declaration was adopted. This declaration resulted in the
formation of Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) adopted by 189
countries that included eight major goals to be achieved by 2015. Out of the
8 MDGs, two goals were directly related to women. These were Goal-3 and
5 and, i.e., “Promote Gender Equality and Empower Women” and
“Improve Maternal Health”, respectively (United Nations, 2015, pp. 5-6)
The post-2015 development agenda resulted in the Sustainable

Development Goals (SDGs). The UN Conference on Sustainable
Development took place in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, in 2012. The UN General
Assembly, after analysing the status of MDGs, decided to work upon the
framing and adoption of the 17 SDGs and 169 associated targets to be
achieved by the next 15 years, i.e., 2030. Two major goals, Goals 3 and 5 of
the SDGs, focused on women's health and their empowerment with specific
targets. These goals were Goal 3 to “Ensure healthy lives and promote well-
being for all ages” and Goal 5 to “Achieve gender equality and empower
all women and girls”. The goals related to women emphasise on improving
the decision-making process by providing equal opportunities and their
active participation at all levels. Moreover, the goal concentrates on
eradicating all sorts of violence or discrimination against women in society
and providing them with an equal position in all terms (Status, health,
education, job opportunities, etc.)
5. Mass media and health awareness
Good health is essential for the health of a country; likewise,

communicating with people about their health, how to maintain good
health, and avail various healthcare facilities and initiatives taken by the
government is of utmost importance to the people. Communication is an
essential component of healthcare delivery. Consistent health information
is crucial in meeting the health-related SDGs and measuring progress
toward achieving universal health care (UHC) and addressing national
health priorities (WHO, 2017). A proper and organised channel is necessary
to effectively reach out to the target to carry out the process of
communicating for health in a planned and efficient manner. The
recommendations accepted in the Alma-Ata Conference, 1978, also
emphasised the same concern and suggested that the mass media could
play a “supportive educational role” (WHO, 1978, p. 48) in providing
health-related information.
The operational definition of mass media adopted in the study is that mass
media are the tools and technology, which hastens the information-
dissemination process concerning the masses. Mass media is believed to
mediate the messages (2010) and, however, can spread the information to
its vast heterogeneous audiences. Kumar (2010) highlighted the mass
media’s role and further talked about its potential in reaching out to vast
audiences. In addition, Kumar also quoted Schramm’s work where mass
media is considered a magic multiplier and explained it further in the piece
as below.
“To Schramm, the mass media were ‘agents of social change’, ‘almost
miraculous’ in their power to bring about that change. Schramm
argued that the mass media could help accomplish the transitions to
new customs and practices (the ‘innovations’ of Rogers). Behind
such changes in behaviour much necessarily the substantial changes
in attitudes, beliefs, skills and ‘social norms’. The process he
elaborated was simple: First, the awareness of a need that is not
satisfied by present customs and behaviour; second, the need to
invent or borrow behaviour that comes close to meeting the need."
Schramm (as cited in Kumar, 2010, p. 52)
Post-independence, the media was often seen as the means to inform the
people of the various development efforts taken by the government (2007).
The use of suitable channels of communication and strategies to make
people aware of multiple health-related information help them make an
informed decision and maintain a healthy life. Several studies have
recognised the media's crucial role in the information-dissemination
process and further highlighted that the effectiveness of a development-
related program depends majorly on the channels of communication used
to spread the information to the masses. Mass media is often considered a
key agent in social change and influences the behaviour of the audience.
Furthermore, it holds the ability to bring changes in the knowledge and
attitudes of the people.
Eminent development communication experts, Learner (1958), Schramm

(1971), and Rogers (1976), in their works, have emphasised the essential
role of mass media for development. Mass media, known for its unique
ability to reach out to the masses, has played a vital role in health
communication. Mass media campaigns related to health awareness have
been considered as the central point of many health-related activities since
the late 1950s to the present time. Moreover, the entire effort should be on
the designing of the media messages and their dissemination. Various
scholars have considered mass media the appropriate channel of
information dissemination for development and social change throughout
the decades. It seems to have a robust belief on the importance of Mass
media in disseminating information, affecting public opinion, and
communicating knowledge regarding health (Flora & Cassidy, 1990).
Exposure to mass media can stimulate awareness about an issue, reinforce
existing attitudes, enhance knowledge and beliefs (Calvert, 2008)
“UNESCO’s set of suggested minimal standards for mass media as development

indicators are examples of theoretical bias (UNESCO 1961, p.16). They urged that
every country should provide at least the following media facilities per one
thousand of population: one hundred copies of daily newspapers, fifty radio sets,
twenty cinema sets, and twenty television receivers.” (Narula, 2018)
In their attempt, Dr. Rena J. Pasick and Dr. Lawrence Wallack (1988) have
compiled a study based on expert opinions regarding the role of mass
media in health promotion. It was concluded that clear developments had
been made around the last decade over the effective use of mass media
campaigns in promoting health and healthy behaviours among the
audience. This is evident from several studies of the last few decades that
mass media came out to be very important in spreading awareness about
various issues concerning health, such as AIDS (Sood, Shefner-Rogers, &
Sengupta, 2006)(Sern & Zanuddin, 2015), pulse polio (Gautam, Mass media
and Pulse polio awareness campaign, 2017), tuberculosis (TB) (Gelaye, et
al., 2020), breastfeeding (Bien, Rzonca, Zarajczyk, Iwanowicz-Palus, &
Kozak, 2016), maternal healthcare (Igbinoba, et al., 2020) etc. Ghosh (2006),
in its study, highlighted a meaningful relationship that exists between
women's exposure to mass media and their maternal health awareness.
Mass media exposure, as opined by Ghosh, “makes women aware of the
need for basic maternal and child healthcare and enables them to receive
information regarding essential healthcare and recent developments in

health issues” (2006, p. 282).
Gelaye (2020), in its study, highlighted the importance of mass media for
awareness regarding TB. The exposure to mass media among the migrants
and seasonal farmworkers of Northwest Ethiopia had directly influenced
their knowledge and attitude regarding TB. Similar results were revealed
in several studies conducted for India; Sharma and Sharma (2007) carried
out a cross-sectional survey among the homemakers who resided in Delhi
for more than six months. The researcher selected the homemakers who
were not engaged in any work which required them to move out of their
homes more than twice weekly. The study found that the majority of the
women found information related to TB while exposing themselves to mass
media. To understand the impact of mass media on the knowledge status
of women regarding TB, Multivariate Logistic Regression was applied. The
analysis showed that the women exposed to television were nearly twice
as likely to have the correct information regarding the diseases compared
to those who did not have it. A well-planned and designed message,
disseminated through suitable mass media, can enhance the knowledge
and beliefs regarding health and have the potential to change the behaviour
towards better health. Considering the wide reach the mass media is
capable of, the information-dissemination process regarding health
awareness will significantly impact its audiences.
6. Conclusion
With an enormously diverse country, there seems to have a massive

challenge in the healthcare delivery system. This brings a target of
‘Universal Health Coverage’ into clear focus which was highlighted while
adopting the SDGs. One of the significant concerns in delivering healthcare
efficiently is that each section of the society should be considered and
treated equal. We are the country where women are often overlooked for
their health, due to lack of education, over-burdening of responsibilities,
high out-of-pocket expenditure, inaccessibility to health care facilities,
under-estimated risks, etc. In most of the cases they are even unaware of
the major risks associated with the diseases. In line with the Draft Policy
for Women 2016, various communicable and non-communicable diseases

such as HIV/AIDS, Cardiovascular diseases, Cervical cancer, which
requires immediate attention.
Several aforementioned studies have highlighted the media’s potential and

crucial role in reaching out to the masses regarding health-related
information. Furthermore, the studies discussed in this paper concluded
that mass media has significantly proven to have the potential in spreading
awareness regarding major health concerns such as polio, tuberculosis,
HIV/AIDS, maternal health etc., and developing desired behavioural
changes. However, the media’s reach and its accessibility should be of
prime importance while discussing the media’s potential. Media should
work according to its reach and accessibility to effectively disseminate
health-related information to the masses. The study identified that there
seems to have a good scope of media interventions to be made regarding
health awareness messages for the betterment of the information-
dissemination process. It can be concluded that media has the required
potential to change the behaviour of people and can positively act towards
maintaining good health.
There have been various programmes where government and NGOs have
successfully used the different forms of mass media to utilise and
communicate with people to primarily spread health awareness messages.
It is also found that media has its importance to achieving SDGs, as
highlighted in many reports. However, the media has not been given much
attention at the stage of policy implementation of various health-related
schemes and programmes. While, wherever mass media has been used as
a tool for health awareness, it has shown positive results and succeeded in
directly impacting the lives of the people in both developed and developing
countries. Therefore, policies and programmes of the government and
NGOs should be designed with proper consideration of different forms of
mass media. In the era of internet, social media and various applications
are crucial as well as effective in reaching out the people regarding health
awareness messages. Further, these platforms can be utilised for real-time
updates and effective implementation of various policies and programmes.
Hence, the media should be given a prime role for health improvement
from the initial stages of policy formulation to its implementation.
Furthermore, this study can be taken as a reference for future works to

further research concerning design and implement a suitable and effective
policy for health awareness and promotion.
7. Acknowledgements
This study is made possible because of consistent support of Dr. Neeru

Prasad, Assistant Professor, Department of Culture and Media Studies,
Central University of Rajasthan.
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Chapter 17
Mapping the New Dynamics of Employee
Engagement and Work-Life Balance:
Literature Review
Jyoti Motwani, Akanksha Joshi, Kumari Rashmi and
Aakanksha Kataria,
Malaviya National Institute of Technology, Jaipur
Abstract: The COVID-19 pandemic has plunged the corporate world into the
abyss of rocky roads and rough patches. All the aspects of the business
environment are facing difficult stages of their journey. In these times of hard
knocks, where finance managers are focusing to channelize the funds into most
profitable prospects, marketing managers are aiming at retaining their
customers, we have HR managers struggling to keep their workforce
motivated, engaged and most importantly intending to sustain their work-life
balance amidst this new normal. With the emerging practice of work from
home, it is of utmost priority for organizations to keep their employees intact
and engaged to maintain productivity and simultaneously providing them
enough space to have a smooth personal life. This study is primarily conducted
with the objective of critically analyzing and understanding the existing
literature on employee engagement and work-life balance. COVID-19 has
posed new obstacles for professionals in every field throughout the world, as
numerous professionals are required to work in virtual space for the first time.
As a result of the turbulence generated by this rapid transformation, both
leaders and their staff are disturbed. Our research using data analytics aims to
identify the key elements that influence an employee's morale, participation,
attitudes, and loyalty to the organization, allowing them to be labelled as
engaged employees. In addition, sentiment analysis reveals interesting insights
into employees ‘perceptions of work-life balance in times of new normal.
Keywords: Employee Engagement, Work-Life Balance

198 Mapping the New Dynamics of Employee Engagement and Work-Life Balance
1. Introduction
The topical state of affairs in context of COVID-19 pandemic has led to

creative destruction in the working landscapes of the organizations. There
has been an impulsive proliferation of new business models, advanced
technologies, and agile methods of working. Despite COVID-19‘s negative
effects, it is likely that we come into harmony for one thing- we have certainly
learned a lot! Though the learning curve has witnessed a significant growth
rate, there arrangement in working styles have put forward and tendered
new adventures and challenges for human resources of the organizations.
Employees have been ceaselessly encountering challenges like increased
workloads, longer working hours, and reduced rest periods. Into the
bargain, managers are finding it hard to keep their workforce engaged and
motivated amidst this virtual work setup. All these pressures secrete threat
for employees’ wellbeing on one hand and onus for management to explore
approaches and strategies that cultivate and foster employee engagement
and in concert maintain a positively skewed graph for work-life balance.
While previous studies have given an overview of what an ideal engaging

environment looks like and how leaders should step ahead towards
providing their employees’ proper work-life balance setup, this article
provides the critical analysis and review of existing studies.
The remainder of the manuscript is divided into 6 parts. Section 2 updates

the methodological approach adopted for conducting the review followed
by section 3 that presents the literature synthesis. Section 4 delineates the
implications and concluding remarks.
2. Methodology
The review-based paper was designed after a thorough analysis of research

papers compiled from Google Scholar and Scopus. Keywords like
Employee Engagement, Work-life Balance, and Work-Family Conflict were
used to structure the paper for understanding on the concept of employee
engagement and work-life balance. Refinement and finalization of articles
was based on title and abstracts.
3.1 Employee engagement
Employee engagement has been the topic of diverse research over the
years, including attrition, absenteeism, and commitment. It all boils down
to piquing the employee's interest working in sync with the organizational
goals. The biggest benefit of having a motivated work force is that it’s how
their work performance and productivity sin. This involves less turnover,
increases employees' dedication towards organization and its principles, as
well as their readiness to assist coworkers.
Employee engagement is becoming a major concern for organizations;

particularly as organizations recover from the COVID-19 pandemic's
shock. Their most precious asset is their people, for whom strategic age
desire being developed to promote employee engagement and adherence
to company goals. Furthermore, the growing demands for work-life
balance and the evolving connection between employers and employees,
technological advancements, are driving reasons behind the call for
employee engagement.
Initially, Kahn 1990 saw engagement as the 'harnessing of organizational

members'. He stated that during professional performances, engaged
people express themselves emotionally and intellectually. Employee
engagement was later defined by Harter et al., 2002 as an individual’s
participation, contentment, and passion for their work. It is defined as an
employee's level of dedication and interest in the organization and its
principles. Employees that are engaged contribute to the bottom line of any
company, and their engagement is reflected in the services they provide to
clients and customers. Engaged personnel contribute to increased
attendance and increase client's confidence. An engaged employee works
more efficiently, has a favorable influence on other coworkers, stays longer,
resulting in a significant benefit for the company.
There are three levels of engagement (Chandani et al., 2016) that an

employee could be feeling. Employee could be actively involved, passively
engaged, or apathetic. Employee’s that are engaged with zeal are there to
achieve the organizational objectives. Passively engaged is one who
appears to be contributing to the organization's objective, but without
enthusiasm and intensity. Employees who are apathetic are individuals
who are unhappy and disappointed.
Engagement also has different aspects: Intellectual engagement, which

refers to a commitment of enhancing job performance, Affective
engagement is feeling happy after work completion, and social
engagement, is where employees interact and discuss their work to
improve it.
Employee engagement is a wide concept that encompasses practically all

aspects of human resource management. Employees would struggle to
completely engage themselves in their job tasks if all facet of human
resource were not effectively managed with an appropriate strategy
(Markos and Sridevi, 2010; Andrew and Sofian, 2012).
Many studies had multiple variables (Figure 1) which affect an employee’s

degree of involvement in work:
Effective talent management, work roles, efficient higher management,

transparency in organizational objectives, fair processes and laws,
courteous gestures, workplace safety, ethical behaviors, empowerment,
promotion, acknowledgement, compensation and rewards. Because there
is varying emphasis on these variables that impact engagement, there is no
one fixed model that indicates the relevance and significance of the
influence of all of these variables. Variation sin person and job qualities,
gender diversity, cultural diversity, and other factors may all contribute to
these differences.
Possibilities
for
Professional
Growth
Flexible
Proper and working
transparent arrangements
communication
Factors Equality in
Sovereignty affecting the
Employee workplace
Engagement
Culture of
Employee continuous
Appreciation learning
Honest Cultural
Working Diversity
Environment
Figure1: Factors influencing employee engagement
a. Work-Life balance
Work-Life balance (WLB) is an important construct in the area of work-life

interface. This construct gained its acceptance in the western context in the
year 1986, in response to the growing concerns of individuals that they
spend more time at work front while devoting less time to family (Smith,
2010). In today‘s fast paced environment, managing multiple roles across
varied aspects of life have facilitated in creating conflict among individuals.
The term Work-family conflict (WFC) has been defined as―a form of inter-
role conflict in which the role pressures from the work and family domains
are mutually incompatible in some respect [Greenhaus and Beutell, (1985),
p.77].Earlier research indicated that WFC was a unidirectional construct
(Greenhaus and Beutell, 1985) but now it‘s been conceptualized that it is a
bidirectional construct (Kinnunen et al., 2010; Noor, 2004). A high degree
of WFC has-been shown to have negative implications for individuals as

well as the business firms in arrange of research conducted across different
countries and cultures (Baral, 2019; Gravador and Teng-Calleja, 2018;
Kinnunen et al., 2010; Machuca, Mirabent, and Alegre, 2016). Most research
has confined the concept of WLB to the lack of WFC (Au et al., 2020; Russo
et al.,2016), although it is a distinct construct.
The concept of WLB is nowadays increasingly being adopted by academics

and corporate leaders because of the contemporary socio-demographic
changes taking place in the dynamic environment (Au et al., 2020; Casper
et al., 2018; Haar et al., 2014). In India, demographic shifts are manifested
by an increase in the number of nuclear families, both married couples
working, and women involvement in the workforce (Baral, 2019; Rashmi et
al., 2021), all of which have placed significant pressure on both genders to
balance work and other responsibilities. Increased reliance on and use of
information technology are examples of technological innovation. As a
result, many employees are working outside of the office, blurring the line
between work and family life. Environmental changes can be seen in the
growing number of service-oriented businesses that need employees to
work longer hours, connect with clients frequently, and work across
multiple time zones. As a result, the line between work and family life has
become blurred (Chandra, 2012). The importance of striking a balance
between work and other essential parts of life such as personal life,
community, and leisure has been ingrained in the lives of employees.
WLB is an individual's belief that work and non-work roles are well-
matched and support progress in accordance with one's current life goals
(Kalliath and Brough, 2008). This shift in the trend occurs from detection
that family domain is not the only important part of an individual’s life.
There are varied ranges of activities that need to be balanced with the work
domain. Furthermore work-life imbalance issues can affect a diverse range
of individuals such women, men, parents and non-parents, singles and
couples (Rashmi et al., 2021; Russo et al., 2016). It's vital to note right away
that WLB does not imply devoting equal amounts of time to paid and
unpaid roles; rather, it refers to a satisfactory level of involvement in many
roles.
3.2.1 Definition of WLB

Scrutiny of the literature highlights that WLB is emerging as a major theme in the
present scenario. The study will highlight the definitions of WLB that have been
offered by many research scholars by incorporating diverse dimensions. These
varied definitions aid us to understand different perspectives of their search
practitioners.
S. Authors Definitions
no
1. Greenhaus and WFC―as a form of inter-role conflict in which the role
Beutell (1985) pressures from the work and family domains are
mutually incompatible in some respect ‘‘.
2. Marks and Role balance as ‗‗the tendency to become fully
MacDermid engaged in the performance of every typical role and
(1996) role partner with an attitude of attentiveness and
care‖
3. Clark (2000) WLBis―satisfaction and good functioning at work
and at home with a minimum of role conflict‖
4. Greenblatt, WLBas―the absence of unacceptable level so conflict
(2002) between work and non- work demands
5. Greenhaus et WFBas―the extent to which an individualize equally
al., (2003) engaged in—and equally satisfied with—his or her
work role and family role‖.
6. Greenhaus and WFE―as the extent to which experiences in one role
Powell (2006) improve the quality of life in the other role‖.
7. Kalliath and WLBas―the individual perception that work and
Brough (2008) non-work activities are compatible and promote
growth in accordance with an individual‘s current life
priorities‖.
8. Greenhaus and WFBas―an overall appraisal of the extent to which an

Allen (2011) individual‘s Effectiveness and satisfaction in work
and family roles are consistent with their life values at
a given point in time‖.
9. Sirgy and Lee WLBas―a high level of engagement between the
(2017) work domain and Non-work domain with minimal
conflict taking place between social roles in both
domains‖.
3.2.2 Theories in WLB Context
This section represents different theoretical models that have been used by
researchers and practitioners to explore and explain the dynamic
association between work and family.
S. Model Name Explanation Researchers

No
1 Segmentation Work domain and family Zedeck and
Theory domain are distinct areas, with Moiser(1990)
no relationship between them.
2 Spillover Work domain and family
Theory domain affect each other in both
positive and negative ways.
3 Compensation Negative experiences in one
Theory domain are compensated by
positive experiences of the other
domain.
4 Instrumental One domain acts a same and
Theory through which things are
obtained in another domain.
5 Conflict Work domain and family
Theory domain generated emends
which compel the individuals to
make difficult choices, and
hence forth they encounter
conflict.
6 Border Theory Individuals are daily border Clark (2000)
crossers as they travel between
the work domain and home
domain that are separated by
temporal, physical or
psychological borders.
Resource Transfer of resources from one Edwards and
Drain Theory domain to another Rothbard
Results in are duction of (2000)
resources in the original
domain.
8 Enrichment Activities carried out in one Greenhaus

Theory domain compliments the and Powell
quality of life carried out in (2006)
another domain.
4. Conclusion
As organizations are witnessing procedural transformation in their

working routines, the natural boundaries that once existed between work
and life are now getting erased. Most of the employees are finding it
difficult to maintain healthy and productive relations between work and
family whether it is downsizing or restructuring the existing pattern and
adding more work on already over worked; fading of―normal work day
‖due to world turning into global village, elevating demand for late night
sand early morning meetings, adding to already over flowed work
schedule sand calendars, achieving employee engagement and work-life
balances turning out to be a challenging goal for managers. However,
giving up and continuing the current scenario is no option to
administrators. Rather, now is the time when managers need to reset their
thinking and practices to retain employees and keep them engaged. In
order to increase the propensity of engagement, work-life balance is
prerequisite. It is a call for attention for managers to introduce the policies
that may allow their employees to discontinue from work and take up the
activities that count on life side of work-life balance. Organizations should
focus on designing frameworks that promote celebrating life beyond work,
foster opportunities for connecting people with each other, provide flexible
and easy-going remote work arrangements etc.
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208 The Influence of Socio-Demographic Characteristics
Chapter 18
The Influence of Socio-Demographic
Characteristics on Use of Digital
Payment Methods
Sunayna Khurana and Baljinder Kaur
Chandigarh Group of Colleges (CGC),
Landran, Punjab, India
Abstract. The development and acceptance of diverse digital methods of

payment are heading towards realising the dream of “Faceless, Paperless, and
Cashless India”. The primary focus of this study is to investigate the influence
of socio-demographic characteristics of the user’s, i.e., age, gender, education,
occupation, income and marital status on the use of digital payment methods.
The data collected from 173 users of different methods of digital payments from
Ludhiana, Punjab. The Kruskal-Wallis and the Mann-Whitney tests used to
examine the usage of varied digital payment modes based on user’s socio-
demographic characteristics. The results evidenced that gender, age and
marital status have no significant influence on the usage of digital payment
methods. However, the use of varied digital payment methods significantly
influenced by education, occupation, and income. To have an effective banking
policy and marketing strategy, it is vital to study the customer’s socio-
demographic characteristics for improved penetration of digital payment
methods in India.
Keywords: Digital Payment Methods, Socio-demographic, Age, Gender,

Education, Income, Occupation, Marital Status
1. Introduction
Digital India Programme and the demonetisation acted as an impetus in

transforming India into a cash-less economy. The substantial increase in
using different digital payments over the years is a sign that the nation is
adopting alternative payment methods over cash as shown in Table 1.
Table 1 Payment System Indicators

Volume (Lakh) Value (₹ Crore)
System Dec., Jan.,2021 Dec., Jan.,2021
2020 2020
1 Card Payments 4578.31 4914.48 112039 122089
1.1 Credit Cards 1319.66 1425.11 45558 50311
1.1.1 PoS based $ 601.63 659.47 20107 21001
1.1.2 Others $ 718.03 765.64 25451 29310

1.2 Debit Cards 3258.65 3489.38 66481 71778
1.2.1 PoS based $ 1461.94 1647.47 25821 29525
1.2.2 Others $ 1796.71 1841.91 40660 42253
2 Prepaid Payment 3987.42 4932.61 15521 16808
Instruments
2.1 Wallets 3205.59 3967.82 12892 13000
2.2 Cards 781.83 964.79 2629 3808
2.2.1 PoS based $ 24.49 29.20 628 737
2.2.2 Others $ 757.34 935.59 2002 3072
3 Other Payment Channels
3.1 Mobile Payments 17281.26 19521.47 637489 667279
3.1.1 Intra-bank $ 1574.10 1682.30 130568 138564
3.1.2 Inter-bank $ 15707.16 17839.17 506921 528715
3.2 Internet Payments 2673.76 2651.34 3251167 3006656
3.2.1 Intra-bank @ 582.31 557.18 1595612 1494618
3.2.2 Inter-bank @ 2091.45 2094.17 1655556 1512038
3.2.3 Using Credit Cards $ 3.29 3.66 167 184
3.2.4 Using Debit Cards $ 4686.13 4860.29 233256 237778
3.2.5 Using Pre-paid Cards $ 19.20 20.55 697 713
Source: (RBI Bulletin March 2021)

For further expansion in the usage of different digital payment methods,

there is a dire need to identify the profile of different digital payments
users. The study is an attempt to examine how the use of different digital
payment modes influenced by socio-demographic characteristics. The
socio-demographic variables are the easiest and most logical way to
understand the users’ usage of products and services. The key aspect of the
adoption of technology towards diverse modes of digital payments by
socio-demographic characteristics of the users (Szopiński, 2016). Thus, the
authors have taken into consideration gender, age, education, income,
marital status and occupation as socio-demographic characteristics for the
present study.
Alafeef, M., et al. (2011) studied role of demographic factors in adoption of

mobile banking applications in Jordan. It was concluded that demographic
factors such as income negatively and education (included mostly younger
generation) positively impact the adoption of mobile banking applications.
Samudra & Phadtare (2012), conducted a study in the Pune city on the
adoption of mobile banking reconnoitered that decision of use of mobile
banking taken by the male member of the family. Additionally, men
predominantly adopting mobile banking who worked as the middle-level
managers. Nimako, S. G. et al. (2013) studied impact of demographic
factors on customer satisfaction with internet banking service quality of
banking industry in Ghana. The study found that customer satisfaction
relating to internet banking service quality influenced by income other than
gender, age, marital status and education. Abu-Assi et al. (2014)
reconnoitered the factors that affect adoption of E-Banking adoption in
Jordan. The authors used conceptual frameworks namely Technology
Acceptance Model (TAM), Diffusion of Innovations (DOI), Technology
Readiness Index (TRI) for the conduct of the study. The study
acknowledged that compatibility, security, perceived ease of use and
usefulness certainly impact E-banking adoption. In addition, it also
strongly indicated that that all demographic factors influenced E-banking
adoption, as it played a significant role in development of market
segmentation with the aim to design marketing strategies. Alalwan, A. A.,
et al. (2015), conducted this research to reconnoiter Jordanian customers’

perception to understand the use of Mobile Banking pertaining to their
demographics. The study concluded that users’ perception towards
intention significantly differ with user’s demographics, i.e., age, gender,
education, income and personal experience. Sardar R. (2016) examined the
influence of demographic factors of urban respondents towards mobile
wallets in Jalgaon, Maharastra. The study revealed the negligible effect of
age and gender of the respondents concerning the usage of mobile
payments. Szopiński (2016), identified that the majority of the respondents
educated and from 25 to 34 and 35 -44 age-groups were users of online
banking. Yaokumah
W. et al. (2017) concluded that there was no influence of gender in the usage
of e-payment but males with greater knowledge of ICT and education
ironically were more assured about e- payments. The study also suggested
that the older customers above 50 years and the young customers satisfied
and used the services more. Vinitha & Vasantha (2017), explicated that age
had an insignificant influence on perceived benefits, speed and facilitating
conditions where the occupation of the respondent had a significant impact
on the use of e- payments. Kalra & Jain (2018) showed that the rate of
repetition of the use of online banking services impacted by gender,
occupation, age. Sobti N. (2019) The author determined age as a vital factor
towards the use of mobile payments categorically in young customers
because it’s easy applicability, influence of peer groups and convenience to
use. Gupta, R. and Varma, S. (2019) conducted an in-depth study to analyse
customer satisfaction towards credit card, debit card and internet banking
relating to their demographic factors. The study also concluded that age,
education, profession, and income as the dominant factors of usage and
customer satisfaction. Chawla, D., & Joshi, H. (2020) conducted an
exhaustive study to examine the influence antecedents led to the
acceptance of mobile wallets employed age and gender as moderators.
Świecka, B et al. (2021) studied factors influencing consumer payment
behaviour in Poland. The authors employed a Random Forests technique
of data-mining to determine the consumers’ payment choices. The data of
1005 consumers were interviewed with the use of computer-assisted
personal interviewing method. The results of the study established that the
payment choices highly influenced by socio-demographic factors and

financial literacy.
A hypothesis is formulated for the study based on the literature review:
H0: There is no significant difference in socio-demographic

characteristics of the respondent towards the use of various digital
payment methods.
3. Research methodology
For conducting the study, six different digital payment methods are most
used by the users based on RBI’s Report on High-Level Committee on
Deepening of Digital Payments May 2019. The various digital payment
modes are DC & CC (debit and credit cards), UPI (Unified Payment
Interface), IB (Internet Banking), MB (Mobile Banking) and MW (Mobile
Wallets). The data were collected from users of various digital payment
methods from Ludhiana, Punjab, India using judgemental sampling. A
structured questionnaire was deployed to collect data.
For testing the normality of data Kolmogorov Smirnov and Shapiro-Wilk

test were conducted using IBM SPSS 20. The probabilities were less than
0.05 (the typical alpha level) as shown in tables 2, and 3, so the null
hypothesis is not accepted i.e., data were significantly different from
normal. Thus, non-parametric tests namely, Mann-Whitney and Kruskal
Wallis test statistics were used to test the research hypothesis.
Table-2 Tests of Normality

Socio- Kolmogorov-Smirnov Shapiro-Wilk
demographic Statistic df Sig. Statistic df Sig.
Variables
Gender .378 173 .000 .629 173 .000
Age-Group .222 173 .000 .877 173 .000
Education .234 173 .000 .859 173 .000
Occupation .300 173 .000 .847 173 .000
Marital Status .485 173 .000 .504 173 .000
Annual Income .261 173 .000 .800 173 .000
Table-3 Tests of Normality: Kolmogorov-Smirnov Test

Digital Payment N Kolmogorov- Asymp. Sig. (2-tailed)
Methods Smirnov Z
Debit Card 173 4.998 .000

Credit Card 171 2.845 .000
Mobile Banking 173 3.570 .000
Internet Banking 173 5.130 .000
Mobile Wallets 166 4.343 .000
UPI 172 4.224 .000
H0: There is no significant difference in socio-demographics of the user
towards the usage of various digital payment modes.
The null hypothesis further divided into the below-mentioned sub-
hypothesis as per socio- demographic characteristics:
H0a: There is no significant difference in gender of the user towards the usage
of various digital payment modes.
H0b: There is no significant difference in the age of the user towards the usage
H0c: There is no significant difference in the education of the user towards the
usage of various digital payment modes.
H0d: There is no significant difference in the occupation of the user towards
the usage of various digital payment modes.
H0e: There is no significant difference in the marital status of the user towards
the usage of various digital payment modes.
H0f: There is no significant difference in income of the user towards the usage
Data analysis and interpretation demographic profile of the users:
Table-4 Age-Group* Gender Gender

Crosstabulation Male Female Total
18-25 22 12 34
Age-Group 26-35 30 21 51
36-50 30 33 63
∈50 17 8 25
Total 99 74 173
Education* Gender Crosstabulation Gender
Male Female Total
High Class 13 12 25
Education Graduate 40 31 71
Post Graduate 37 30 67
Other 9 1 10
Total 99 74 173
Occupation* Gender Crosstabulation Gender
Male Female Total
Student 16 9 25
Occupation Service Class 49 39 88
Business Class 28 10 38
Housewife 6 16 22
Total 99 74 173
Marital* Gender Crosstabulation Gender
Male Female Total
Marital Status Single 23 14 37
Married 76 60 136
Total 99 74 173
Annual Income* Gender Crosstabulation Gender Total
Male Female
Up to 500000 15 16 31
Annual Income 500000-1000000 48 41 87
>1000000 46 17 55
Total 99 74 173
The results of cross-tabulations (as exhibited in table-5) of age with gender

displayed that a majority of males and females between the age-group 26-
35 and 36-50 are using digital payment methods followed by 18-25 and
above 50 years. The demographic profile of digital payment method users
comprised educated where most of the respondents are graduates and post-
graduates category. Most of the respondents are married and belonged to
the service class followed by the business class with annual income Rs.
500000-100000 and above.
H0a: There is no significant difference in gender of the user towards the usage
Table-6 Test Statistics: Mann-Whitney U*Grouping Variable: Gender

Digital Mann- Wilcoxon Z Asymp. Sig. Result of
Payment Whitney U W (2- Hypothesis
Methods tailed) testing
Debit Card 3568.500 8518.500 -.369 .712 Accepted
Credit Card 2653.000 7504.000 -3.022 .003 Rejected
Mobile 3400.500 8350.500 -.873 .382 Accepted
Banking
Internet 3273.500 8223.500 -1.389 .165 Accepted
Banking
Mobile 2961.000 7426.000 -1.542 .123 Accepted
Wallets
UPI 3531.500 6306.500 -.327 .744 Accepted
Since the p-value of the usage of a debit card, mobile banking, internet
banking, mobile wallets and UPI are greater than the level of significance
i.e., 0.05, the null hypothesis is accepted. Hence, it is concluded that there is
no significant difference between males and females concerning the use of
digital payment methods except for credit card as shown in table-6. The
results supported the findings of Poon W.-C. et al. (2009).
H0b: There is no significant difference in age of the user towards the usage of
various digital payment modes.
Table-7 Test Statistics: Kruskal Wallis Test*Age-Group

Digital Payment Chi-Sq. df Asymp. Sig. (2-tailed) Result of Hypothesis
Methods testing
Debit Card .520 3 .915 Accepted
Credit Card 13.256 3 004 Rejected
Mobile Banking 8.983 3 .030 Rejected
Internet Banking 19.227 3 .000 Rejected
Mobile Wallets 10.093 3 .018 Rejected
UPI 21.928 3 .000 Rejected
As the p-value of the usage of a credit card, mobile banking, internet

banking, mobile wallets and UPI are less than the level of significance i.e.,
0.05, the null hypothesis is not accepted. Accordingly, it is verified that the
use of digital payment methods except for debit card had a substantial
influence on age as displayed in table-7.
H0c: There is no significant difference in education of the user towards the
Table-8 Test Statistics: Kruskal Wallis Test*Education

Digital Payment Chi-Square df Asymp. Sig. Result of Hypothesis
Methods testing
Debit Card 11.378 3 .010 Rejected
Credit Card 16.186 3 .001 Rejected
Table-8 depicted that the p-value of usage of digital payment methods is

less than the level of significance i.e., 0.05, the null hypothesis is not
accepted. Thus, the level of education has a strong influence on the use of
various digital payment methods. The results support the finding of
Szopiński (2016).
H0d: There is no significant difference in occupation of the user towards the
Table-9 Test Statistics: Kruskal Wallis Test*Occupation

Methods testing
Debit Card 13.617 3 .003 Rejected
As exhibited in Table-9, the null hypothesis is rejected which means

occupation and use of digital payment modes have strong relationship.
H0f: There is no significant difference in income of the respondent towards
the usage of the various digital payment modes.
Table-10 Test Statistics: Kruskal Wallis Test* Annual income

Methods testing
Debit Card 3.508 2 .173 Accepted
The annual income and use of varied digital methods of payment other than
the debit card has a significant relationship as the results of the Kruskal
Wallis Test exhibited in table-10. The similar finding was concluded by
Sinha. et al. (2015).
H0e: There is no significant difference in marital status of the respondent
towards the usage of various digital payment modes.
Table-11 Test Statistics: Mann-Whitney U*Grouping Variable: Marital Status

Digital Mann- Wilcoxon Z Asymp. Sig. Result of
Payment Whitney W (2- tailed) Hypothesis
Methods U testing
Debit Card 2479.500 11795.500 -.172 .864 Accepted
Credit Card 2015.500 11060.500 -1.821 .069 Accepted
Mobile Banking 2407.500 3110.500 -.436 .663 Accepted
Internet Banking 1452.000 10768.000 -4.580 .000 Rejected
Mobile Wallets 1700.500 2403.500 -2.978 .003 Rejected
UPI 1850.000 11166.000 -2.519 .012 Rejected
Table-11 displayed the results of marital status. The marital status of

respondents and the use of varied digital methods of payment other than a
debit card, credit card and mobile banking have a significant relationship.
The study conducted by Roy & Sinha (2014) in Kolkata concluded that
marital status has no/partial impact on the use of digital payment methods.
4. Conclusion
The study examined the influence of socio-demographic characteristics on

the use of different digital payment modes. The results demonstrated that
there is a significant effect of education, gender, age, occupation, marital
status and income on the use of diverse digital payment methods. It was
found out that age, education and occupation are the most significant socio-
demographic characteristics of the respondents which influenced the use
of different digital payment methods. As a result, two characteristics of
socio-demographics i.e., gender and marital status have no/partial
influence on the use of digital payment methods. The findings are useful
for formulating strategies for further expansion of digital payment
methods.
References
Abu-Assi, H. A., Al-Dmour, H. H., & Zu'bi, M. F. (2014). Determinants of internet

banking adoption in Jordan. International Journal of Business and Management, 9(12),
169.
Alafeef, M., Singh, D., & Ahmad, K. (2011). Influence of demographic factors on the
adoption level of mobile banking applications in Jordan. Research Journal of Applied
Sciences, 6(6), 373-377.
Alalwan, A. A., Rana, N. P., Dwivedi, Y. K., Lal, B., & Williams, M. D. (2015, October).
Adoption of mobile banking in Jordan: Exploring demographic differences on
customers’ perceptions. In Conference on e-Business, e-Services and e-Society (pp. 13-23).
Springer, Cham.
Astha Kalra & Rajiv Jain (2018), “Digitalisation”, Maharaja Agrasen University
Publications New Delhi http://cashlessindia.gov.in/digital_payment_methods.html
Nimako, S. G., Gyamfi, N. K., & Wandaogou, A. M. M. (2013). Customer satisfaction with
internet banking service quality in the Ghanaian banking industry. International
journal of scientific & technology research, 2(7), 165-175.
Payment and Settlement extracted from RBI Bulletin October 2020,
https://www.rbi.org.in/Scripts/BS_ViewBulletin.aspx?Id=19882
Poon, W. C., Yong, G. F. D., & Lam, W. H. P. (2009). An insight into the attributes
influencing the acceptance of Internet banking: The consumers' perspective.
International Journal of Services and Standards, 5(1), 81-94.
Roy, S., & Sinha, I. (2014). Determinants of customers’ acceptance of electronic payment
system in Indian banking sector–A study. International Journal of Scientific and
Engineering Research, 5(1), 177-187.
Samudra, M. S., & Phadtare, M. (2012). Factors influencing the adoption of mobile
banking with special reference to Pune City. ASCI Journal of Management, 42(1), 51-
65.
Sardar, R. (2016). Preference towards mobile wallets among urban population of Jalgaon
city. Journal of Management, 3(2), 1-11.
Sinha, M., Saxena, R., & Majra, H. (2015). Mobile payments in India: drivers and
inhibitors. Sobti, N. (2019). Impact of demonetization on diffusion of mobile payment
service in India: Antecedents of behavioral intention and adoption using extended
UTAUT model. Journal of Advances in Management Research.
Świecka, B., Terefenko, P., & Paprotny, D. (2021). Transaction factors’ influence on the
choice of payment by Polish consumers. Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services, 58,
102264.
Szopiński, T. S. (2016). Factors affecting the adoption of online banking in Poland. Journal
of business research, 69(11), 4763-4768.
Vinitha, K., & Vasantha, S. (2017). Influence of demographic variables on usage of e-
payment system. Int J Mech Eng Technol (IJMET), 8, 265-276.
Yaokumah, W., Kumah, P., & Okai, E. S. A. (2017). Demographic influences on e-

payment services. International Journal of E-Business Research (IJEBR), 13(1), 44-65.
222 ‘Cha’, ‘Kwai’ and ‘Apong’ as Stimulus for Well-being
Part Six
CULTURAL DIMENSIONS OF WELL-BEING
Chapter 19
‘Cha’, ‘Kwai’ and ‘Apong’ as Stimulus for
Well-being: a Subjective Study in the context
of some cultures of Northeast India.
Dr. Neeta Lagachu (Taye),
Department of English, CKB Commerce College, Jorhat.
Assam
Abstract. The native people of the Northeast of India share many similarities
in terms of their polychromatic culture and lifestyle. The alikeness is especially
obvious in their ‘recreational’ and social victuals and drinking habits. These
common conventional practices have been instrumental in heightening their
awareness of affinity and kinship and the attendant increase in the happiness
quotient. Cha, Sha, Sa:ng, Sah or Tea plays a seminal role in captivating its
drinkers by its tempting aroma and manifold varieties. The Kwai, Tamul,
Guye` or Betel is seeped into the psyche of the people of the region. It has
become their raison d’etre for existence and conviviality. It is a conspicuous
symbol of tradition and the Khasi Shang Kwai, the Mising Guye` Paye`g, and
the Assamese Tamul Bota serve as faithful companions to the older generation.
Again, the Apong, Chhaang, Zutho, Jou, Kiad, Hor Alank, all belonging to the
tribe of Bacchus, are some of the many names of homemade concoction. These
fermentations are crucial requirements in both auspicious as well as
propitiatory rituals in traditional tribal societies. By using the qualitative
paradigm of research, the study will delve into the premise that long-
established socio-cultural customs like regular sipping of cha, chewing kwai
and drinking apong function as stress busters and mood enhancers.
Accordingly, from a subjective perspective, this paper will explore how tea,
betel and traditional drinks become a medium in instilling a sense of warmth,
hospitality and generosity to strangers, visitors or relatives. Poring through
available literature, both print and online; and informal interviews with well-
versed individuals will be the methodology used to carry forward the
discussion and to arrive at a conclusion.
Keywords: Cha, Kwai, Apong

Introduction
Aristotle’s “Man is by nature a social animal” is a very perceptive take on

the human dependence on conviviality and herding. In any culture or
community, the warmth and well-being of its denizens assume paramount
importance. Ancestors of the human race had devised and passed on quite
a number of behaviours and customs to instil the sense of togetherness and
camaraderie to successive generations. The Northeast of India is a reservoir
of unique traditions and practices that is infused with the tantalising breath
and spirit of the land. Despite the diverse culture, its people are particularly
and collectively mesmerised by the common traditions of sipping tea (cha),
chewing betel (kwai) and drinking rice beer (apong). The consumption of
these victuals probably springs from the simple fact that the land itself has
gifted its people lush tea gardens, and friendly and fertile soil for growing
paddy and betel trees. It goes without saying that one, two or all the three
items (Cha, Kwai, or Apong) is usually available in most households of the
region- either as an accompaniment to a meal, or a delectable ingest before
or after a meal.
Cha: “the cup that cheers but not inebriates”
The importance of tea as an elixir, a rejuvenator is underlined when we

realize that a day in the Gregorian calendar is devoted exclusively as
International Tea Day (May 21). The term Tea or Cha, Sha, Sa:ng, Sah, or
whatever appellation is used for it, is associated with culture, tradition,
bonhomie, stress buster, and get-togethers. Tea drinkers of the world will
be familiar with the feeling of gung-ho that a cup of tea can bring forth.
Thomas Cowper’s 1785 poem, “The Task” refers to tea as “the cup that
cheers but not inebriates” and highlights the value and joie de vivre stirred
by the sipping of tea. The Singphos, inhabiting Assam and Arunachal
Pradesh, are believed to be the first tea drinkers of India. They had
introduced ‘Phalap/Phanap’ (which basically means ‘tea’ in Singpho native
parlance) in this part of the world long before the tea documentation
process had started. It is recounted that, in those days, the leaves of tea were
grown in tall trees and harvested “around elephant backs to brew the
native beverage for the guests of colonization as a token of warmth and
welcome”. A common Singpho folklore ascribes ‘Phalap’ to an accidental
discovery by two brothers who had gone hunting deep into the forest.
Worn-out and famished, they absent mindedly chewed on wild leaves and
were amazed that it not only reduced their hunger but also lifted their
spirits. A Dutch traveller, Jogn Hughen Von Linschoten, who visited India
in 1538 AD, had written:
“Indians ate the leaves as a vegetable with garlic and oil and boiled the
leaves to make a brew.”
Though it can be countered that the Singpho natives had probably started
its use initially as a medicinal ingredient. It was in 1823 when Major Robert
Bruce got wind of about this unique tea culture. Accompanied by Maniram
Dewan, an Assamese nobleman, he sought an audience with Bissa Gam,
the chief of the tribe, and acquired seeds of the plant for further
examination. In the early 1830’s this variety was officially classified as
Camellia Sinensis variety Assamica, a variant of the Chinese tea. In
February 1839, the Assam Tea Company, the first joint stock tea company,
was established in London. Singpho tea is also famous as coin tea, bamboo
tea or smoked tea.
“China is said to be the birthplace of tea. Tea culture is an important

component of Chinese culture that enjoys a long history of 5000 years...
Chinese tea culture has mingled with … different tea cultures in different
countries and regions.” Samuel Pepys, the English diarist, wrote in his
diary entry from September 25, 1600 “Tcha, the excellent and by all
Physicians approved, China drink.” Lao Tzu, the ancient Chinese
philosopher, had therefore aptly commented- “Tea is the elixir of life”. That
almost all countries of the world are hooked on tea as giving a semblance
of sanity to life and living can be gleaned from social practices such as ‘High
Tea’, ‘Tea Break’, ‘Tea Party’ etc. that is relevant even today. The ‘chai-
wallahs’ on busy Indian roads and railway platforms is a telling picture of
people seduced by the magic potion of tea, often times getting rid of the
sweat and grime of a tiring
day. In rural Assam, the custom of drinking tea in ‘baan batis’ aka brass
metal bowls is still prevalent. In the ancient past, bowls carved out of
bamboo was probably used to offer tea to guests. Tea thus can be
considered a social drink.
Statesman and four-time Prime Minister of Great Britain, William E.

Gladstone has fittingly expressed:
“If you are cold, tea will warm you; if you are too heated, it will cool
you;
If you are depressed, it will cheer you;
If you are excited, it will calm you.”
Tea is the means that provides the devotional/emotional connect that is

needed to get through a ritual or custom be it an auspicious or a funerary
occasion. In Assam, the Moina Poria Namghar (Prayer House) or
Narasingha Namghar located in the suburbs of Jorhat city, still follows the
convention of offering its devotees red tea in a ‘baan bati’ with a small piece
of gur (jaggery). A spiritual voice of the Chinese Tang dynasty articulated:
“The first cup moistens my lips and throat

The second shatters my loneliness
The third causes the wrongs of life to fade gently from my
recollection.
The fourth purifies my soul
The fifth lifts me to the realms of unwinking gods” (Pradip Baruah)
Likewise, any bereaved or grieving family of a local tribal household in

Meghalaya, who have lost their loved ones, witnesses the unifying power
of tea (and kwai) during the usual three-day mourning period. Till the
funeral is not over, well-wishers (which can include strangers) and relatives
continue with their visit to commiserate with the bereaved family. In these
times, endless cups of milk tea do the round and are gulped down eagerly,
more so when such a tragedy takes place in the long, freezing winter
months. Tea does act as a calming factor in such situations.
A study carried out by Minakshi P. Hazarika in 2014 reveals that tea

consumption has numerous health benefits:
“Tea contains antioxidants that protects our body from the ravages of
ageing and the effects of pollution. It also helps keep us hydrated. Tea is
calorie-free…Tea is known to increase your metabolism…Green tea has
been shown to actually increase metabolic rate so that you can burn 70-80
additional calories by drinking just five cups of green tea per day”.
Tea culture is steeped in the psyche of the people of northeastern part of

India. One will rarely find a family which considers drinking tea as
obnoxious. Family and community matters are discussed huddled over a
cup of tea. Invitations for social visits are extended by dangling the carrot
of tea. Tea “is drunk twice to thrice daily by the
Barmans of Cachar, the Sonowal Kacharis, the Zeme Nagas, the Khasis, the
Dimasa Kacharis and the Lalungs.” (Pradip Baruah). American author
Chaim Potok’s “Come, let us have some tea and continue to talk about
happy things” elucidates the feel-good factor that swigging of tea
generates.
Kwai: ‘the addictive victual’
Lips splashed crimson and cheeks blushing beautifully can be a sight for
sore eyes. Words such as these can give the impression of describing the
aftereffects of deep love, but it can also be the warm impact produced by
chewing betel. The masticating of kwai or betel leaf seems to give a
heavenly glow to the masticator. Such a picture is most frequently seen in
Shillong, the capital of Meghalaya, wherein its inhabitants whether young
or old, boys and girls, in fact, any Tom, Dick or Harry goes about their
ordinary business of life with mouthfuls of kwai. Senior citizens, especially
octogenarian and nonagenarian mei-ieids, meikhas, parads and paieids
(paternal and maternal grandmothers and grandfathers) usually sit on
murhas or bamboo stools or on the floors of kitchens or verandahs
zealously guarding a wooden mortar and iron pestle plastered with
reddish black stains. The mortar and pestle are used for pounding betel nut
and betel leaves that are also smeared with lime. The older generation,
come what may, is hardly seen to relinquish the joy and bliss of relishing
kwai. Teeth may have gone brittle or fallen off due to advancing age, but
despite being toothless, the addictive victual cannot be sacrificed as long as

they could hold on to life. Not only women, but also men have a sling bag
in their person where a temporary stock of diced kwai and tympew (betel–
leaf) are stored to be eaten in the course of the day. In all likelihood, it must
be only during sleep that the mouths of the denizens of ‘the abode of
clouds’ get rest. Earl Kowall writes:
Women sat beside huge piles of nuts, slicing off the husks with sharp
knives to reveal mature, wood- like, cream-colored, speckled kernels
which varied in potency and size. One woman with red-stained lips
and a perpetual smile, sliced the nuts with a special scissor-like
contraption. Unconsciously pulling a kwai from a pouch tied around
her waist, she popped it into her mouth and chomped on it. After she
spat it out, she brushed her kwai-blackened-teeth with a piece of
husk. When we looked surprised by her actions, she exclaimed,
giggling, “In Meghalaya, kwai is …a gift from the gods…enjoyed by
man, woman and children alike.”
The Garos of Meghalaya call kwai ‘gue’ almost similar to the Mising
(second largest ethnic tribe of Assam) ‘guye`’. As per archaeological
substantiation, areca/betel nut eating has been in practice for close to 4,000
years, and one tenth of the world’s population are regular masticators of
the nut victual with India racing to the top as its largest consumer.
I am the betel nut,

The daga stick
And the lime pot:
I am the red, red stain…
I am the free gift,
The girls are garlanded with
And dance to greet:
I am the crowd pleaser…
And, I am the nut of conflict,
The urban curse
And the rural blessing:
I am the lifestyle choice.
The above lines are excerpts from Michael Dom’s 2015 award-winning
poem, titled ‘I am the betel nut’. The poem gives the idea that a betel nut is
an entity possessing its own characteristics. It results in a “red, red stain”,
is a “free gift”, is a “crowd pleaser”, is a “nut of conflict”, an “urban curse”,
a “rural blessing” and is ultimately a “lifestyle choice”. Man is not born to
be alone. For his overall well-being and longevity, it becomes imperative to
create a cohesive society or community. And to build a social cluster, he
will need an approach to intermingle and maintain relations, to keep the
warmth of bonding, flowing and glowing. Therefore, betel and betel-leaf
becomes one such reciprocal and convivial offering. In the Mising society
of Assam, just as in few other societies, the elaborate rituals and ceremonies
associated with marriage is incomplete without the presence of guye`-pa:n.
The prospective groom’s family members and relatives initiate the
auspicious occasion with betel nuts and betel leaves that are beautifully
covered with banana leaves and placed in a ‘horai bota’ (a brass plate with
a long stem). This ‘horai bota’ or ceremonial gift is handed over with utmost
respect and propriety to the elderly relatives of the prospective bride’s
family. On the day of marriage, two huge bunches of areca nut, which are
traditionally carried by the groom’s maternal uncle, are presented to the
bride’s family among other things. In this way, the betel becomes a “crowd
pleaser”, a contrivance to blossom and cement relationships and
consequently igniting the general well-being of many people together.
Kavya literature has also been voluble about the symbolism of betel and
betel chewing in nurturing connubial relationships. Hermina Cielas writes:
“It’s symbolism was probably the source of its incorporation in rites

concerning puberty or pregnancy.
Since the two halves of the betel seed are a perfect match,
symbolizing a couple and a lovers’ go-between, it is also an
important part of wedding ceremonies in many communities.”
The ‘tamul-paan’ or betel nut and leaf is also a permanent fixture in

religious and traditional functions of the greater Assamese society. Even
today, especially in the traditional rural set-up, invitation to weddings or
ceremonial functions like ‘coming of age’ ritual for girls (during the first
menstruation) are extended by offering a ‘tamul paan’ in a ‘horai bota’ to
individual households. The ubiquitous wedding card or invitation card is
thus ignored and done away with. Mention of the kwai further brings to
the fore the faithful life-long companion, the Shang Kwai, the Mising Guye`
Paye`g, and the Assamese Tamul Paan Bota. These images conjure up
warm pictures of Khasi families sitting by the fireside with the harsh wind
blowing outside. But the chilliness of the long winter months is usually
cushioned by cutting and chomping on the betel and its accompaniments
stored in the wicker basket or ‘shang kwai’ which is replenished
immediately. Kowall narrates:
‘Pullan narrated a Khasi and kwai folktale about a poor couple who
had committed suicide after being unable to treat a rich friend
visiting their home. As per custom, Pullan offered us a tray with
kwai. We partook as she explained, “According to Khasi folklore,
ever since the tragic event, kwai, of special significance to our tribal
etiquette, has become a symbol of hospitality, a mark of respect and
honor, an integral part of all gatherings, an equalizer between the
rich and poor bringing people together regardless of their
backgrounds.” Chuckling, Pullan added, “Besides, kwai is so
important, my villagers and I use it as a unit of measurement,
gauging the distance we have walked by the number of kwai we
have chewed.”’
Apong: “the bati that cheers and sometimes inebriates”
Wine, beer or apong with its numerous names have kept humankind on
the throes of intoxication and delirium since the beginning of time. The
glaring statutory warnings issued by authorities has hardly dampened the
zeal of people. In traditional societies, especially in the northeast, bibbers
or tipplers will most likely outnumber teetotallers. Drinking home-made
wine or home-made beer, mostly from batis (brass bowls) has been deep-
rooted as a custom and practice since the time of their forefathers.
“Traditional knowledge is an accumulated body of knowledge that

is rooted in the spiritual health, culture, and language of the people
and handed down from generation to generation.”
Alcoholic drink is considered a taboo in a few societies. But for quite a

number of societies, it takes on more of a sacred rather than a profane
connotation. For the poor in tribal societies such as the Misings of Assam
and the Adis of Arunachal Pradesh, cultural and religious programs are
usually stalled or postponed because of the unobtainability of rice, which
is the main ingredient necessary to prepare the apong. It is required to be
prepared in bulk as the whole village and throngs of relatives attend these
religious rituals and ceremonies- be it a dodgang (a ritual for the death) or
a midang (marriage). In fact, the well-to-do takes pride in fermenting rice
beer as much as they can in order to satiate and slake the thirst of a greater
number of people. In the rural set-up, offering apong to visitors and
relatives becomes a matter of pride, an invitation to understand and respect
the culture of the people. The same is the case with the Karbis and Boros of
Assam. Hor Alank and Arak, the rice beverages of the Karbis, plays an
integral part in their socio-cultural life.
“Horlank is traditionally used during Adam Asar (traditional

marriage) and Seh Karkli (Worships). Arak is used in all social
occasions including death ceremonies; it is also offered to guests as
a mark of respect.”
The traditional drink of the Boros is known as Jou (rice-beer).
“Jou is traditionally used in marriage, worship and in all social

occasion including funeral and death rituals. It is also offered to
guests as a mark of honour. Festivals of Boros like Bwishagu (a new
year festival), Domasi (harvest festival), Kherai (a ritualistic dance)
and other social ceremonies such as birth and marriage etc. cannot
be accomplished without these drinks. Jou is not only customarily
important among Boro tribe, but are also used as refreshing drink
where the elders of every household relax by consuming it after
doing chores of work. It thus plays a significant role in the socio-
cultural and personal life of Boro people.”
People the world over understand the pros and cons of the use and abuse
of alcohol/apong. But the well-being of friends and guests is what we toast
to whenever glasses are raised. For tribal societies such as the Misings of
Assam, the Apong becomes a sacred offering to propitiate the dead

ancestors and spirits to get rid of sickness and evil in the family and
community. It is worth mentioning in this connection that even Christian
and Hindu beliefs speak of ‘the sacramental wine or altar wine’ and
‘somras’ or the drink of the gods.
It is believed that the Adis of Arunachal Pradesh and the Misings of Assam
share a common ancestor known as ‘Abu Tani’. There is a myth
surrounding Karpung and Karduk, a brother-sister duo, whose
grandparents were Li`tung Ba:bu and Li`mang Na:ne and who dwelled in
the land of Engo Takar. It is said that Karpung and Karduk entered into an
incestuous relationship and the latter gave birth to a stillborn baby whom
they flung it into a river.
The spirit guarding the river contracted a strange malaise after drinking the
river water. The spirit later came to know that the disease was caused due
to the dead baby thrown into the river. With a mind to punish Karpung
and Karduk, the spirits entered the ‘okum’ (house on bamboo stilts) but
became animated at the entrance as it got the whiff and fragrance that
emanated from the house. On exploring inside, the otherworldly
inhabitants saw an apong-drenched conical bamboo basket with liquid
drops falling from it. Putting some drops in their mouth, they were
captivated by its taste.
“The spirits were humbled with the taste and aroma of Apong and
said to beg for more beer from Karpung and Karduk. The spirits
pardoned the brother and sister of their guilt but instructed them to
offer Apong in any ritual as it will appease the spirits and gods.”
Conclusion
In collectivistic cultures, instead of keeping people at arm’s length, these

victuals encourage people to rub shoulders with each other and thus
increasing the ecstasy of life and living. The voices of gardeners (for Cha)
and farmers (for Apong and Kwai) and their legacy needs to be preserved,
to bring about a wholesomeness in society. It would be very difficult and
even unwise to demolish the traditional food habits that generations have
been following to keep the souls intact and the fires burning in the heart
and hearth. Citing Jacinthe Bessière, G. Fassino writes in Culture, Heritage,
Identity and Food: ‘Traditional foods are not merely a cultural trait that
belongs to the past, but also “a way of understanding the world, a resource
for perceiving, elaborating otherness and therefore identity”.’ (p. 42). The
eats and drinks of the tribes and societies mentioned above represent their
deeply embedded culture, the social way of life shown by their fathers and
forefathers. The injured Deven, in Emily R. King’s fantasy novel, The
Hundredth Queen, utters “The apong makes the pain bearable.” (p. 70). The
cha, kwai and apong thus provides these traditional societies with a reason
to live, to cohabit and thus instilling in them the harmonious feeling of well-
being.
References
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Assam, its Tribes, and Role of Tocklai, Science and Culture, Vol. 77, Nos. 9–10, 365-
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of Assam and North East India, Journal of Scientific and Innovative Research, 3 (2),
239-243 (2014).
Cielas, Hermina: Betel chewing in kāvya literature and Indian art, 163-176, Jagiellonian
University, Cracow. https://riviste.unimi.it/index.php/consonanze/article/download
/10718/10057/31892
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Jagduar Habi Gaon,
Concerns and Voices, Cotton College Women’s Forum, Vol. 3, 205-213 (2014).
Grimaldi, P., Fassino, G., Porporato, D.: Culture, Heritage, Identity and Food, Interreg
Central Europe, (2019).
King, Emily R.: The Hundredth Queen, Skyscape, New York, (2017).
Kowall, Earl: https://www.remotelands.com/travelogues/betel-nut-in-the-clouds-25-
year-old-imagesfrom-meghalaya/
Pegu, R., Gogoi, J., Tamuli, A. K.: Apong, an Alcoholic Beverage of Cultural Significance
of the Mising Community of Northeast India, Global Journal of Interdisciplinary
Social Sciences, Vol.2(6),12-17 (2013).
Teron, Robindra: Hor, the traditional alcoholic beverage of Karbi tribe in Assam,
Explorer: Research Article, Vol. 5(5), 377-381 (2006).
https://www.collectionscanada.gc.ca/obj/s4/f2/dsk2/ftp03/MQ62360.pdf.
https://www.thechayi.com/singpho-tea-phalap/
https://esahtea.com/blogs/tea-blogs/phanap-the-key-to-a-cultural-heritage-of-assam-
tea.
https://rujanitea.com.au/blogs/the-tea-gram/the-history-of-tea-in-assam.
https://www.pngattitude.com/2015/03/i-am-the-betel-nut.htm.
https://www.thehindu.com/society/how-chai-arrived-in-india-170-years-
ago/article24724665.ece.
https://www.thebetterindia.com/78265/chai-tea-history-india/
Chapter 20
Intersectional Inequalities, Well-being and
Violence: A Study of Select Malayalam Films
on and during COVID-19 Times
Reju George Mathew
School of Management Studies, National Institute of
Technology Calicut, Kozhikode, India
Abstract. COVID-19 has indeed challenged the conventions of Malayalam film

industry by reconfiguring practices of film making as well as watching. Though
several Malayalam films were made and released during the pandemic times
in 2020 and 2021, two films stand out by setting the stories in the pandemic
period itself, Joji directed by Dileesh Pothan and Aarkariyam directed by Sanu
John Varghese. Set in Kottayam district, (in) famous for the Syrian Christian
community with its claims of an upper caste status, traditions and rituals of
religion are highlighted in both films. While Bincy, the daughter-in-law in Joji
attempts to resist patriarchy in subtle ways, Sherley, the daughter in Aarkariyam
is denied any agency in many events through careful avoidance. The graphic
nature of violence in the attempts towards well-being by the protagonists
unsettles the viewers while echoing the casteist violence associated with Syrian
Christian community. The paper attempts to analyse the ways in which
traditions have influenced the manners in which intersectional inequalities
have been normalised and how it has (not) changed during the pandemic times.
The violence of well-being within the families would be studied. The paper
would comment on the ways in which Malayalam film industry has redefined
its ‘subject’ by shifting the gaze towards the violence in families while viewers
are curiously ‘stuck’ with their families in lockdown.
Keywords: Well-being, Violence, Gender, Caste, Religion

236 Intersectional Inequalities, Well-being and Violence
1. Malayalam films and COVID-19
Malayalam film industry is one of the most notable of the many film
industries in India producing not just a massive number of films every year,
but several notable ones nationally as well as internationally. According to
onmanorama website run by Malayala Manorama1 newspaper, Malayalam
film industry released a massive 192 films in the year 2019, spending more
than 800 crore rupees in the process [Kishore]. With the outbreak of the
COVID-19 pandemic across the world in 2020, there were lockdowns, and
restrictions in travelling as well as social gathering in various parts of India.
Malayalam film industry was at the receiving end of the pandemic and
associated restrictions, with the number of releases in 2020 coming down
to below 60. It needs to be noted that while some of these films were shot
before the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic, even those that were shot
during the pandemic period conveniently eluded engaging with the
pandemic within the film.
The new reality of the pandemic and the changed lifestyle could not be
accommodated within the filmic imaginations of the real yet. Two
Malayalam films that have actively engaged with the pandemic within the
setting are Joji (2021), a crime-drama directed by Dileesh Pothan2, and
Aarkkariyam (2021) a mystery-drama directed by Sanu John Varghese3.
Both these films were released on OTT platforms going with the latest trend
in filmmaking as well as film watching in the pandemic situation. A
detailed study of these films reveals how people dealt with the anxieties of
the period and how existing inequalities of an intersectional nature were
reconfigured and reconstituted in multiple attempts of well-being, both by
the oppressors as well as the oppressed.
1
Malayala Manorama is the second oldest newspaper (founded in 1888) in Malayalam,
the largest circulating newspaper in Kerala, and the third largest circulating newspaper
in India.
2
Dileesh Pothan is a Malayalam director, actor and producer, known primarily for
directing films like Maheshinte Prathikaram (2016), and Thondimuthalum Driksakshiyum
(2017).
3
Sanu John Varghese is an Indian cinematographer who has worked in Hindi,
Malayalam, Tamil and Telugu films. Aarkkariyam is his first directorial venture.
2. Intersectional inequalities in Kerala and well-being
While Kerala boasts of being a highly literate state, several cases of violence
and discrimination based on caste, gender, sexuality, religion and disabled
identities mar the popular myth of a progressive state. Kulapuranas of many
dominant communities like the Syrian Christians4 boast of an upper caste
origin and attempt to retain an upper hand in the social hierarchy. The
status of women is not admirable in Kerala’s social structure with dowry
deaths becoming a norm even amongst the educated masses with
government jobs.
As per the state police’ crime records bureau, 66 cases of dowry-related

deaths and over 15,000 cases of harassment at the hands of
husband/relatives have been recorded in the last five years. According to
another set of data shared by the state women’s commission, nearly 1,100
cases specifically of dowry-related harassment have come to its attention
since 2010 with the capital district of Thiruvananthapuram accounting for
nearly half of the cases. [Varma]
An intersectional approach to these inequalities in Kerala society offers a

more nuanced understanding of discrimination and violence and the
struggles for well-being by individuals as well as communities.
Theories of intersectionality could be traced to the attempts of American

civil rights and critical race theory scholars like Kimberle Crenshaw.
Influenced by black feminist theorizations of black women’s lives,
Crenshaw argues for an expansion of feminist theory and antiracist politics
by considering the realities of black women’s lives at the intersections.
According to her, attempts to end the subordination of Black people should
also address the sexism and patriarchy operating within the community.
Similarly, feminism becomes relevant for black women only when it
4
The Syrian Christians, also known as ‘Saint Thomas Christians’, ‘Suriyani Kristhyani ’,
‘Syrians’, ‘Nazranis ’ and ‘Mappilas’ (in certain regions of Kerala), have traditionally
enjoyed an upper caste status in Kerala, often at par with the Nairs and the Namboodiris.
The legends and myths associated with St. Thomas are often invoked to legitimize the
upper caste origins of the community. Though divided into many churches, they claim
upper caste conversions into Christianity as their heritage.
includes race as a factor in its analysis of discrimination [Crenshaw 166].

Similarly, one could argue that discrimination and violence against various
identities in Kerala could be understood only by considering the various
intersections at work in the society. Thus, one’s caste, gender, religious as
well as various other identities may factor in understanding discrimination
as well as attempts of well-being by individuals.
Well-being of an individual goes way beyond the absence of mental illness

and stress. According to the American psychologist Carol D. Ryff, the well-
being of a person is “to possess positive self-regard, mastery, autonomy,
positive relationships with other people, a sense of purposefulness and
meaning in life, and feelings of continued growth and development [103].
Considering the intersectional inequalities in Kerala society, one could
realise how vulnerable individuals could be.
2.1 Certain factors of well-being in families
One of the important factors of well-being in a family, especially for

children and young adults is that of divorce and marital discord between
the parents. According to Paul R. Amato and Juliana M. Sobolewski,
parental divorce while growing up produces children with low level of
psychological well-being in adulthood; parental marital discord results in
long-term implications in the children’s psychological well-being; the
psychological well-being of children declines with divorce and the multiple
transitions in the family that are associated with it; marital problems of
parents damage emotion connection between them and the children in
adulthood as well as result in low self-esteem, stress and unhappiness in
the adulthood of those children [916-917]. Another factor that determines
one’s well-being in a family could be identified as the individual’s religious
involvement. According to Christopher G. Ellison, individuals with
“strong religious faith may redefine potentially negative life events in
religious terms as opportunities for spiritual growth or as part of a broader
divine plan [90].” This factor becomes a crucial one in a society like Kerala’s
which has strong religious traditions. While studying the gender inequities
in Kerala and its relationship with well-being, Praveena Kodoth and
Mridul Eapen observe that patriarchy has carefully reconstituted several
reforms that give a fake notion of equity in gender relations, and this
includes access to healthcare, education etc. while still remaining

committed to domesticity of women, thereby influencing their well-being
[3285].
3. Joji, the weakling and the manipulator
The film Joji deals with the patriarch Kuttappan in a Syrian Jacobite
Christian family in Kottayam district in Kerala and how he controls the
lives of all other members in the family. While the eldest son Jomon is
committed to his father, the second son Jaison and his wife Bincy seem to
perform their duties in some kind of a fear and out of societal pressure. The
third son, Joji, is a symbol of everything that Kuttappan despises, from his
weak body to his inability to succeed in anything. The other member of the
family is Popy, the teenage son of Jomon. Jomon wife is absent both in their
lives and in the film. Her existence is reminded to the viewers only through
occasional dialogues of the other characters.
The film starts with a bird’s eye view of the Erumeli town to show the poor
traffic and almost deserted streets in the context of the pandemic. The
director carefully employs the bird’s eye view of the estate, the locale as an
establishing shot. There are several wide-angle shots in the film that are
used to foreground the presence of the rubber trees, a marker of the locale
as well as a source of the family’s income. There are also several low angle
shots in the film- one to show Kuttappan as a dominant figure in the family,
another to show Joji gaining confidence while he smokes etc. Several drone
shots of the commercial plantations of rubber and pineapple are shown to
establish how even human relations are determined by various factors
there and are not organic or natural. This is evident in the manner in which
the labour is divided in the family. While Bincy toils hard to take care of
the household work, cooking etc., it seems to attract no appreciation from
anyone. Jaison runs the rubber shop of the family and takes care of the
commercial business deals. Jomon is an alcoholic who still seems unable to
come to terms with his broken marriage. Popy seems to be away from any
company of his age and attempts to resolve his boredom by buying an
airgun that becomes a crucial tool for Joji’s attempt to glory and subsequent
fall.
The total subservience and fear that Kuttappan has instilled in his younger
sons is evident in the manner in which they ask for permissions for
seemingly silly desires and actions. Kuttappan’s accident and subsequent
fall from the pedestal of the dominant patriarch relieves Joji to some extent,
but his gradual recovery makes Joji to plot his father’s death. Jomon’s
commitment to his father and his values is seen in the manner in which he
refuses to give up hope on his father’s health and his attempts to quash any
criticism of the family from outside. Even when the family’s relative, Dr.
Felix, recommends against spending lakhs of rupees for Kuttappan’s
treatement, Jomon wishes to do their best for the patriarch.
The film attempts to portray the feudal nature of the Syrian Christian
family in multiple ways. The large estate with no neighbour in the vicinity
shows the volume of landed property the family owns. This is in contrast
with the lives of those servants and labourers who work in their estate. Joji’s
jog in the estate after his father’s death which ends with him standing on a
rock and majestically overlooking the estate and the family’s house in no
less regal than a king inspecting his domain.
One could clearly understand that the well-being of the individuals in the
family did not matter to the patriarch who kept to himself not just the
property, but also small indulgences like expensive liquor bottles. The
arrogance and the lack of concern from the father figure seems to have
contributed immensely to the discontent in the minds of the family
members. Bincy is tormented with the household work and the sheer lack
of recognition, possibly due to her inability to provide an offspring. This
could be the reason she wishes to move away from the joint family setup.
The film reminds the viewers of the pandemic at several instances by the
use of masks by various characters, the limited number of people
participating in the funeral rites at home etc. The panic and the anxiety
related to the pandemic is indeed missing in the family as they are already
torn apart with strained relationsips. Joji’s attempt is to redeem himself
through whatever means, to negotiate terms and make a life of his own.
The film seems to reflect the ways in which individuals would resort to
drastic steps to overcome violence and passive aggression, to ensure one’s
well-being.
Aarkariyam, the secret in the family
Ittiyavira, a retired Maths teacher living in Pala, reveals a secret to his

current son-in-law Roy, one about a murder. Roy and his wife Sherley have
been living in Mumbai and are shown as travelling to Kerala during the
initial days of the COVID-19 pandemic, just before the nation-wide
lockdown in 2020. Roy is shattered by the secret and also perplexed with
the love, affection and care shown by Ittyavira. Sherley is kept in the dark,
but the story later reveals how she had identified a body as her ex-
husband’s just to escape the sympathy from others for her being without a
husband, a mother of a two-year old girl. Her attempt at ensuring her own
and her daughter’s well-being is a late revelation to Roy who is also torn
between stances with Ittyavira providing to cover Roy’s debts.
The pandemic situation is often kept in the storyline of the film with regular
references to lockdowns, travel restrictions, and several scenes with
characters wearing masks. It is to be noted that during the initial scenes of
the film, the characters are shown to be taking more precautions as per the
COVID-19 protocol in Mumbai while those in Kerala are shown as taking
the situation lightly. These are evident in scenes where Ittyavira plans to
attend a funeral and in his interactions with the fish seller.
The religious nature of Ittyavira could be understood as his way of dealing

with the guilt of having murdered Augustine, his first son-in-law, and his
reliance on God and his divine plan seems unacceptable to Roy at times. At
the same time, Ittyavira has his concrete notions about people, their nature
and their roles in the society. One would also note that he is not an evil
character, at least in the conventional manner, as he shows affection to
Sundaran, a mentally challenged young man who had witnessed the burial
of the murdered Augustine. Similarly, Augustine is also shown as having
different hues in his character. While he was bad manners and evil
personified for Ittyavira, he was caring and loving for Bhasi, the local man
who assists the family in many affairs. Even Augustine’s mother believes
that it was his friends who spoiled his life. Roy’s attempts to contact the
friends and family of Augustine to learn more of his persona can be seen as
an attempt to unravel the truth behind the murder as well as to legitimize
his own position in the family.
The film also employs several wide shots to foreground the rubber trees
around the family’s ancestral house, to establish the setting. The familiar
scenes in and around a Syrian Christian family in Pala as shown in the film
unnerves the spectator when she realizes the horrors and the secrets the
family setting hides.
4. Conclusion
Syrian Christian lives of the Kottayam region are shown in both the films.
The nuances of human relations in the families, the seeming normalization
of violence and the desperate attempts by individuals to secure their well-
being bind both the films together. The COVID-19 pandemic is a reality,
but not yet a major concern in both the films. Their realities are bound by
the existing, age-old inequities.
Hannah Arendt talks about the ‘normal’ nature of Adolf Eichmann as she
witnessed his trial in Jerusalem. The normal appearance and nature of
Eichmann is a disturbing image for us as it points fingers to the possibility
of each of us having the potential to inflict violence on people without being
evidently ‘evil’ in the conventional sense [Whitfield 470]. While Joji appears
as a normal, subservient and incapable younger son in the family, he is
revealed to have plotted evil deeds against his father. His plan to execute
his father to inherit the property also reminds one of the innumerable cases
of property disputes and violence amongst family members in the state. On
the other hand, Ittyavira too does not regret his actions. Rather, he takes
solace in the Bible and interprets his actions as the deeds of God, thereby
justifying the murder. While Joji’s murders can be traced to his greed and
selfishness, Ittyavira’s is about his strong disapproval of his daughter’s
choice of a husband and Augustine’s casual approach towards a married
life.
Both the films succeed in dismantling the notions of family as a safe and
peaceful space. The depiction of violence as shown in the films is only a
reflection of the real in the reel, of the increasing domestic violence in
Kerala. At the same time, both the films portray women as having no or
almost absent agency in the decision-making processes in the family. The
daughter-in-law in Joji and the daughter in Aarkkariyam are both puppets
in the hands of the male characters. Bincy, the daughter-in-law in Joji,

attempts to take charge of the situation and her life by associating with Joji,
but fails miserably at it. Sherley, on the other hand, does not get a share of
the secret, the murder of Augustine, and is forced to make the best of her
situation by identifying a random dead body as her husband’s. Even Roy
keeps the secret away from Sherley. The women characters, thus, reveal the
general attitude towards women in the society. While power becomes a
major concern for Kuttappan, the patriarch in Joji, (un)acceptable social
interaction is what leads Ittyavira to murder Augustine. The choice of
names in both the films again reveal the ‘ordinary’ and ‘normal’ nature of
the lives that are represented on reel. The stories are shown in such realistic
ways to hit the spectators hard with the reality, how violence is a part of
our lives and how ordinary and normal are not devoid of evil deeds though
they are in the assumed safe spaces of the family.
The intersectional nature of inequalities in the familial space becomes a

contemporary and important concern for both the films under
consideration. The directors have succeeded in portraying the possibilities
of violence and betrayal without any of the conventional villain characters
or settings that invoke horror and fear. By depicting the ordinary and the
everyday as possible sites of violence, the films contextualize the increased
cases of violence during the lockdown period. The films also reveal how
violent acts are a part of an individual’s strategies for well-being. The films
point fingers towards patriarchy amongst the Syrian Christians in the
region, invoke memories of violent feudal pasts that are reenacted in
contemporary relations and interactions, and compel one to rethink the
Syrian Christian pride as exhibited by the patriarchs.
References
Amato, P. R., Sobolewski, J. M.: The Effects of Divorce and Marital Discord on Adult
Children's Psychological Well-Being. American Sociological Review 66(6), 900–921
(2001).
Crenshaw, K.: Demarginalizing the Intersection of Race and Sex: A Black Feminist
Critique of Antidiscrimination Doctrine, Feminist Theory and Antiracist Politics.
University of Chicago Legal Forum (1), 139–167 (1989).
Ellison, C. G.: Religious Involvement and Subjective Well-Being. Journal of Health and
Social Behavior 32(1), 80–99 (1991).
Kishore, P.: Malayalam cinema 2019: the hits and misses from 192 movies,
https://www.onmanorama.com/entertainment/entertainment-
news/2019/12/24/malayalam-cinema-2019-yearender-hits-flops-box-office-
collection.html,
Kodoth, P., Eapen, M.: Gender Inequities of Some Dimensions of Well-Being in
Kerala. Economic and Political Weekly 40(30), 3278-3286 (2005).
Ryff, C. D.: Psychological Well-Being in Adult Life. Current Directions in Psychological
Science 4(4), 99-104 (1995).
Varma, V.: The horrors of Kerala’s dowry deaths, https://indianexpress.com/
article/india/kerala/the-horrors-of-kerala-dowry-deaths-7387077/
Whitfield, S. J., Hannah Arendt and the Banality of Evil. The History Teacher 14(4), 469-
477 (1981).
Chapter 21
Understanding Health Resource Allocation in
Kerala Based on Gini Coefficient Method
K Muneera, Fawaz Kareem
School of Management Studies, NITC Calicut, Calicut, India
Abstract. The concept of ‘Health resources’ in the context de-notes the human
resources and financial resources in health sector of a particular state. The
human resources comprise of medical personnel while financial resources
comprise the health infrastructure and public spending on health as percentage
of GDP. The study conducted using data from directorate of health ser-vices of
Kerala in 2020 study result shows that health resources are equitably
distributed among 14 districts of Kerala in terms of population and
geographical area.
Keywords: Healthcare Resources, Gini Coefficient, Kerala Health System
Introduction
Kerala is historically considered as a health concerned society. People were

accustomed to approach health practitioners instead of self-treatment even
at the time of indigenous systems like Ayurveda. The state of Kerala was
built up on a strong focus on education and public healthcare (Raman
Kutty V, 2000). The most appreciated ‘Kerala Model’ of pandemic
containment is portrayed by its health concerned society provided with
adequate healthcare facilities and contingent strategies by the state. The
coastal state in India is far ahead of the nation and is at par with developed
nations in its achievement of sustainable development goals set by United
Nations General Assembly. Kerala retains its top position in 2020 – 21 NITI
Aayog’s SDG Index. WHO report of 2020 relates health outcomes,
specifically, health system’s coping abilities to respond to crisis and contain
pandemic, to systematic investment in health systems? Distribution of
healthcare resources has a great role in this regard. In this paper, we study
the degree of inequality of the demographic and geographic distribution of
246 Understanding Health Resource Allocation in Kerala
public healthcare resources in Kerala that can explain the underlying

dynamics of the public healthcare system.
It is obviously relevant to study the distribution of medical health resources

among different districts in Kerala to analyze the role of health resources in
leading state into a desired position in major health indicators, also to
provide a guideline for distributing finite health resources in other states
who wish to obtain better health outcomes. Optimum allocation of
resources among regions considering their population and geographical
area is indeed a way ahead to optimum social welfare.
Literature review
Lopez-Casasnovas et al., (2007) identified that proper allocation of

healthcare re-source is critical in achieving health service equity that
contributes to public health outcomes. Chinese government had focused
distribution of its healthcare resources mainly within the developed
provinces and large cities which created a geographical inequality that
impeded their goal of attaining universal access to basic health care services
(Jin et al., 2015). Study of disparity in healthcare resource distribution can
throw light on the strength of a public healthcare system. It varies from
nation to nation. China’s regional healthcare distribution disparity was
again reflected by Dong et al., (2021). The study suggests targeted measures
like income raising, facilitation of transport conditions, enhancement of
healthcare services, etc. the narrow down the gap. The study reaffirms that
there is an ongoing effort in China to overcome the challenge, which
reinforces our interest in the topic. WHO prioritizes skilled birth
attendance (professional midwife, doctor or nurse) as critical in reducing
maternal mortality rate, which is an important health outcome for attaining
the Sustainable Development Goal (Krupp & Madhivanan, 2009)? The
study shows the importance of health-care resource equality in health
system outcomes. Muraleedharan & Chandak (2021) studied the risks
embedded in the asymmetrical development pattern of Kerala for its high
healthcare index and low economic growth. Their suggestion to address
the issue includes an evaluation of regional differences in health system
performance within the state. Our study prepares the ground for such
evaluation in Kerala context, which is popular for ‘Kerala model of health’.
Data sources and research methods
Data resources
We collected data on the total population, geographical area, the number

of health care institutions, number of beds in health care institutions and
the number of medical personnel for 14 districts of Kerala, India. Data
regarding number of health care institutions, number of beds in health care
institutions and the number of medical personnel were taken from Kerala
economic review 2020 which sourced from the document of directorate of
health services 2020. The projected data of population and area were based
on the last census of population 2011 since the data of latest census of 2021
is not available currently. We have used Gini coefficient for measuring
inequality in the study.
Lorenz curve and the Gini coefficient
The Gini coefficient is widely used as an index to measure inequality in

income distribution. A recent study conducted in China (Jin et al., 2020)
regarding the equality of medical resources distribution among different
Chinese provinces identified that Gini coefficient has superiority in
inequality measurement over all other measures like Atkinson index, Theil
index, coefficient of variation. The value of the Gini coefficient varies from
0 to 1. A region with perfect equality will have a value of zero while a region
with perfect inequality will be noted as 1. As per general international
standards, a Gini coefficient that is smaller than 0.3 represents a
particularly equitable condition., 0.3-0.4 is the normal condition, while
greater than 0.4 raises concern and a value greater than 0.6 represents a
dangerous state.
The Lorenz Curve was first developed by the America statistician Max O.
Lorenz in 1905, as a graphical representation of income distribution. The X-
axis represents the cumulative percentage of the population, ranked in
increasing order of income - that is, beginning with those people with the
lowest incomes and ending with those with the largest. The Y-axis
represents the cumulative percentage of the income of the corresponding
percentage of the population. The line between the origin of the coordinates
and the corresponding vertex is the line of perfect equality. The actual
extent of inequality is reflected by the area between Lorenz Curve and the
line of perfect equality. Thus, the less deviation from the line of perfect
equality, the more even the distribution. The Gini Coefficient calculated
based on the Lorenz Curve is an ideal index for measuring the extent of
inequality. In this paper, the Lorenz Curve and Gini Coefficient have been
chosen to study the equality of health care resource distribution across
Kerala, as they are truly able to reflect the current situation in this respect.
Comparative analysis of inequality in health care resource

distribution within Kerala
District Population Geographical Number Number of No of

(10,000 area Of health- beds in medical
persons) (10,000 care health- personnel
square km) institutions care (individuals)
(unit) institutions
(10000
beds)
Thiruvanantha- 342.9192 0.2189 118 0.4914 2874
puram
Kollam 273.7364 0.2483 88 0.229 1962
Pathanamthitta 124.3752 0.2652 64 0.196 1412
Alappuzha 221.0134 0.1415 89 0.3406 1300
Kottayam 205.0966 0.2206 84 0.2823 1843
Idukki 115.1891 0.4356 61 0.112 1978
Ernakulam 340.9416 0.3063 116 0.4518 2570
Thrissur 324.199 0.3027 118 0.3435 2343
Palakkad 291.8678 0.4482 114 0.2819 2252
Malappuram 427.209 0.3554 125 0.2546 2497
Kozhikode 320.5733 0.2345 93 0.2816 2095
Wayanad 84.9054 0.213 45 0.1367 969
Kannur 262.0643 0.2961 112 0.2996 2315
Kasargode 135.797 0.1989 57 0.1087 1171
Data source: Directorate of Health Services 2020
For this paper, 14 districts in Kerala were studied and the number of health
care institutions, the number of beds in health care institutions, and the
number of medical personnel were used as the indicators of healthcare

resources in each district.
Overall comparative analysis of three zones in Kerala (south,

central and north)
The overall distribution of health care resources healthcare institutions,

beds in healthcare institutions and medical personnel of the state has been
shown in table 1. Then, all the 14 districts were classified into three zones
namely south, central and north Kerala. Zonal wise distribution is
presented in figure 1. South Kerala has absolute advantage in terms of
higher allocation of all three components i.e., healthcare institutions, beds
in healthcare institutions and medical personnel. North and central zones
are not far from south in distribution of health resources. In short it is
worthy to mention that a fairly allocation of resources exists in all three
zones of Kerala.
Figure 1: Differences in health care resource distribution among south, central and north
1000
900
800
700
600
500 South Kerala
400
Central Kerala
300
North Kerala
200
100
The number of The number of Beds The number of

in Health Care Medical Personnel
Health Care
Institutions (10 person)
Institutions(unit)
（100 beds)
zones of Kerala
Comparative analysis of per capita health care resource

distribution in different districts
For the better understanding of health resource allocation in different

districts, we calculated per capita resources data of healthcare institutions
and medical personnel has been sorted per 10000 persons and, beds in
healthcare institutions are sorted per person. It is shown in table 2.
Number of number of beds in Number of

health care health care medical
District institutions per institutions per personnel per
10,000 persons person 10,000 persons
Kozhikode 0.290 0.001 6.535
Malappuram 0.293 0.001 5.845
Kollam 0.321 0.001 7.167
Ernakulam 0.340 0.001 7.538
Thiruvananthapuram 0.344 0.001 8.381
Thrissur 0.364 0.001 7.227
Palakkad 0.391 0.001 7.716
Alappuzha 0.403 0.002 5.882
Kottayam 0.410 0.001 8.986
Kasargode 0.420 0.001 8.623
Kannur 0.427 0.001 8.834
Pathanamthitta 0.515 0.002 11.353
Idukki 0.530 0.001 17.172
Wayanad 0.530 0.002 11.413
Table 2: Per capita health care resource distribution in different districts in 2020
Data source: Directorate of Health Services
Among districts of Kerala populated districts Kozhikode and Malappuram

have least number of medical institutions. Least populated districts of
Idukki and Wayanad possess two times of health care institutions of
populated districts. Number of beds per persons is almost similar
throughout the state.
Comparative analysis of health care resource distribution in

different geographical areas
For the further analysis on the basis of geographical area, institutions and
personnel has been sorted per 10000 squares kilometres. It is presented in
table 3. Geographically, Idukki and Wayanad has least number of
healthcare institutions. Thiruvananthapuram and Alappuzha have highest
number. Palakkad and Malappuram have comparatively lower presence of
medical personnel. Number beds in healthcare institutions have been
sorted per square kilometre. Ernakulam districts has highest, and Idukki
has lowest number of beds per square kilometre.
District Number of health Number of beds Number of

care institutions per in health care medical
10,000 squares institutions per personnel per
kilometers square kilometer 10,000 square
kilometers
Idukki 140.037 0.257 39.421
Wayanad 211.268 0.642 53.581
Pathanamthitta 241.327 0.739 42.808
Palakkad 254.351 0.629 17.215
Kasargode 286.576 0.547 43.354
Malappuram 351.716 0.716 16.446
Kollam 354.410 0.922 28.866
Kannur 378.251 1.012 29.834
Ernakulam 378.714 1.475 24.610
Kottayam 380.780 1.280 40.734
Thrissur 389.825 1.135 23.875
Kozhikode 396.588 1.201 27.869
Thiruvananthapuram 539.059 2.245 38.287
Alappuzha 628.975 2.407 41.569
Table 3: Health care resource distribution in different districts of Kerala in 2020

Relative theory on measuring inequality of health care resource

distribution with the Lorenz Curve and Gini Coefficient Method
The general method for calculating the Gini Coefficient contains the area
enclosed by the Lorenz Curve and the line of perfect equality, A, and the
area located to the bottom right of the Lorenz Curve, B, as shown in Fig. 2.
Here, the Gini Coefficient 𝐺=𝐴

𝐴+𝐵
Where 𝐴 + 𝐵 = 1
2
The X-axis shows the cumulative percentage of the population in relation

to the factor under investigation, and the corresponding Y-axis shows the
cumulative percentage of the factor under investigation.
Figure 2: Areas used in the general algorithm for calculating the Gini Coefficient
Basic idea for assessment of health care distribution with the

Lorenz Curve and Gini Coefficient
With the help of this concept, we take the cumulative percentage

demographically (or by geographic area) as the X-axis and take the
cumulative percentage of health care resources as the Y-Then we plot the
Lorenz Curve with the cumulative percentage demographically (or by
geographic area) ranked by the level of health care resources against the
cumulative percentage of health care resources corresponding to the
population geographic area) values, to indicate the equality of health care
resource distribution demographically and geographic area).
Analysis based on the Lorenz Curve and Gini Coefficient method
For the analysis we have prepared cumulative percentage of population on

the one hand cumulative percentage of healthcare institutions, beds in
healthcare institutions, medical personnel on the other side. The

cumulative percentage distribution of variables by population and by
geographical area are presented in table 4 and table 5 respectively. Then we
separately constructed for each combination i.e., Lorenz curve for
healthcare institution by population, Lorenz curve for beds in healthcare
institution by population, Lorenz curve for medical personnel by
population. Thus, we got three Lorenz curves for health resources by
population. On the same way we constructed separate Lorenz curve for
health resources i.e., institutions, beds and medical personnel by
geographic area. Figure 3, 4, and 5 shows Lorenz curves for healthcare
institutions, beds in healthcare institutions, medical personnel by
population respectively.
Population Number Percentage Cumulative Cumulative
District (10,000 of health Percentage of percentage percentage
persons) care of health care of of health
institutions population institutions population care
per 10,000 institutions
persons
Malappuram 427.2 0.3 12.31 5.25 12.31 5.25
Kozhikode 320.6 0.3 9.24 5.20 21.55 10.45
Ernakulam 340.9 0.3 9.83 6.10 31.38 16.55
Thiruvanan- 342.9 0.3 9.88 6.17 41.26 22.72
thapuram
Table 4: Distribution of cumulative percentage of health care institutions by cumulative

percentage of population in different districts of Kerala in 2020
Thrissur 324.2 0.4 9.34 6.53 50.60 29.25

Kollam 273.7 0.3 7.89 5.76 58.49 35.01
Palakkad 291.9 0.4 8.41 7.00 66.90 42.02
Kannur 262.1 0.4 7.55 7.66 74.46 49.68
Alappuzha 221.0 0.4 6.37 7.22 80.82 56.90
Kottayam 205.1 0.4 5.91 7.34 86.74 64.25
Kasargode 135.8 0.4 3.91 7.53 90.65 71.77
Pathanamthitta 124.4 0.5 3.58 9.23 94.23 81.00
Idukki 115.2 0.5 3.32 9.50 97.55 90.50
Wayanad 84.9 0.5 2.45 9.50 100.00 100.00
100
Cumulative percentage of
health care institutions
90
80
70
60
50 Lorenz
40
30 Curve
20 Line of
10 equality
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Cumulative percentage of population
Figure 3: Lorenz Curve of the distribution of the number of health care institutions by
population
100
90
80
The cumulative percentage
70
of Beds in Health Care
60
Lorenz
50
Curve
institutions
40
Line of
30
equality
20
10
0 50 100
Cumulative percentage of population
Figure 4: Lorenz Curve of the distribution of the number of beds in health care institutions
by population
100
The cumulative percentage

90
of Medical Personnel
80
70
60
50 Lorenz
40 Curve
30 Line of
20 equality
10
0 50 100
The cumulative percentage of Population
Figure 5: Lorenz Curve of the distribution of the of beds in health care institutions by
population number of medical personnel by population
Figure 6, 7 and 8 shows Lorenz curves for healthcare institutions, beds in

healthcare institutions, medical personnel by geographical area respectively.
District Geographical Number of Percen- Percentage Cumulative Cumulative

area (10,000 health care tage of of health percentage percentage
square km) institutions area care of area of health
per10,000 institutions care
square institutions
kilometers
Malappuram 0.355 0.003 9.148 6.242 9.148 6.242
Thrissur 0.303 0.003 7.791 5.632 16.939 11.875
Thiruvanan- 0.219 0.002 5.634 4.073 22.573 15.948
thapuram
Ernakulam 0.306 0.003 7.884 5.797 30.457 21.745
Palakkad 0.448 0.004 11.536 8.632 41.993 30.377
Kannur 0.296 0.003 7.621 5.805 49.614 36.182
Kozhikode 0.235 0.003 6.036 5.536 55.650 41.718
Alappuzha 0.142 0.002 3.642 3.491 59.292 45.209
Kollam 0.248 0.003 6.391 6.195 65.683 51.404
Kottayam 0.221 0.003 5.678 5.766 71.361 57.170
Pathanamthitta 0.265 0.004 6.826 9.098 78.186 66.268
Idukki 0.436 0.007 11.212 15.679 89.398 81.946
Kasargode 0.199 0.003 5.119 7.661 94.518 89.608
Wayanad 0.213 0.005 5.482 10.392 100.000 100.000
Table 5: Distribution of cumulative percentage of health care institutions by cumulative

percentage of geographic areas in different districts of Kerala in 2020 Data source:
Directorate of Health Services
Figure. 6: Lorenz Curve of distribution of the number of health care institutions by

geographic area
100
The cumulative percentage of
90
80
Medical Personnel
70
60 Lorenz
50 Curve
40 Line of
30 equality
20
10
50 100
The cumulative percentage of areas
Figure 7: Lorenz Curve of the distribution of the number of beds in health care institutions
by population
100
Beds in Health Care Institutions

the cumulative percentage of
90
80
70
60
Lorenz
50
Curve
40
Line of
30 equality
20
10
0 50 100
The cumulative percentage of areas
Figure 8: Lorenz Curve of distribution of the number of beds in health care institutions by
geographic area of medical personnel by geographic area
Number of health Number of beds Number of

care institutions in health care medical
institutions personnel
By population 0.33 0.16 0.13

By geographical area 0.18 0.3 0.16
Table 6: Gini Coefficients of health care resource distribution
Author’s calculation discussions
On the basis of our analysis, Gini coefficient value for number of beds in
health care institutions and medical personnel are very minute (0.16 and
0.13 respectively) by population. It shows near perfect equality in the
distribution of the same in different districts of Kerala. But there is slight
variation in case of health care institution by population. But it is also
considered as ‘particularly equitable’ condition according to international
standards. So, we can conclude the allocation of health resources based on
district wise population is fairly done as per the latest statistics published
by state’s directorate of health services in 2022.
In case of geographical area, there exists a particularly equitable condition

in the allocation of health care institutions and medical personnel (Gini
Coefficients are 0.18,0.16 respectively). In case of beds in healthcare
institutions, coefficient value is 0.3, it is also considered under ‘particularly
equitable condition’. Here we can state that geographical allocation of
health resources is also fairly distributed among 14 districts in Kerala as per
the recent statistics. It states that no district wise discrepancies or
partialities have not found in the analysis. It shed light into the effective
management of health resources by concerned authority.
Conclusion
Our analysis shows that health resources are equitably allocated among
Kerala districts. A separate analysis using Lorenz curve and Gini coefficient
confirms the result. Equality of Kerala’s demographically assessed
distribution of health care resources is similar with geographically
measured distribution. In essence, Kerala has achieved equality in the
district wise allocation of health resources in terms of population and
geographic area. It can be considered as one of the major determinants of
popular ‘Kerala model of health’ and success manthra (secret of success)
behind effective response to COVID-19 pandemic also.
References
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distribution and inequality in health-resource allocation on institutions, beds, and
workforce: A longitudinal study in China. Archives of Public Health, 79(1), 78.
https://doi.org/10.1186/s13690-021-00597-1
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Muraleedharan, M., & Chandak, A. O. (2021). Emerging challenges in the health systems
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health care facilities in Kerala State, India. (2000)
260 Cancer Fatality and Health Seaking Behaviour in North East India
Chapter 22
Cancer Fatality and Health Seeking Behaviour
in North East India
Chaitan Kumar and M Momocha Singh
Department of Management & Humanities,
NIT Arunachal Pradesh, Itanagar, India
Abstract. Cancer is high public health concern for Northeastern states.

Estimated Cases in 2020 were 50317 and projected cases in 2025 are 57131. The
fatality rate in the states is higher due to late detection and shortage of services.
In this study, we aimed to examine the relationship between cancer fatality,
health seeking and risk-taking behaviors in the seven NE states. We took data
from National cancer registry programme report 2020 and from the fifth round
of National Family Health Survey carried out in year 2019. A cross-sectional
study was designed with 12 variables, which has a close link with cancer health
seeking behaviors or risk-taking behaviors. Cross-tabulation and multivariate
analyses were employed to assess relation between variables. Cancer fatality
ratio in eight NE states during 2012-2016 was 34.84 %. Cancer fatality rate varies
from 21 % to 53 % in the states. Out of total participants [n = 95,647 (76,242
Household)] in NFHS-5, Manipur had lowest (64.9%) desired sanitation
facility. Meghalaya ranked lowest (33.7 %) for clean cooking fuel. Hepatitis B
vaccination among children was found lowest in Meghalaya (65.7). Female
Cancer screening (Cervical, Breast, and Oral) was lowest in Assam while male
oral cancer screening was lowest in Nagaland. Highest tobacco users were
found in Mizoram in both male (72. 9 %) and female (61.6 %). Highest
consumption of alcohol was found in Sikkim in both genders (male 39.8 %) and
female (16.2 %). The risk-taking behaviors “tobacco use” has significant
association with fatality. Behavior change strategies need to be designed
objectively in the targeted population. Affordable and easy access screening
services can motivate people to be screened regularly for early detection and
low fatality due to Cancer.
Keywords: Cancer Fatality, Health Seeking Behaviour, North East India

1. Introduction
Cancer is high public health concern for Northeastern (NE) states.

Estimated Cases in 2020 were 50,317 and projected cases in 2025 were
57,131[1]. High incidence rate and mortality is observed in the North East
than in any other part of India [1].
Aizawl district in Mizoram reported highest male incidence rate (269.4 per
100,000) and Papumpare district in Arunachal reported highest female
incidence rate (219.8 per 100,000) in India [1]. In the states tobacco-related
male cancer is 49.3% in males and female cancer is 22.8 % [1].95.3 % cancer
patients in Sikkim and 58.1% in Nagaland seek treatment outside the states
[1].
The leading sites of Cancer in India are breast, cervical, mouth, lung, and
tongue. [2]. Kamrup urban in Assam had shown increase in all sites of
cancer in both sexes [2]. High out-of-pocket expenditure was observed due
to cancer treatment [3]. More than two-thirds of the cancer cases are
detected in advanced stages which causes more fatality [4]. Treatment
delay was also observed in the Northeastern states [5].
Awareness of cancer is lower in the Northeastern states [6]. Cancer patient

has higher risk due to COVID-19 [7]. Cancer and other non-communicable
diseases have an impact on COVID-19 death cases in India [8]. According
to the Government of India data, 75% of COVID-19 death cases had co-
morbidity of non-communicable diseases including cancer (NCDs) [8].
We studied the data of cancer cases reported by national cancer registry in

the Northeastern states to see the cancer burden. Table 1 and Table 2
highlight the Northeastern states have high case fatality rate (CFR) [1].
Oesophageal cancer, lung cancer and stomach cancer are main cancers in
the males. In females, breast, cervix, uteri and gall bladder cancer is more
prevalent [1]. Male fatality was highest (57.02 percent) in Mizoram and
female fatality was highest in Tripura (48.70 percent) among the seven
states [1].
We analyzed the health seeking and risk-taking behaviors data in the seven
Northeastern states are the available data of National Family Health Survey
2019-2020 [9]. The states included for analysis are Assam, Meghalaya,
Manipur, Mizoram, Nagaland, Sikkim and Tripura. Data of Arunachal
Pradesh was not published.
Table Male Female
Inci- CFR Inci- CFR Inci- CFR

State dence Death % dence Death % dence Death %
Arunachal
Pradesh 3017 649 21.51 1543 395 25.60 1474 254 17.23
Assam 24392 5492 22.52 13421 3477 25.91 10971 2015 18.37
Manipur 8202 2163 26.40 3702 1155 31.20 4500 1008 22.40
Meghalaya 7520 2946 39.20 4688 1848 39.40 2832 1098 38.80
Mizoram 12139 6031 49.68 6503 3708 57.02 5636 2323 41.22
Nagaland 2395 417 17.40 1403 298 21.20 992 119 12.00
Sikkim 2303 1116 48.50 1172 603 51.50 1131 513 45.40
Tripura 11473 6077 53.00 6559 3682 56.10 4914 2395 48.70
Total 71441 24891 34.84 38991 15166 38.90 32450 9725 29.97
Table 1. Number of Cancer cases - Reporting years: 2012 – 2016
State Male CFR % Female CFR %

Arunachal Pradesh 25.60 17.23
Assam 25.91 18.37
Manipur 31.20 22.40
Meghalaya 39.40 38.80
Mizoram 57.02 41.22
Nagaland 21.20 12.00
Sikkim 51.50 45.40
Tripura 56.10 48.70
Table 2. Gender wise CFR during reporting years: 2012 – 2016

Objective: In this study, we aimed to examine relationship between cancer

fatalities, health seeking and risking taking behaviors in the seven
Northeastern states through the available data of National Family Health
Survey 2019-2020. It is expected that that this comparative study will help
stakeholders and policy makers to frame eastern states specific policies.
2. Methods
Data sources:
1. The Northeastern states’ data for the year 2012 to 2016 compiled by
National Cancer registry programme published in 2021.
2. The National Family Health Survey 2019-20 (NFHS-5) data of 7
Northeastern states (Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland,
Sikkim, Tripura).
Study design:
The survey included 95647 participants in 76,242 in 7 Northeastern states.
A cross-sectional study was designed with 12 variables which has close link
with cancer health seeking and risk-taking behaviors.
Variables: 12 variables were grouped into four categories for analysis

purposes.
Category 1- Household situation – variables include - Clean Fuel,

Sanitation, and Insurance coverage of the family members.
Category 2- Vaccination- Children aged 12-23 months who have received

3 doses of penta or hepatitis B vaccine.
Category 3 - Cancer Screening- Age group between 39 to 49 years.

Female: three cancers, and male: one Cancer.
Category 4 - Modifiable risk- Alcohol & Tobacco consumption- age 15

and above.
Analysis: Cross-tabulation and multi-variate analyses were employed

using excel tools to assess the relationship between variables.
3. Results
3.1 Demographic
The NHFS 5 was conducted during June 2019 to Dec 2019 in Northeastern
states. Table 3 provided state-wise sample size.
State Total Female Male Total Total

Household Population
Covered Sample Sample Sample population of the State
(Census
2011)
Assam 30,119 34,979 4,973 39,952 31205576

Manipur 7,881 8,042 1,162 9,204 2855794
Meghalaya 10,148 13,089 1,824 14,913 2966889
Mizoram 7,257 7,279 1,105 8,384 1097206
Nagaland 10,112 9,694 1,456 11,150 1978502
Sikkim 3,516 3,271 469 3,740 610577
Tripura 7,209 7,314 990 8,304 3673917
Total 76,242 83,668 11,979 95,647 44388461
Table 3. State wise sample size: 2012 – 2016
3.2 Household condition on sanitation, clean fuel and insurance

coverage
Improved sanitation- Mizoram has highest (95.3%) improved sanitation

facility and lowest in Manipur (64.9 %).
Clean cooking facility- Mizoram has highest (83.8 %) and Meghalaya has
lowest (33.7 %) clean cooking facility.
Insurance for future safety - Meghalaya reported highest (63.5 %)

households with health insurance or financing scheme and lowest in
Manipur (14.2 %). This data was collected before Ayushman Bharat Health
Insurance was fully launched.
Table 4 highlighted the summary of these three indicators for all 7 states
with rural and urban divide.
Sl Indicator As- Mani- Megha- Mizo- Naga- Sik- Trip-

No sam pur laya ram land kim ura
1 Population 68.6 64.9 82.9 95.3 87.7 87.3 73.6
living in
households
that use an
improved
sanitation
facility (%)
2 Households 42.1 70.4 33.7 83.8 43 78.4 45.3
using clean
fuel for
cooking (%)
3 Households 60 14.2 63.5 46.4 20.5 25.7 33
with any
usual
member
covered
under a
health
insurance/fin
ancing
scheme (%)
Table 4. Household condition on sanitation, clean fuel and insurance coverage
3.3 Vaccination for future prevention
Hepatitis B vaccination prevents liver cancer hence children at younger age

groups: 12-23 months age are vaccinated. There is rural and urban divide
in vaccination also. In urban areas, child population coverage ranges from
56 % to 88.1 % and in rural areas the range is 62.6 % to 86.8%. (See Table.5).
Overall, Hepatitis B vaccination among children was found lowest in

Meghalaya (65.7) and highest in Sikkim (89.1 %).
S. Indicator As- Mani- Megha- Mizo- Naga- Sik- Trip-

N. sam pur laya ram land kim ura
1 Children aged 75.1 80 65.7 76.4 66.4 89.1 82.5
12-23 months
who have
received 3
doses of penta
or hepatitis B
vaccine (%)
Table 5. Hepatitis B vaccination coverage
3.4 Cancer screen seeking behavior
Screening behavior in rural and urban population Cancer Screening- age

30-49 years is shown in Table 6.
In combined population, the following ranges were observed:
In Mizoram the highest (6.9 %) females screened for cervical cancer and
lowest was in Assam (0.2 %). Breast cancer (%) screening was the highest
in Mizoram (2.7 %) and the lowest 0.1 % in Assam. Female oral cancer was
highest in Manipur (1 %) and lowest in Assam 0.2 %. Male oral cancer was
highest in Sikkim (4%) and lowest in Tripura (0.2 %) and Nagaland (0.2%).
S. Indicator As- Mani- Megha- Mizo- Naga- Sik- Trip-

N. sam pur laya ram land kim ura
1 Female Ever 0.2 2.1 0.6 6.9 0.3 0.6 0.7
undergone a
screening test
for cervical
cancer (%)
2 Female Ever 0.2 1.6 0.5 2.7 0.3 0.1 0.4
undergone a
breast
examination for
breast cancer
(%)
3 Female Ever 0.2 1 0.4 0.9 0.4 0.8 0.6
undergone an
oral cavity
examination for
oral cancer (%)
4 Male Ever 1.4 0.8 1.2 1.2 0.2 4 0.2
undergone an
oral cavity
examination for
oral cancer (%)
Table 6. Cancer screen seeking behavior
3.5 Modifiable risk behavior- tobacco and alcohol risk-taking

among sample 15 years and above
Women use any kind of tobacco highest in Mizoram (61.6 %) and lowest in
Sikkim (11.7%). Men use any kind of tobacco highest in Mizoram (72.9%)
and lowest in Sikkim (41.3 %). Women consume alcohol highest in Sikkim
(16.2% ) and lowest in Nagaland ( 0.9 %). Men consume alcohol highest in
Sikkim (39.8 %) and lowest in Mizoram (23.8). Urban-rural divide of
tobacco and alcohol consumption are highlighted in Table 7.
S. Indicat As- Mani- Megha- Mizo- Naga- Sik- Trip-

N. or sam pur laya ram land kim ura
1 Wome 22.1 43.1 28.2 61.6 13.7 11.7 50.4
n aged
15
years
and
above
who
use
any
kind of
tobacc
o (%)
2 Men 51.8 58.1 57.7 72.9 48.4 41.3 56.9
aged
15
years
and
above
who
use
any
kind of
tobacc
o (%)
3 Wome 7.3 0.9 1.5 0.9 0.9 16.2 6.2
n aged
15
years
and
above
who
consu
me
alcohol
(%)
4 Men 25.1 37.5 32.4 23.8 24 39.8 33.1
aged
15
years
and
above
who
consu
me
alcohol
(%)
Table 7. Tobacco and alcohol consumption

4. Discussion
Cancer incident and fatality ratio in the states were found higher than other
part of India. Cancer fatality rate varies from 21 % to 53 % in the states. Case
Fatality Ratio in the states is higher due to late detection and shortage of
treatment services. Male cancer cases had higher fatality than female
cancer. Overall fatality rate is highest in Tripura and lowest in Nagaland.
In male cases highest fatality is in Mizoram and the lowest in Nagaland. In
female cancer cases the highest fatality is in Tripura and lowest in
Nagaland.
Clean fuel, sanitation facility, vaccination, reduction in modifiable risk on

alcohol and tobacco can reduce the burden of cancer. Timely screening can
detect early and further reduce the risk of mortality.
Manipur had lowest (64.9%) desired sanitation facility. Meghalaya ranked

lowest (33.7 %) for clean cooking fuel. Health Insurance coverage was
found lowest in lower in the states during survey period.
Universal immunization coverage seems challenging as data reflected in

hepatitis B vaccination. Human Papilloma Virus (HPV) vaccination data is
not collected in the survey which has crucial role for cervical cancer
prevention.
Female Cancer screening (Cervical, Breast, and Oral) was lowest in Assam
while male (oral cancer) was lowest in Nagaland.
Highest tobacco users found in Mizoram in both male (72. 9 %) and female
(61.6 %). Highest consumers of alcohol found in Sikkim in both genders
(male 39.8 %) and female (16.2 %). Smokeless tobacco consumption was
found highest in male population in Myanmar [10]. Tobacco chewing and
smoking has high association with oral cancer, oesophageal and lung
cancer [11].
Sikkim has highest consumer of alcohol in both genders. Drinking of

alcohol causes risk of breast cancer, oral and oesophageal cancers, rectal
cancers [12].
One study found that tobacco water is used in Mizoram and Manipur [13].
Tobacco causes highest cancer in the states [14]. In India treatment burden
on health system is higher than tax receipts which results loss in national
income [15]. Due to cancer 2.2 million people had poverty impact year in
India. [16]. Epidemic of cancer is silently causing higher deaths in COVID-
19 pandemic also.
5. Conclusion
Unique geographic and cultural behavior of Northeastern states requires

specific solutions for disease prevention. Behavior change strategies need
to be designed objectively in the targeted population. Affordable and easy
access screening services can motivate people to get screened regularly for
early detection and low fatality due to cancer. In pandemic situation the
vulnerability may further increase hence early health system strengthening
is the demand of time. Regulations related to tobacco and alcohol need joint
efforts for the states in Northeastern states as substances are available easily
across the borders.
References
1. ICMR-NCDIR, Profile of Cancer and Related Health Indicators in the North East
Region of India – 2021, Bengaluru, India. Available from: https://ncdirindia.org/
All_Reports/NorthEast2021/resources/NE_Complete.pdf
2. Mathur, P., Sathishkumar, K., Chaturvedi, M., Das, P., Sudarshan, K. L.,
Santhappan, S., ... & ICMR-NCDIR-NCRP Investigator Group. (2020). Cancer
statistics, 2020: report from national cancer registry programme, India. JCO Global
Oncology, 6, 1063-1075.
3. Sharma, P. (2021). Burden of cancer: The unaddressed epidemic in India. Cancer
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274 Study of the Factors and Attributes to Motivation and Work Satisfaction
Part Seven
POST COVID-19 OPPORTUNITIES
Chapter 23
Study of the Factors and Attributes to
Motivation and Work Satisfaction in the
Realm of Teaching
Gaurang Sharma
Department of Electrical and Instrumentation Engineering,
Thapar Institute of Engineering and Technology, Patiala,
India
Abstract. With the onset of the pandemic and change to the, already budding,
“work from home” culture, the service sector has been greatly influenced.
Teaching in the digital era has been greatly impacted. Teachers are the driving
force in the world of academia, thus any change in the situations of the service
sector is bound to have an impact directly on teachers themselves. Well-
motivated and satisfied academic staff can be a key for helping pupils sail
through the pandemic and recover the loss in their education. The study of
academic staff motivation and work satisfaction becomes all the more crucial
especially as the education sector metamorphosizes every moment. In this
paper an attempt has been made to study the factors and attributes to
motivation and work satisfaction through statistical analysis. The data was
collected through a questionnaire and the scores were analyzed using
inferential statistics, independent sample T-tests. A strong correlation was
found between intrinsic motivation and Work satisfaction. This was also
reflected in the higher scores of females than males for both intrinsic motivation
and work satisfaction.
Keywords: Intrinsic Motivation, Extrinsic Motivation, Work Satisfaction

1. Introduction
With the approaching dawn of the new decade, the higher education
system in India has remarkably metamorphosed. A multitude of factors
contributes to this transformation from changing perspectives and
behavior to the new National Education Policy and the primary driver of
changes are the shift to virtual learning. With the increasing complexity of
the socio-organizational structure of higher education institutions (HEI), it
is all the more important to understand what shapes the motivation and
work satisfaction of proponents of HEIs, i.e., the academic staff. It is
imperative to study how factors around motivation and work satisfaction
have molded the life of teachers in the era of digital learning. The academic
staff is pivotal to the overall well-being and growth of HEI and thus
significantly contributes to achieving the institutions' objectives and is a
proponent for development. [9]
In March 2020, when the coronavirus struck the world, governments across
the globe imposed a harsh lockdown to curb the spread of the disease. To
adapt to the new normal, and avoid the loss of learning, colleges across the
nation and beyond the adopted a virtual mode of learning, wherein
physical classrooms were replaced with zoom conferencing. Studies have
shown that teachers’ motivation influences the academic performance of
pupils [14] Thus, the quality of professors and teachers has implications on
the development of students, institutions, and society at large. The
academic staff across the nation, along with the students, is embracing this
new normal. Amidst this changing environment, it becomes more
important than ever to study how the factors shaping motivation and work
satisfaction have affected academia. A lot of research has been done
worldwide on teaching motivation and work satisfaction, but very few
have been carried out on Indian teachers.
While there is research on issues such as performance-linked pay [13],

teaching motivation and work satisfaction remains an under-researched
topic. With this backdrop, an effort, through the present research, has been
made to study the factors and attributes to motivation and work
satisfaction in the realm of teaching. Motivation, though defined by some
as the energy or drive to carry out a task or work naturally, is not
consensually defined in the literature due to the involvement of a myriad

of factors. Motivation is the most extensively investigated topic in
Organizational Behavior and Industrial Psychology, and still, there is
plenty to explore. Research has time and again pointed out that there are
differences in motivation and work satisfaction between males and
females. An attempt to analyze the same has been made when the world of
teaching has shifted to a digital platform.
Motivation, and for that matter Job satisfaction is not consensually defined
in the literature. Pinder defines motivation as “the processes that account
for an individual’s intensity, direction, and persistence of effort toward
attaining a goal.”[16] There are several theories that have been studied in
work motivation. Out of these, a pluri-dimensional construct of motivation,
including autonomous and controlled forms of motivation, is provided by
the Self Determination Theory. Self-determination theory proposes that
external rewards such as compensation and bonuses should be used with
caution and intrinsic forms of motivation (such as genuine interest in the
work) are more sustainable to human motivation than extrinsic rewards.
For example, if a professor is genuinely interested in research, extrinsic
rewards such as extra pay for every paper published could undermine the
intrinsic will to carry out research work. Previous research in
Organizational behavior implies that people who seek work goals for
inherent reasons tend to be more content with their work. This is primarily
because the process of striving towards the goal becomes enjoyable
whether or not the goal is achieved. Personnel who pursue goals primarily
for extraneous reasons such as monetary awards, status, or other interests
are relatively less likely to accomplish their goals and less satisfied even if
they do so. [21] Employees who feel they are in control of what they do
exhibit greater work motivation and job satisfaction.
Self-determination theory mainly classifies motivation into three

categories:
Amotivation, which is the lack of motivation towards a purpose or a

venture.
Intrinsic motivation, (Autonomous motivation) which is the form of

motivation driven by internal desires interests and doing an activity for its
sake instead of for external or environmental factors. Numerous studies
have shown that intrinsic motivation and work satisfaction are related to
each other. Researchers found a special relatio0nship between job
satisfaction and intrinsic motivation and work engagement and job
satisfaction. [12] They observed that higher intrinsic motivation levels and
work involvement resulted in greater job satisfaction. Research shows that
intrinsic motivation is of pivotal importance for jobs and complicated tasks
and thus requires higher cognitive capabilities. [12] Putra found that in the
hospitality industry external and internal motivation drove employee
vitality, dedication, and intentness, indicating that work engagement is
greater with highly intrinsically and extrinsically motivated employees.
[17] Simultaneous examination of the two determinants of motivation
revealed higher statistical significance of intrinsic motivation on work
commitment dimensions. The same study showed that extraneous
motivation had no effect. Different intrinsic motivation levels have been
reported in males and females, with intrinsic motivation level being higher
in females as compared to males. [22]
Extrinsic motivation, (Controlled motivation), which is the form of

motivation driven by instrumental reasons such as status, money, or other
benefits, engaging in an activity for rewards and approval. For a long time,
it was believed that money was the only factor in jobs driving motivation
and job satisfaction. When examining, the five extrinsic motivation
variables, namely guidance, raise, work-life quality, cooperation, job
satisfaction, and compensation, a strong correlation of (0.179<r<0.643) was
reported. [11] Similarly, for five extrinsic motivation variables and life
satisfaction (0.341 < r < 0.624). [11] Subsequent research showed that
intrinsic factors played a bigger role in overall motivation and work
satisfaction. Researchers have concluded that intrinsic factors contributed
a greater extent to employee motivation than extrinsic factors. Researchers
have claimed that extrinsic motivation best suits chores that demand
relatively little mental labor and are more straightforward, such as tasks in
the food service industry. [18] Simultaneous testing of extraneous and

internal factors on work engagement revealed that intrinsic factors
significantly influence work engagement dimensions more than extrinsic
factors. [18] Extrinsic motivation is further subcategorized into three types
depending on the level of internalization. Internalization refers to
increasing the internal regulation of a goal-driven or value-driven activity
that was initially controlled by outside factors such as financial bonuses or
penalties.
Extrinsic motivation with external regulation: This form of extrinsic

motivation is wholly driven by extraneous attributes such as monetary
rewards, stature, and environment. Here the aim is to achieve the
desired goal or avoid an undesired punishment. For example, to seek
premia or avoid penalties by others.
Extrinsic motivation with introjected regulation: There is a certain

degree of internalization in this type of motivation. Inside forces such as
ego, shame, and guilt are involved in this form of regulation. The
external stimulus is internalized for the need for self-esteem; the
behavior is driven by the external environment.
Extrinsic motivation with identified regulation: Internalization in this

form of motivation is to such an extent that the person is doing an
activity that he recognizes with its value or meaning and receives it as
its own. The individual recognizes that it’s essential to choose a
particular behavior to realize its objectives. Here, the task is carried out
for the fundamental value it symbolizes, not for intrinsic satisfaction.
Thus, it is different from intrinsic motivation.
A study was conducted in 2010 to examine the academic motivation and

job satisfaction amongst teachers of higher education institutions in
Portugal. [10] Previous research has indicated that health perception and
life satisfaction tend to increase with increasing autonomous motivation. In
contrast, an increase in controlled motivation harms these two constructs.
[15] Research at Portuguese Higher Education Institutions reported higher
levels of motivation in females than males. [3] Some researchers however
found that there are no gender differences in self-efficacy in research. [21]
Bishay employed the Experiencing Sampling method (ESM) for studying

teaching motivation and job satisfaction and reported that males generally
felt higher levels of motivation. [2]
Job satisfaction is blatantly an issue of great importance for university

teachers. Yet those outside the academia pay scant attention to it. It is a
common belief that professors experience exceptionally convenient
working conditions and flexible timings. Thus, the study of job satisfaction
among professors is considered to be a moot point among many observers.
Job satisfaction is an immensely researched topic in the field of Industrial-
organizational psychology, and public administration. Job satisfaction
plays a pivotal role in reinvigorating staff motivation. It also contributes
immensely to keeping their spirit alive. Researchers reported that intrinsic
motivation and job satisfaction are strongly positively correlated. [19]
Ahmed reported that job satisfaction was significantly positively correlated
to self-esteem and optimism. [1] This means with increasing self-esteem the
job satisfaction also increases. Job satisfaction is also found to vary with
gender, age and type of institutions, teaching climate, work environment.
In the Portuguese education system, males tend to be more satisfied with
the teaching climate, females reported more satisfaction with management,
females revealed more satisfaction with colleagues; males were more
satisfied with the research climate than females. [3] Turkish researchers
found that Turkish female university teachers reported higher job
satisfaction levels when compared with the same in males. The difference
here was found to be statistically significant. [20]
The sample for study was collected with the help of the snowball sampling
method. A questionnaire was sent to the email ID of teachers and their
responses were collected through google forms.
a. Instruments used
The motivation scores were collected through the Multidimensional work

motivation scale. Many SDT validated scales exist in various fields such as
academia and sports [6] [7]. SDT surpasses the cultural boundaries and
presents a framework that has time and again proven that employees
feeling independent, responsible, and as a part of the organization are more
likely to be genuinely involved irrespective of their cultural backdrop. The
multidimensional work motivation scale is primarily employed for the
analysis of work motivation within a particular domain. Other scales cover
work motivation pertaining to various activities within a specific job. The
MWMS scale has been validated in seven languages and nine countries and
has yielded more reliable results than previous scales actualized on the
basis of the Self Determination Theory. Gagné (2015) showed that the
majority of the alpha coefficients for the Multidimensional Work
Motivation Scale were above 0.80 which indicates high reliability. [5] Gagne
(2015) pointed out the existence of evidence for factorial validity of the
MWMS across seven different languages and nine different countries. [5]
They also verified the convergent and discriminant validity of the scale.
Autonomous motivation had a positive impact on job design, autonomy
and psychological needs. [5] Controlled motivation was unrelated to these
factors. Amotivation was negatively related to these factors. MWMS
captures the amount of effort people put or intend (“why would you”) to
put in their jobs to entirely assess employee’s motives (both tangible and
hidden) to do their job. External and Introjected regulations are often
considered together as controlled motivation, identified and introjected
regulations are often considered as autonomous motivation. MWMS
external and introjected regulations are covered in their entirety. Cronbach
Alpha for the sample was α=0.77. The scale has been developed such that
its items could be endorsed in most cultures. Gagné (2105) validated
MWMS with item response scale ranging from 1 = ‘not at all’ to 7 =
‘completely agree’. The scale for this research purpose was modified to 1 =
‘Strongly Disagree’ to 5 = ‘Strongly Agree’ with the stem remaining the
same. This alteration was performed for better clarity and understanding
of respondents. [5]
Work satisfaction was measured using the Satisfaction with Work Scale
(SWWS). The satisfaction with work scale was adapted from the
Satisfaction with Life Scale [4] SWWS measures people’s cognitive
evaluation of the association between work and wellbeing. This scale
mainly emphasizes the cognitive assessment of a person's well-being and

mental health in the workplace. Along with its use for evaluation within a
particular organizational context, work satisfaction is also used to measure
a person's satisfaction with his career. Satisfaction with life scale measures
the global life satisfaction, which is considered to be stable throughout
one's life and has been related to character variables [8]; the satisfaction
with work scale, however, measures satisfaction specific to a domain which
in turn depends a lot on contextual factors and thus is susceptible to higher
fluctuation. Researchers tested for reliability and validity of the Satisfaction
with Work Scale. [5] They tested the scale with 4 samples from different
sectors and industries and in two different languages (English and French).
The internal reliability for four samples combined came out to be 0.75 (0.73
for English and 0.80 for French). Invariance analyses suggested that SWWS
is stable across languages and samples. The test-retest reliability was high
which indicated a stable construct over time. Thus, SWSS is a reliable and
valid measure of work satisfaction. The Likert scale followed was 1 =
“Strongly disagree” to 5= “Strongly agree”. Cronbach Alpha for the sample
was α=0.73
b. Database and hypothesis
160 people responded to the request for data collection, 64.6 % (99) males
and 35.6 % (54) females. Out of these 160 responses 7 were invalid so there
were 153 valid responses. A sample of 54 males and 54 females was selected
for further statistical analysis of scores. Statistical tests such as t-test
bivariate (Pearson) correlation were performed using the Statistical
Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) on the database.
Hypothesis:
• Job motivation differs significantly between males and females

• Work satisfaction differs significantly between males and females
• Extrinsic motivation is higher in males than females
• Intrinsic motivation is higher in females than males
• Intrinsic motivation is positively correlated with work satisfaction
4. Result
Std.
N Minimum Maximum Mean Deviation
Amotivation Score
(out of 15) 108 3 12 4.66 2.27
Extrinsic Regulation
(social) (15) 108 3 15 7.18 2.99
(Material) (15) 108 3 15 8.07 3.29
Introjected Regulation
(20) 108 4 20 16.06 3.64
Identified Regulation
(15) 108 3 15 13.51 2.27
Intrinsic Motivation
(15) 108 3 15 13.08 2.24
Total Motivation
Score (80) 108 16 80 57.91 8.79
Total Work
Satisfaction (25) 108 5 25 19.06 3.24
Table 1. Summary of scores
With regards to general satisfaction and total motivation scores, academics

seemed to be satisfied and motivated with average scores of 19.06 (out of
25) and 57.91 (out of 80). General satisfaction was higher for females (with
average score of 19.06) than males (with average score of 18.43). However,
males seem to be more motivated (with average score of 58.78) than females
(with average score of 57.04).
Male (54) Female (54)

SE T-value
Mean S.D. Mean S.D.
Work Motivation 58.78 9.43 57.04 8.084 1.69 1.03
Work Satisfaction 18.43 3.61 19.70 2.703 0.61 -2.08
Table 2. T-test Results
Independent sample T-test was carried out on the total motivation score
and Work motivation score for the sample of female and male respondents.
Statistical analysis revealed that the difference between mean motivation
scores of males and females is not statistically significant (t=1.03; p=0.31,

accepting the null hypothesis). However, the difference between mean
scores of work satisfaction scores of males and females was statistically
different. (t= -2.08; p= 0.04; not accepting the null hypothesis)
Male (54) Female (54) T-

SE
Mean S.D. Mean S.D. value
Extrinsic Regulation (social)
(15) 7.54 2.89 6.81 3.07 0.57 1.26
(Material) (15) 8.50 3.09 7.65 3.45 0.63 1.35
Extrinsic Motivation (30) 16.04 5.17 14.46 5.66 1.04 1.51
Introjected Regulation (20) 16.28 3.71 15.85 3.59 0.70 0.61
Controlled motivation (50) 32.31 7.46 30.31 7.08 1.40 1.43
Identified Regulation (15) 13.57 2.12 13.44 2.43 0.44 0.30
Intrinsic Motivation (15) 12.89 2.36 13.28 2.10 0.43 -0.90
Autonomous Motivation (30) 26.46 4.14 26.72 4.05 0.79 -0.33
Table 3. Male and Female Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation Score
Intrinsic Extrinsic Total Work

Motivation (15) Motivation (30) Satisfaction (25)
Intrinsic 1
Motivation (15)
Extrinsic -0.17 1
Motivation (30)
Total Work 0.52 0.08 1
Satisfaction (25)
Table 4. Correlation between Motivation and Work Satisfaction
Table 3 shows t-values for sub-scale used in the multidimensional work

motivation scale. The extrinsic motivation score is the sum of extrinsic
regulation (social) and Extrinsic regulation (material). Mean extrinsic
motivation score is higher in males than females (with average score of
males being 16.04 and females being 14.46). Controlled motivation is the
sum of extrinsic motivation and introjected regulation. The mean score for
controlled motivation is higher for males than females (with the average
score of males being 32.31 and females being 30.31). Mean intrinsic
motivation score is higher in females than males (with average score of

females being 13.28 and males being 12.89). Autonomous motivation score
is the sum of Intrinsic motivation and Identified regulation. The mean score
for autonomous motivation is slightly higher for females than males (with
the average score of females being 26.72 and average score of males being
26.46). T-tests for all the subscales reveal that the difference between scores
of males and females is NOT significant. Thus, the hypothesis, job
motivation differs significantly between males and females are rejected.
Table 4 shows the correlation between Intrinsic motivation and work
satisfaction with the correlation coefficient of r=0.5227 which is much
higher than the correlation between extrinsic motivation and work
satisfaction r=0.08.
5. Summary and preliminary conclusions
The academics seem to be generally motivated (average score of 57.91 out

of 80) and generally satisfied (average score of 19.06 out of 25). The mean
work motivation score was higher for males than females. This is in line
with Bishay’s Experiencing Sampling method (ESM) (1996) for studying
teaching motivation and job satisfaction which reported that males
generally felt higher levels of motivation. [2] The mean work satisfaction
score was higher for females than males. (females = 19.70 and males =
18.43). This is in tandem with previous research findings [20] Males
proclaimed higher external motivation levels than females, females,
however, reported higher intrinsic motivation than males. The higher
Intrinsic motivation score is in line with [23] Researchers also reported
higher levels of extrinsic motivation in male teachers. [23] This might be
attributed to the fact that males place more value on rewards such as
money. Statistical tests revealed that mean scores of work satisfaction were
significantly different between males and females. Autonomous
motivation and satisfaction of psychological needs go hand in hand.
Intrinsic motivation scores were higher for females than males which are
reflected in the higher score of work satisfaction for females than males.
Researchers reported that intrinsic motivation and job satisfaction are
strongly positively correlated. [19] A strong correlation between intrinsic
motivation and job satisfaction has been reported (r=0.70).
This can further be corroborated by the results of a previous study by which

concludes that autonomous motivation is positively related with
satisfaction of psychological needs and the work satisfaction scale used in
the present study measures people’s cognitive evaluation of the association
between work and wellbeing. [15]
The Indian education system is evolving. And the pandemic has only
served to catalyze this evolution. It is of utmost importance to preserve the
education system's guardians, that is, the academics. Careful examination
of the presented study results and subsequent research in education will
help evolve the system towards betterment and provide the future
generation with an inclusive and pristine education system.
6. Scope of future work
Future research can be conducted to examine the differences in mean work

satisfaction score between males and females. F-tests can be conducted to
examine the cause of differences in mean work satisfaction scores. Future
research can also be conducted to compare the scores when colleges reopen
to examine how work motivation and work satisfaction scores differ in
online mode of learning versus offline mode of learning, to conduct a
diachronic study.
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Chapter 24
Contemplative Pedagogy: An Experiment
with School Students for Demystifying the
Philosophy of Contemplative Education
Ashraf Alam
Rekhi Centre of Excellence for the Science of Happiness,
Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur, West Bengal, India
Abstract. The intent of this paper is to explore whether or not contemplative

practices and contemplative pedagogy help students transform for a better life
in living through self-discovery, realization of innate human wisdom and
potentials, and finding their purposes of/in life. The research lies within the
contemplative paradigm wherein first-person research was carried out. The
nature of sample was such that they all were school going students, and
completely unaware of contemplative practices and its implications. There
were two phases in this research. In the first phase, they were taught about
theoretical underpinnings of contemplative science and practices, whereas in
the second phase they were asked to engage in those practices for 12 weeks.
They journaled their experiences and submitted the report. Also, their
narratives, in the form of verbatims were carefully recorded. The journaled
experiences and verbatims were then thematically analysed, wherein it came
out evidently that - increased attention, augmented executive functioning,
decreased attention deficit disorders, amplified emotional regulation,
increased self-calming, reduced anger management problems, and improved
social skills could be developed in school students by habitually engaging them
in contemplative practices. Mindfulness, an integral part of contemplative
practice, emerged as the bedrock in this transactional design which optimizes
teaching and learning environment while supporting all pedagogical
techniques. Alongside contemplative practices, contemplative teaching plays a
pivotal role in integrating personal experiences into theoretical ingredients for
nurturing and developing attention, deepening knowledge, promoting deeper
connection and compassion for others, and encouraging active inquiry into the
profound concerns of student.
290 Contmplative Pedagogy: An Experiment with School Students
Keywords: Contemplative Education, Contemplative Pedagogy,

Contemplative Curriculum, Mindfulness, School Education, Teaching-
Learning, Science of Happiness, GNH
1. Introduction
1.1 Overview
Contemplation in simple term refers to thinking profoundly about

something. It is a kind of inner vision that facilitates the inner self to ascend
to knowledge. Plotinus, a neo-Platonic philosopher expressed
contemplation as one of the most critical components to reach henosis, i.e.
union with what is fundamental in reality. A number of sources cite about
the prevalence and relevance of contemplation. For example, in Jewish
tradition, contemplation involves recognizing moral perfection. Similarly
in Islam, it is prominently upheld that Prophet Muhammad secluded
himself from the world to contemplate about life and its meaning. On
similar lines, people of Bahai and Christianity faith also actively reflect and
stress upon awareness about self. The same is seen among followers of
Sanatani tradition in India who practice meditation for cognitive connection
with self. Thus, throughout human history, contemplative practices have
proliferated in cultures, and they are an integral element of the fabric from
which individuals form meaningful lives [1-3].
Usually, such state of mental awareness can be either attained by religious

activities such as chanting, ritualistic performances, or by non-religious
pursuits such as meditation, music, dance, theatre, poetry, prose writing,
painting, sculpture creation, or simply by purposeful observation of
natural world [2-5]. Contemplative practices are amongst the several
psychological states that assists in keeping the mind focused and alert [3,
5-7]. Overtime, it has evolved into an interdisciplinary area of knowledge,
called contemplative science, which encompasses study of both complex
mental processes and emotions, as well as environment circumscribing
historical, cultural, and sociological elements assisting in achieving the
mental state of contemplation [4, 8]. In the current research, contemplative
practices and education have been placed centrally. It emphasizes on
situating contemplative practices at the fore of school education to

understand whether contemplative practices and contemplative pedagogy
help students transform for a better life through self-discovery, realization
of innate human wisdom and potential, and finding their purposes of life.
1.2 What are contemplative practices?
There are several forms of contemplative practices. A comprehensive idea

about it can be gained by the Tree of Contemplative Practices [9-10], presented
in this section. Here the roots of tree signify two intents that are at heart of
all contemplative practices: (i) developing strong linkage to inner wisdom,
and (ii) cultivating awareness. It also allows scope for incorporation of new-
fangled practices, and transcend and encompass differences in traditions
from which many of these practices originate. The consortia of
contemplative practices are signified by different branches, which can be
broadly segregated as : community practices (which includes
compassionate parenting, enhancing resilience, story circle etc.),
ritual/cyclic practices (comprising of activities like establishing sacred
space, organizing spiritual events and cultural rituals), active practices (like
going for pilgrimage, involvement in activism, participating in marches
etc.), movement activities (like dancing, yoga, walking etc.), stillness deeds
(including mind quieting, rumination, meditation etc.), generative acts (like
gratitude, compassion, beholding, visualization, prayers, chanting etc.),
creative activities (like engaging in music, singing, improvisation,
journaling etc.) and relational tasks (like dialogue, story-telling, deep
listening etc.).
Fig. 1. The Tree of Contemplative Practices
1.3 Contemplative practices - a science
B. Alan Wallace, a well-known Buddhist scholar renowned for his studies

on Buddhist contemplative practice, pioneered a new academic area called
Contemplative Science, which is currently being studied at a number of
academic institutions, including the University of British Columbia [2-5].
As a consequence of Buddhist contemplative practices, a first-person
technique of mental inquiry known as samatha was created. Samatha is a
systematic, complete system of attention training. Contemplative
practitioners and scientists alike have long relied on their mental capacity
for intensive study and observation while conducting experiments.
Contemplative science enlightens us on a variety of mental processes,
including various states of consciousness [6-8]. Additionally, it reduces
intentional and emotional effects (i.e., self-control), as well as attention,

cognitive, and emotional problems [1, 5, 7]. Behavioural science,
psychology, and neuroscience have all contributed to our understanding of
how people think and therefore learn and function better. Contemplative
science offers a new perspective on the magnitude of our own potential for
pleasure. Additionally, it more firmly connects the physical and
subconscious worlds than the present scientific concept of the self [2-6].
2. Review of literature
2.1 Contemplative scientific practices and education
Students are better able to cultivate, develop, and deepen their attention
when they draw on personal experience. They can also more deeply
explore knowledge, develop a stronger connection to and compassion for
others, motivate themselves to ask deeper questions, and develop a
stronger connection to and compassion for themselves. As educators
continue to develop contemplative teaching, the number of educators
seeking contemplative teaching techniques continues to grow. These
stakeholders include teachers, administrators, directors of teaching and
learning centres, and other education professionals [4-6, 8].
Contemplative scientific practices in education provides practical

guidelines for teaching such practices across all academic disciplines,
including humanities, commerce, engineering and arts. As the
Contemplative Education movement gets traction, it incorporates practices
from a number of faiths and intellectual traditions, including religious
traditions (Christianity, Islam, Judaism, and Hinduism) and philosophical
traditions (Aristotelianism, Stoicism, and Platonism) [9-10].
2.2 Contemplative pedagogy
Contemplative pedagogy, in an educational environment, combines

focused attention, inspection, and increased awareness in order to promote
a richer learning experience. While attempting to comprehend the course
material, learners are urged to reflect on their own experiences (examining
their thoughts and feelings as related to the classroom content and their
learning experiences). The use of thoughtful practices may be utilized in
conjunction with more traditional teaching activities to help students
develop a broader perspective and knowledge of the world, regardless of
the subject being taught or the context in which it is taught [1-4].
Teachers and students face a variety of challenges, including distractions,

time limitations, and difficulty with teaching and learning. Contemplative
pedagogy may be used to address student problems such as distracting or
troubling thoughts, shallow learning, inflexible thinking, and students who
are unable to perceive the link between course content and everyday life.
Studying anything in the classroom becomes more enjoyable and relevant
when students draw connections between course topics and real-world
situations. Students must demonstrate compassion before they may
develop empathy and the ability to form intimate connections [7, 10].
Instructors may help students in developing a better knowledge of the topic
by allowing time for reflection on their studies, consideration of how they
study, and application of what they learn to their life [1-3].
2.3 Outcomes of contemplative pedagogy
By embracing the urgency of their inner lives, this pedagogical tool enables
students to connect their classroom learning to their own personal
experiences [3-5]. Students mix personal and intellectual knowledge to
create a deep connection with others in order to improve their awareness
and empathy [6-8]. Educators must first introspect over their own mental
state in order to educate students to avoid distractions and focus on their
studies, allowing them to develop a deeper understanding of themselves
and become more involved in creating meaningful and purposeful lives [3-
6].
2.4 Pedagogical role of mindfulness
Traditional liberal arts education relies heavily on rational techniques of

learning, while mindfulness and contemplation provide other ways of
knowing [2-6]. If contemplative techniques are invited then by virtue of it,
inherent human potential for knowing gets invited via stillness, gazing
within, reflecting profoundly, and beholding and observing the contents of

awareness [3-6, 8]. An inner technology of knowing is developed through
these methods. In contemplative pedagogy, approaches intended to calm
and change the usual chatter of the mind in order to build a capacity for
deeper awareness, focus, and insight [2, 6]. Examples of such pedagogical
techniques include guided meditation and journaling, silence, music, art,
poetry, dialogue, and questioning and inquiry [9-10]. Instead of being
viewed as religious activities, these contemplative practices are used in the
classrooms for learning via attentiveness or mindfulness [3, 7].
Multitasking and digital culture are always distracting, as research shows
[1, 3]. Aforementioned techniques can help counteract that. To this end,
pupils today benefit from intentional teaching approaches that incorporate
empathy, compassion, equanimity, mindfulness (a centuries-old
technique) and other visualization-based meditation techniques [3-5].
3. Material and methods
3.1 Purpose of research
This research aims to prove or disprove effectiveness of contemplative

practices and contemplative pedagogy, and to see whether contemplative
pedagogy help students transform for a better life in living through self-
discovery, realization of their innate human wisdom and potentials, and
finding their purposes of/in life.
3.2 Adopted methodology
The investigation stressed on the “critical first-person” research, in

addition to being grounded on the philosophy, psychology, and
neuroscience of contemplative experience as a third-person study. By
“critical,” it is meant that students would be encouraged to experiment
with various approaches without making any assumptions about their
efficacy. They would then take a step back and evaluate their experiences
in order to acquire a better understanding of their meaning and
importance. This research lies within the contemplative paradigm of
research. The sample size was five. Here, first-person research was carried
out. The nature of sample was such that they were all school going
students, and were unaware of contemplative practices and its
implications. They were each from Standards 8, 9, 10, 11, and 12.
Participants 1 and 4 were males and from standards 8 and 11 respectively,
whereas participants 2, 3, and 5 were females and were from standards 9,
10, and 12. Their age ranged from 14 to 19 years. Participants 2 and 3 were
from government schools of Delhi and Kerala respectively whereas
participants 1, 4, and 5 were from private schools of Jharkhand, Haryana,
and West Bengal. Out of 29 students approached for this investigation, only
5 agreed to participate with all heart. In this way, these 5 participants were
chosen to form part of this investigation. There were two phases in this
research. In the first phase, they were taught online (over Zoom App) about
the theoretical underpinnings of contemplative science and the practices
associated with it. In the second phase they were asked to engage in certain
contemplative practices for 12 weeks. They journaled their experiences and
submitted the report at the end. The narratives in the form of verbatims
were then thematically analysed as per the objectives of the research.
4. Results and discussion
It has been conclusively observed in this study that children who practice
mindful-ness enhances his or her ability to concentrate, organize, and
regulate their emotions. Reflective practices are beneficial for enhancing an
individual’s ability to concentrate on their environment (e.g., natural
processes, cultural productions, mental and emotional states, biases, and
media). Students' ability to concentrate, focus, observe, and understand
will increase as a result of these activities, which will better prepare them
to handle a range of issues and evaluate the impact of their choices on their
overall quality of life. Educators believe that successful teaching requires
awareness of one's surroundings.
Educational support for developing children's goals and aspirations is

limited. Pupils would “graduate as better evolved human beings” because they
would have discovered who they are via introspective exercises.
Contemplative education encompasses a variety of activities in addition to
meditation. It is a method of introducing modern students to the Western
liberal arts tradition of critical thinking and self-directed study. Students
who practice mindfulness may be better able to concentrate on and

attention to their surroundings. It may help them communicate more
effectively if they just speak and listen to one another more often. By
studying contemplative techniques, students will develop the ability to
critically evaluate their own ideas about how learning happens. This would
result in development of a more conscious community.
Contemplative Pedagogy is a term that refers to the practice of improving

education through the use of creative contemplative techniques. Our
research delved deeply into the connection between teaching and learning,
as well as contemplative practices and the potential for learning to heighten
people's awareness of the ways in which education may improve their
lives. Students anticipate teachers’ constant need to stay up-to-date in
content knowledge, and develop and practice novel methods of teaching.
Teachers may use this technique to stay linked to academic achievement
while still being relevant. Students have opportunity to think on their
personal identity and the community to which they belong in their
educational approach, while keeping in mind that both are connected to
the larger world. This is an excellent technique of instruction because it
conveys knowledge quickly. Education is accountable for those of us who
have survived. We can give our children a brighter future if we educate
them with what they need to know today. The instructor’s role is to bring
the subject’s “glory” to light by encouraging students to discover their own
expertise. This can be made possible by adopting contemplative pedagogy.
While it is widely established that a good curriculum may favourably

impact students’ attitudes toward learning, it is now established from this
research that inclusion of contemplative practices in curriculum has
unexpected, multifaceted, and startling effect on pupils. There are however
many challenges associated with contemplative pedagogy, which include
linguistic and categorization issues, as well as more fundamental issues.
Researchers should strive to be as exact as possible in their evaluations of

mindfulness and other related concepts, since failing to do so will result in
low-quality research on meditation. Contemplative science is a way of being
rather than a specific academic field, which means that individuals shall stop
fighting about the terminological ambiguity associated with this term when
discussing meditation, centering prayer, and contemplation. It is critical to

investigate how different meditation methods function in order to further
contemplative study. It is beneficial to devote more time and money to
investigate the mechanisms behind these practices. Contemplative science,
a term that emphasizes the mind’s involvement in scientific activity,
enables psychologists and cognitive scientists to use advanced knowledge
from their respective fields. Contemplative science is a branch of science in
which researchers focus only on addressing specific issues. While
contemplating, one must keep in mind the importance of mental processes
and context; constantly evaluate first- and second-person perspectives.
The importance of honest reporting and practitioners’ participation in

meditation-related research is shown clearly here.
Neurophenomenological methods are more suited to laboratory study.
Furthermore, the modes of existential awareness (MEA) must be stated in
non-experimental settings. Research is effective only when non-time-based
reporting techniques and self-interpretation by participants are utilized. To
get a more complete knowledge of contemplative practice, it is essential to
examine it from every angle. Even with this little remark, interdisciplinary
research would be more beneficial to the entire community of
contemplative researchers. More thorough research is required, including
not just assessments of different motivators and contextual variables, but
also “first- and second-person” techniques. The most difficult issue for
contemplative scientists is incorporating these concepts into their normal
research practices, which is not easy.
5. Future research and way forward
In most studies, this is a viable choice since several experimental tasks and
self-report measures are frequently utilized in a single experimental session
with the same participants, however results from different tasks are
generally separated into distinct study reports [1-2, 4, 8]. There is need for
a more systematic selection of tasks based on contemplative science theory,
so that these assessments target the core elements of metacognitive self-
regulatory capacity (MSRC) in a systematic manner. Furthermore, distinct
reporting of data from the same participants should make the linkages
between such research obvious in order to allow for the integration of
findings across evaluations. The comparison and discussion of larger

implications of data from several trials with the same participants might be
useful in developing a more comprehensive and integrated picture of
modulations in MSRC with contemplative activities [2-4, 6, 9].
Acknowledgement
Author is highly obliged to all the participants for their active engagement
with this research endeavour.
References
1. Bai, H., Morgan, P., Scott, C., & Cohen, A. (2018). Holistic–Contemplative Pedagogy
for Twenty-First Century Teacher Education: Education as Healing. In International
Handbook of Holistic Education (pp. 108-117): Routledge.
2. Charney, M., & Colvin, J. (2018). 3. Contemplative Pedagogy. In Going Green:
Implementing Sustainable Strategies in Libraries Around the World (pp. 32-45): De
Gruyter Saur.
3. Dalton, J. E., Dorman, E. H., & Byrnes, K. (2018). The teaching self: Contemplative
practices, pedagogy, and research in education: Rowman & Littlefield.
4. Eppert, C., Vokey, D., Nguyen, T. T. A., & Bai, H. (2015). Intercultural philosophy
and the nondual wisdom of ‘basic goodness’: Implications for contemplative and
transformative education. Journal of Philosophy of Education, 49(2), 274-293.
5. Faerm, S. (2018). Contemplative pedagogy in the college classroom: Theory,
research, and practice for holistic student development. Cuadernos del Centro de
Estudios en Diseño y Comunicación Nº78, 20, 159-182.
6. Gardner, P. (2021). Contemplative Pedagogy: Fostering Transformative Learning in
a Critical Service Learning Course. Journal of Experiential Education, 44(2), 152-166.
7. Hart, T. (2004). Opening the contemplative mind in the classroom. Journal of
transformative education, 2(1), 28-46.
8. Johannes, J. (2012). Contemplative education: How contemplative practices can
support and improve education.
9. Kaufman, P. (2017). Critical contemplative pedagogy. Radical Pedagogy, 14(1), 1-20.
10. Lees, M. (2017). Effect of contemplative pedagogy on the eco-literacy of
undergraduate public state university students. Walden University.
Chapter 25
Social Entrepreneurship as A Tool for
Sustainable Social Development in the Post-
COVID-19 Situation in India: Challenges &
Opportunities
Anish Kumar Bhunia1, Mihir Kumar Shome2
Abstract. Social Entrepreneurship played a crucial role as an innovating and

profit-making solution to various social areas like education, health care,
poverty alleviation, unemployment, community development, and overall
economic development of any country. COVID-19 pandemic has caused a
global health crisis, affecting every aspect of human life and a devastating
scenario in the world economy at large. The objective of this paper is to 1) to
define the concept of social entrepreneurship, 2) to find out the role of social
entrepreneurship in social and economic development, in the COVID-19
pandemic situation in India, 3) to examine various opportunities and
challenges before social entrepreneurs deal with the pandemic. This work is
based on various secondary data collected from journals, books, articles,
magazines, websites, etc. This paper concludes that social entrepreneurship is
a very useful tool for social development by solving various issues faced by
migrant workers, rural people, construction workers, women by providing
food, rations, economic support, various medical equipment, and many more
in the COVID-19 situation in India. While social entrepreneurs are facing
various challenges for doing so like, 1) funds raised in times of frugality, 2)
building and following a meticulous idea, 3) investing in proper manpower, 4)
process management & planning, 5) balancing the vision with business, there
are various opportunities also available for them like 1) Innovative financing,
2) impact incubators, 3) exponential communities, 4) Co-working culture.
1
Ph.D. scholar Department of Management & Humanities, National Institute of
Technology, Arunachal Pradesh
2
Professor, Department of Management & Humanities, National Institute of
Technology, Arunachal Pradesh
302 Social Entrepreneurship as A Tool for Sustainable Social Development
Keywords: Social Entrepreneurship, COVID-19, Social Development,

Economic Development
1. Introduction
On December 31, 2019, unusual manifestations of pneumonia were found

in Wuhan City, Hubei Province, China. On January 7, 2020, the pathogen
was detected as the new coronavirus (2019-nCoV) and the disease was later
named COVID-19 by the WHO. In March 2020, a global health emergency
was declared affecting hundreds of thousands of lives worldwide and
posing a challenge for healthcare professionals (Raghuvir, 2020) The
COVID-19 epidemic has put a huge burden on global health systems, and
infection control plans have sparked an economic catastrophe by abruptly
halting a large number of economic activities (Kuckertz, 2020) This
metaphorical black swan event is an unprecedented exogenous shock that
has paralyzed social and economic life. Raghuram Rajan, former RBI
Governor said “This is the greatest emergency for the Indian economy since
independence”. International Monetary Fund’s (IMF) chief said “World is
faced with extraordinary uncertainty about the depth and duration of this
crisis, and it was the worst economic fallout since the Great Depression”.
To control the pandemic, the Government of India declared the 21-day
nationwide lockdown on March 24, 2020, which affected the entire country
with a population of 1.3 billion, and the nationwide lockdown extended in
stages and lasted until May 2020 (Akriti, 2021). The nationwide lockdown
severely affects all economic sections like agriculture and allied activities,
manufacturing sector, financial market, and institutions as well as has a
huge negative impact on social issues like a severe health crisis, informal
sector migrant worker crisis, poverty, job losses, domestic violence against
women, gender gap and inequality, education disruption, the
psychological impact resulting in mental illness (Aneja, 2021). A report
from the International Labour Organization found that as a result of
COVID-19, some 400 million informal workers in India are at risk of
extreme poverty (ILO, 2020). Organizations ranging from trusts and non-
governmental organizations to the government / private sector are driving
the fight against this pandemic. “Social enterprises operate on a spectrum
where social goals are at one end and economic goals are at another”
(Weaver, 2020). “Social entrepreneurship is seen as a shining light to public
policymakers in these new times, as social entrepreneurship is considered

a greater innovator for solutions’’ (Oberoi, 2021). “The work that social
enterprises do may be more important than ever before, as the COVID-19
pandemic exacerbates existing social problems like unemployment,
hunger, violence, and racial inequality” (Weaver, 2020).
Infection like the Russian flu in 1889, the Spanish flu in 1918, SARS in 2002,
and the Ebola pandemic in 2014 altered the lives of many people globally.
The COVID-19 pandemic is anticipated to have a similar great effect
(Saadat, 2020).
After long-term neglect and underinvestment, the ongoing epidemic has

exposed the deep-seated problems that plague India’s public health
system. This crisis has paralyzed India's public health policy. There are
insufficient hospital beds and people hopelessly looking for life-saving
oxygen or important medical equipment for their loved ones. (Bala, 2021).
The current pandemic situation has had a profound and adverse impact on
Indian companies. At the national level, the impact of the COVID-19
coronavirus pandemic may cause a decline in domestic demand which
further leads to a decline in buying power due to unemployment or wage
cuts. Different industries, such as tourism and aviation,
telecommunications, automotive, and transportation. Affected
departments facing the negative impact of the current disaster. India's GDP
fell to its lowest level in more than six years in the 4th quarter of 2019 - 2020.
India's growth rate in 2021 next year is expected to be between 5.3% and
5.7%. The current coronavirus pandemic may cause India's real gross
domestic product (GDP) to fall permanently by 4%. By 2021, India’s gross
domestic product (GDP) growth rate is estimated to be 1.9%, the lowest
level of growth after 1.1% in 1991-1992 (Das, 2020).
The pandemic has had a disproportionate impact on the livelihoods and

survival of the world's poor. India has witnessed a large-scale crisis among
migrant workers which is a matter of great concern. The study revealed the
appalling condition of migrant workers and their family members due to
the unplanned lockdown and the subsequent socioeconomic and health

crisis. Women face loss of livelihoods and debt. Due to lockdown and
restrictions, women’s access to essential requirements for a daily living has
been severely disrupted (Abdul E P, 2021).
The long-term shutdown of economic affairs globally has led to the reverse
migration of workers working in India and Indians working abroad,
especially those working in the Middle East and the West. By emphasizing
the severity of internal migration, many people call this the largest internal
migration crisis in the history of India's independence (Sarma, 2020).
As hordes of migrants return to rural areas, the spread of COVID-19 and

deteriorating socioeconomic conditions can bring a double whammy. This
study (Margaret, 2020) provides information on the plight of migrant
workers and the impact of COVID-19 on India's rural economy. The main
findings of the study indicate that workers in the informal economy in
India are in danger of falling into deeper deprivation during the crisis.
Reverse immigration will put undue pressure on agriculture and the rural
economy, causing large numbers of people to fall into extreme poverty.
A survey consisting of 5000 people across 12 states of India, conducted

(Kesar, 2021) between April 2020 and May 2020, to examine the effect of
lockdown on employment, livelihoods, and food security. They found that
around two-thirds of those who responded reported job loss during the
lockdown, while the earnings of those who continued to work dropped
dramatically. Furthermore, due to the extremely low level of the social
safety net, unemployment quickly translates into food and livelihood
insecurity. Almost 80% of households have reduced food intake capacity,
greater than 60% of households don’t have enough money to buy a week's
necessities, and a third of family loans to bear expenses during the
lockdown period.
Social entrepreneurship is a growing field for developing economies that

creates social impact through an entrepreneurial approach. It helps to boost
a country's economy and its social structure. Social entrepreneurs provide
hope for the future by creating jobs, providing innovative products and
services, and this way promoting sustainability. (Summerfield, 2020).
Social entrepreneurship is an evolving global movement. Social

entrepreneurship will play an important role in the development of rural
India. Harvard University professor David Gergen described social
entrepreneurs as the new engine of reform. Social entrepreneurship
contributes to society through the generation of employment,
innovation/new products and services, social capital, and the promotion of
equity. (Singh, 2019)
The speed and efficiency of the response of social entrepreneurs to the

COVID-19 pandemic and its impact in India have shown their presence on
the field and ability to support vulnerable communities as first responders
are extremely important to the response. global COVID-19. Social
Innovators provide resources for women by providing resources to the
most vulnerable, helping women in the informal economy, providing
resources to migrants, providing healthcare to people in remote areas,
supporting migrant families, sexual violence survivors, and frontline
workers, Providing women with access to finance (Raja, 2021).
Social enterprises are rapidly emerging as alternative economic entities.

When a country’s traditional economic system or market-based solutions
cannot ensure social well-being, social enterprises can take a lead role in
solving emerging social problems. But social enterprises face numerous
challenges like lack of funding, ability to grow, the duality of mission, lack
of proper business planning. (Hossain, 2020).
Young social entrepreneurs are working hard to create a healthy growth

environment and reshape the future. Many innovations strategies have
been able to promote social entrepreneurship in India, like innovative
funding, impact incubator, exponential communities, co-working culture.
(Sood, 2020)
3. Research objective
• To define the concept of social entrepreneurship

• To find out the role of social entrepreneurship in social and

economic development, in the COVID-19 pandemic situation in
India,
• To examine various opportunities and challenges before social
entrepreneurs deal with the pandemic.
This study has been conceptualized by examining various secondary data

like information from journals, policy reports, articles, magazines,
websites, etc. Research papers were largely collected from reliable sources.
5. Concept of social entrepreneurship
“Social entrepreneurship is exercised where some person or persons (1) aim

either exclusively or in some prominent way to create social value of some
kind, and pursue that goal through some combination of (2) recognizing
and exploiting opportunities to create this value, (3) employing innovation,
(4) tolerating risk and (5) declining to accept limitations in available
resources” (Peredo, 2006).
Social entrepreneurship is a multi-dimensional construction, which

involves the benign entrepreneurial behaviours expressed to realize the
social mission, the capacity to identify opportunities for creating social
value, and the key characteristics of social value. Innovation, initiative,
decision-making, and risk-taking (Mort, 2003).
a. Five stages of social entrepreneurship

Social entrepreneurship arises from systemic problems and aims for
systemic change. The theory of change (ToC) is a "backbone" and is
indispensable for a social enterprise pursuing systemic change. "Five Stages
of Social Entrepreneurship" classifies and summarizes a lot of social
enterprise management information. (Tanabe, 2016)
• Systemic Problem is an issue getting from the main driver of

disparity, human weakness, or an emergency of worldwide
manageability. It creates opportunities for social enterprise
• Individualized enterprise is an activity by the founder (or co-
founder) of a social enterprise solely (e.g., weak brand, low capital,
or professional immaturity. Strong leadership of the founder
should be generated to move on to the next stage.
• Organized enterprises are activities of social enterprise teams that
use the theory of change (ToC) (e.g., ToC shared vision and
mission, quality development, alliances). Strong and professional
teamwork to solve systemic problems is required.
• Socialization enterprises are activities in which actors in society
work together to solve system problems (such as multi-stakeholder
participation, sharing assessments, and proposed instructions).
Ecosystem, collective impact investment, legislation is required to
move on to the next stage.
• Systemic changes are fundamental changes at the level of social
systems, which can prevent or alleviate system problems
themselves. It helps to realize sustainable development and social
resource recycling.
The worldwide endeavors of ‘Ashoka’, established by Bill Drayton in 1980,

to give seed subsidizing to entrepreneurs with a social vision, various
exercises of Grameen Bank, set up by Professor Muhammad Yunus in 1976
to kill neediness and enable women in Bangladesh or the utilization of
expressions to foster local area programs in Pittsburgh by the Manchester
Craftsmen's Guild, established by Bill Strickland in 1968 are a few instances
of social entrepreneurship.
Urvashi Sahni, founder of the ‘Study Hall Education Foundation' (SHEF)

provides educational opportunities for the most disadvantaged girls in
India. Harish Hande is the founder and CEO of ‘Selco’, a company that
provides sustainable energy to rural areas in our country. Jeroo Billmoria
launched ‘Childline’ to provide support in police assistance and medical
care, especially for street children. Anshu Gupta founded ‘Goonj’ to collect
old clothes from the urban population, sort them, restore them and
distribute them to the poor in the area. Santosh Parulekar founded the
company ‘Pipal Tree’ to give formal training to young people and provide
them with reputable jobs in Indian companies. There are many more.
6. Role of social entrepreneurs in battling COVID-19 in

India
Social entrepreneurs are attempting to save lives in this overwhelming time

in India. They are moving forward to help those generally defenceless
against the wellbeing and monetary impacts of the emergency. Here are
some examples (Raja, 2021)
‘Goonj’ is a New Delhi-based social enterprise. During this pandemic,

Goonj has worked with its partner organizations and benefited more than
380,000 families (around 1.5 million people), by distributing more than
8,800 tons of necessities such as rations, providing more than 362,000 meals,
buying 225,000 kilograms of vegetables, making more than 800,000 masks
and more than 12,000,000 of sanitary napkin cloth products.
The Self-Employed Women’s Association (SEWA) on behalf of its 1.7

million self-employed women workers in 18 Indian states urges declaration
of income support to the government for all informal economy workers’
families to overcome this crisis and issued a notice to all the states
announcing a monthly compensation plan of 5,000 rupees to all its
registered workers, providing a free public ration supply system during the
crisis, and providing a six-month repayment period to repay all loans.
Founded in 2010, ‘Glocal Healthcare’ has launched a free COVID-19

screening telemedicine consultation that can be accessed through phone
lines, websites, and apps to avoid panic; ensure proper detection,

classification, and treatment to avoid the collapse of health infrastructure.
‘Jan Sahas’ has more than five years of experience dealing with migrant
workers, construction workers, and salaried workers. Within 100 days of
the closure of COVID-19, Jan Sahas received support from more than 30
charitable and private sector donors (generating more than US$2 million)
and worked with 42 non-profit organizations in 19 states in India to meet
more than 10 Countries need 40,000 immigrants. Families, 1,237 sexual
violence survivors, 12,480 frontline health workers were helped through
immediate support.
‘Mann Deshi’ is located in Maharashtra and is committed to providing

economic empowerment to rural women in India. During the COVID-19
crisis, the Mann Deshi Foundation has been tirelessly providing relief by
providing food packs, face masks, and PPE equipment. It also cooperated
with a district government to build a COVID-19 hospital of 300-bed by
transforming an abandoned rural hospital into a special free COVID-19
hospital. Their team also worked with the district government 24/7 to give
critically ill patients with oxygen beds, ventilators, Redisvir, and
Tocilizumab.
‘Dasra’, a Mumbai-based strategic charity, has launched a campaign called

#BacktheFrontline, which is raising US $ 10 million to provide flexible and
unfettered support to more than 100 NGOs across India. The fund is jointly
promoted by social entrepreneurs from the Catalyst 2030 community. To
date, Dasra has raised US $ 7 million and, together with its partners
(including local NGOs Swasti, Dharma Life, and Janvikas), has supported
50 non-profit organizations. for-profit organizations that are primarily
dedicated to addressing urban poverty and marginalization, rural and
tribal communities (Cheney, 2021)
7. Challenges for social entrepreneurs
Social enterprises across India have been catalysts for change for years.
Now, due to the coronavirus outbreak, we need it more than ever.
Although developing gradually, social enterprises are at a crossroads due
to the many challenges they face. According to (Dutta, 2019) social

entrepreneurs in India are facing five major challenges -
• Funds raising in times of frugality: Global economic slowdown

impact severely on fundraising. To collect funds social
entrepreneurs, have to show how innovative they are compared to
others in specific areas. It can be done by keeping in touch with the
ecosystem by interspersing one-to-one interactive digital
communications during key events.
• Building and following a meticulous idea: Every social
entrepreneur needs a meticulous idea to achieve milestones.
Formulation and following an idea based on market realities and
customer insights is important which ensures full attention to
fundraising and achieving operational goals. Many social
entrepreneurs are imaginative without ample experience in
business management. This kind of planning and systematic
performance evaluation can be a completely new experience for
them.
• Investing in proper manpower: Hiring the right people to achieve
a sustainable goal is an important part of any organization. This is
also true for the social sector, as specialized skills are needed for
selling, branding, and financial management. Putting effort into
product development, fundraising, and business operations at the
same time makes many founders struggle. Without the right
manpower, the organization will achieve success.
• Process Management & Planning: An organization that offers
quality products and services is growing rapidly and reaching a
critical point. In this case, process management is very important,
and organizations that do not plan to grow often lose the chance to
achieve success.
• Balancing the vision with business: Organizations that provide
quality products and services are growing rapidly and reaching a
critical point. Process management has a very important role to
solve these problems. An organization cannot succeed without
proper planning.
8. Opportunities for social entrepreneurs
Social entrepreneurship has evolved from a voluntary model of corporate

charity to a core activity that will enable organizations to build a
sustainable future. It has gained popularity among progressive, tech-
driven, and socially responsible leaders around the world, especially
among millennials. According to (Sood, 2020) in India, various innovation
policies can promote social entrepreneurship such as:
• Innovative financing: The social sector in India is the second-

largest target investment group. It is composed of three stages of
influence investors, including the initial stage, the growth stage,
and the scale of more mature organizations. Investors provide
proven industry-leading experts to help organizations grow.
• Impact incubators: Although growth accelerators focused on social
innovation and impact may be limited in India, their strong
finances and scalability have had a considerable impact on
ecosystem start-ups. The new generation of incubators can not only
help founders and teams obtain capital and scale, but also help
them find large-scale transformation goals and create future
leaders.
• Exponential communities: Building own network of experienced
global entrepreneurs can help to know about possible
opportunities that could help newcomers to discuss, share, and
learn, creating an extraordinary group of like-minded
entrepreneurs and leaders.
• Co-working culture: The secret of a good workplace lies in its
culture, which has become popular in recent years. Many
organizations provide innovative ways to new entrepreneurs to
create mobile offices with a minimum investment before they
grow. Given the current pandemic, this appears to be the future of
work.
9. Conclusion
Social entrepreneurship played a role as an innovating and profit-making

solution to various social areas like education, health care, poverty
alleviation, unemployment, and community development. While social
entrepreneurs are facing problems like funds raising in times of frugality,
building and following a meticulous idea, investing in proper manpower,
process management & planning, balancing the vision with business there
are lots of opportunities for them like Innovative financing, Impact
incubators, Exponential communities, Co-working culture in India. So, it
can be concluded that social entrepreneurship could be a useful tool to deal
with social problems caused or aggravated by the COVID-19 pandemic.
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Chapter 26
Restructuring India’s Merchandise Trade Post
COVID-19: Challenges and Opportunities
Nikhat Khalid
PhD Research Scholar, Department of Economics, Jamia
Millia Islamia, New Delhi, India
Abstract: The economic shock caused by COVID-19 in India and the world has
an unprecedented scale, scope, and extent. It upset almost every
macroeconomic parameter of the economy. International trade is one such
sector severely fractured by the pandemic. The inflexion point for India’s trade
in the recent times was the liberalization in 1990s, after which India’s trade
grew leaps and bounds. In 2019, India’s exports were at US$ 323.25 billion,
making it a leading global trading nation. However, with the advent of COVID-
19, trade completely came to a halt, with borders, ports and airports being
closed. Furthermore, the import and export potentials of nations were
disrupted, due to weakening supply chains, trade related infrastructure and
dipping incomes. The study presents a modest attempt to study disruption and
impact of COVID-19 on demand and supply side chains of India, which are a
sine qua non for trade; and the opportunities for India’s trade in the post
COVID-19 world order. Disruptions are historically known to structurally alter
the slope of any variable, for which causal loop modeling which studies
causality and spillovers on variables has been used. Furthermore, a descriptive
approach has been used to study variables such as manufacturing, production,
logistics, purchasing power and trade values. The study reveals the impact of
COVID-19 on each of the variables required for trade, the need to strengthen
supply chains and address and make the most of the post COVID-19 world.
Keywords: Merchandise Trade, Disruptions, Production Capacities, Logistics,

Purchasing Power, Challenges, Opportunities
316 Restructuring India’s Merchandise Trade Post COVID-19
1. Introduction
The pandemic has caused an inevitable and enormous impact on

economies across the globe, causing massive economic disruption,
international trade being one of the most impacted areas. Production came
to a halt, consumption was significantly curtailed, borders were completely
closed, mobility restricted, and demand and supply side shocks witnessed
in global trade were a first in the past century. No country in itself is self-
sufficient and countries across the world depend on each other, this is why
trade in itself is a very significant macroeconomic indicator, as it allows
efficient production and supply of goods, a lot of which fall in the
‘necessary goods’ category. During the COVID-19 pandemic, the sine qua
non for trade i.e., inter-border movement, manufacturing, transportation,
demand, and supply chains and infrastructure were impeded severely. As
per WTO estimates for the year 2020 in nominal US dollar terms, world
merchandise export values were down 8% compared to the previous year,
while there was an almost 13% decline in global GDP in 2020 (OECD, 2020).
This is the most significant drop witnessed in world trade after the global
financial crisis of 2008. Keeping trade flowing or resuming disrupted trade
flows became crucial to ensure the supply of essential products and to
uplift the global economy (OECD, 2020). The world is still grappling with
the harm that COVID-19 has left on virtually every sector and variable.
1.1 India as a trading nation and the pandemic
India has always been a trade intense nation. In 2018, India was the 18th
largest exporting nation, and its trade was equivalent to 43.3% of its GDP.
India’s manufactured and resource-based export have been growing
vibrantly ever since the economic liberalization of the 1990s. However, with
the advent and progression of COVID-19 across the globe, Indian exports
too came to a sudden halt. As per the data released by the Ministry of
Commerce and Industry, in the months of March and April 2020, India's
exports shrank by almost 60 %, while imports plunged by about 58 %. This
was the first such massive fall in India’s trade volume witnessed in modern
history, affecting lives and livelihoods, demand, and supply chains,
impacting virtually every sector and variable of the economy due to
negative spill over and multiplier effects. This trade shock could potentially
have long term ramifications like altering structurally the export structure
of India if appropriate and timely measures are not taken. The new nuances
developing in the post COVID-19 world need to be critically examined and
understood, along with the structural changes in variables that occurred
within the economy.
For a systematic analysis, the study has been disaggregated into various
sections. After a brief introduction, section 2 comprises of literature review,
followed by data and methodology, findings, and discussion and lastly,
conclusion and policy implications.
2. Review of select literature
The impact of COVID-19 on international trade and India’s trade is still

evolving, and a significant lacuna exists which the study in hand attempts
to fill in. Select literature that studies the impact of COVID-19 on economy,
and trade in particular has been reviewed to form a theoretical basis for the
present study; and certain outcomes have been objectivized thereafter.
Escaith and Khorana (2021) state that due to interconnected nature of the
economies, global trade is bound to be affected severely. According to
Barlow et. al. (2021), reductions in both demand and supply have
hampered international trade significantly. Maliszewska et al (2020)
suggests the need to catalyze and coordinate global effort to collaborate on
rebuilding trade, finance and macroeconomic policies
Sahoo and Ashwani (2020) measured the impact of COVID-19 on the Indian
economy and found that the economy was heading towards a recession and
urgent policy measures were critical. On a similar note, Veeramani and
Anam (2021) assert that global trade will severely be impacted due to the
pandemic as it essentially requires proximity between the supplier and the
consumer.
Objectives of the study
i. To understand the impact of COVID-19 on India’s trade

ii. To examine the variables essential for trade and challenges and
opportunities emerged
iii. To provide relevant policy measures for restructuring India’s post
COVID-19 world trade
3. Data and methodology
3.1 Data sources
The study uses credible data sources, such as the RBI database, Ministry of
statistics and programme implementation (MOSPI) database; Ministry of
Road Transport & Highways (MoRTH) database; and Ministry of Rural
Development database.
3.2 Methodology used
The study uses a descriptive and exploratory approach. In order to identify

the variables that has been impacted due to a significant change in
merchandise trade. Both, the challenges and opportunities that have come
to the fore have been explored by causal-loop diagram approach and an
exploratory and analytical approach by finding relevant data from credible
sources.
3.2.1 Causal-Loop diagram modelling
Causal-Loop diagram modeling visually represents variables that impact

one another, and the interconnection present between them. The modeling
is based on a pertinent premise that sum of parts is far greater and
meaningful than the parts themselves, which essentially means that no
process or variable can be studied in isolation, since variables are
interrelated and depend on one another. Causal-Loop visual models are
particularly significant in identifying the direction of causality, the nature
of the relationship and the points of intervention required.
The present study uses Causal-Loop Diagram that have been modeled
using the Vensim PLE modeling software.
3.2.2 Descriptive approach: variable-wise analysis
After the identification of variables involved, and the direction and relation
of causality, the variables have been analyzed empirically.
i. Impact on India’s merchandise trade: Trade values for time period

January 2020- May 2021 have been studied in order to study the
impact of COVID-19 on India’s export and import values.
ii. Challenges created: In order to study the challenges created by
covid, the infrastructure and other factors related to trade have
been examined.
iii. These include Manufacturing, Impact on Logistics, Purchasing
Power.
iv. Opportunities created: The pandemic has brought forward certain
strong areas of India, such as its vibrant pharma sector, disruption
in purchasing behavior, a critical opportunity to strengthen supply
chains, among many others.
4. Findings and discussion
4.1 Causal-Loop modelling
A preliminary assessment has been carried out to identify the variables

associated with trade that have been impacted, and the nature of causation
between the variables and with trade. This is pertinent for the descriptive
analysis that is carried out in the next section. Identification of variable is
what will assist policy makers to address key concerns. Furthermore, the
potential opportunities and lessons that have emerged due to the pandemic
have also been identified.
Figure 1: Identifying Forward; Backward Linkages of the Impact of COVID-19 on Trade

and the Opportunities it brings forth
Source: Author’s own creation
Figure 1 describes that international trade has been impacted because of

numerous variables. Similarly, numerous variables have been impacted
due to the fall in trade.
On the demand side, COVID-19 and its induced lockdown severely

impacted the employment and hence, purchasing power of people. This
relationship is two way and could be explained by the multiplier theory by
Lange (1943); COVID-19 impacted employment and purchasing power,
which had a domino effect and further led to decreased production,
incomes, and subsequently lower trade. Another factor that has come to the
forefront on the demand side is Behavioral Change in purchasing, as
suggested by Verma and Naveen (2021) that people have increasingly had
the tendency of purchasing necessary products This change, if sustained in
the long-run has the potential to alter export/import pattern and
indigenous production in the long run.
Looking at the supply side of the trade, supply chains were completely
disrupted. Manufacturing and production came to a complete halt not only
in India, but rather globally due to the COVID-19 induced lockdowns. In
the instance of little or no production taking place, sustaining the demands
of one’s own country became a challenge, and hence, the question of
trading and exporting came much later. Furthermore, logistics and

transportation were disrupted due to movement restrictions, the heavy
motor vehicles which are used significantly in transportation registered the
lowest ever new registrations during the initial first wave of COVID-19 in
India. More so, the variable factor of production, i.e., labour, that makes
production possible went from surplus availability to shortage, as most
labour went to their respective native places in the aftermath of the
lockdown. It is therefore evident that demand and supply chains were both
damaged critically and had numerous negative spillovers as well.
On the Opportunities side, the pandemic gave the avenue to India to

rethink its trade perspective, and focus on the production of essential,
critical and strategic sectors in order to ensure the basic requirements of its
citizens. The most significant thing positive thing that happened during
this period was the emergence of India’s pharmaceutical sector stronger
than ever.
4.2 Descriptive approach: variable-wise analysis
i. Impact on India’s merchandise trade
As elucidated in Graph 1 based on monthly trade data, it is evident that

India’s trade values started plunging since the beginning of 2020, owing to
COVID-19 scare across the globe, although infection rate was only trivial at
that point. This points towards the negative sentiment that started
prevailing in the world market. India’s merchandise trade volume came
crashing down after March, wherein lockdowns had been imposed. An
almost 50% drop in aggregate merchandise trade vale is witnessed from
March to April. In May, certain upward trend is observed, owing to the
realization of policy makers that not producing and not trading would be
unsustainable for the economy. It is only in February 2021 that export and
import values were able to reach the January 2020 level. Hence, India’s
merchandise trade in a manner went one year behind due to COVID-19
pandemic. It is also observed that a steady linear trend in growth of
merchandise trade values that had been the norm pre-COVID-19 is now
marred with frequent fluctuations.
India's Trade: Jan'20-June'21
(in INR Crores)

400000
350000
300000
250000
200000
150000
India Export India Import
Graph 1: India’s Trade Post Covid- Jan’2020 to June’2021

Source: Author’s graph based on RBI database on monthly trade values
ii. Brief overview of challenges created: describing certain variables
To analyse the impact of COVID-19 on variables that are a sine qua non for
trade, the Index of Industrial Production (IIP), which is a measure of
manufacturing and production activity in the country has been studied. It
is evident from Table 1 that IIP witnessed a massive fall post-February 2020
and remained significantly low up to August 2020. After March 2021, again
a falling trend is witnessed. This provides evidence that production activity
in the country is fluctuating glaringly, and production and demand are
what form the bases for trading activity.
For studying logistics, Heavy Motor Vehicle (HMV) Registration has been
taken as the proxy variable. In a healthy growing economy, HMV
registrations rise each month in a large country like India. It is observed in
Table 1 that their registrations marked a (-)83.9% growth in March and a (-)
98.5% growth in April. The number started increasing steadily after April,
however, the number remains far lower than usual. In May 2021, again a (-)
61% growth is registered. This signifies that transportation and logistics
had virtually been crippled and even now, the situation remains impeded.
For studying purchasing power, there exists no single index or variable,

hence proxies, formal employment and MGNREGA demand; both of
which represent employment situation in the country have been studied. A
Total number of new social security subscribers represents the generation
of formal employment in the country which mandatorily have to subscribe
to EPFO and other social security measures. The number was more than 21
lakhs in January 2021, which then started slumping massively, registering
a 60% fall in April 2021. The numbers picked up after June 2020, however,
the trend remains very volatile, pointing towards the uncertain
employment generation in the country. On the other hand, the MGNREGS
demand per person which represents informal employment has seen a
huge jump in numbers and the trend up to May 2021 shows that the
number is surging, with no pertinent fall. Overall, it is evident that the
employment situation of the country is grim, and formal employment is
not picking up, leading to a surge in informal employment which is only
capable to provide survival level income to people. In such a scenario, the
demand and purchasing power of people is bound to be low, in turn
affecting trade variables.
Year & Manufacturing Logistics Purchasing Power

Month
Index of Heavy Motor New social MGNREGS
Industrial Vehicle security Demand
Production (IIP) Registration subscribers (persons)
India
137.9 19923 2122621 24950180
01/2020
02/2020 134.2 24889 1989286 29468366
03/2020 111.6 28761 1311584 27640857
04/2020 41.5 4620 514744 20014120
05/2020 83.6 70 851571 54261354
06/2020 106.9 546 1416882 63509296
07/2020 118.2 1372 1464883 42905157
08/2020 118.3 2656 1704424 31589941
09/2020 125.7 5475 2235664 31292844
10/2020 131.5 7502 2012785 30950275
11/2020 128 8950 1628968 28927970
12/2020 137.5 11695 2063805 34875477
01/2021 136.1 14812 2029713 34374753
02/2021 129.3 16888 2043159 38396108
03/2021 143.2 19410 2010803 35911252
04/2021 125.4 16491 1859748 40223043
05/2021 113.5 6428 1494913 41497724
Table 1: Impact of COVID-19 on Variables essential for Trade
Sources: i) IIP and New Social Security Subscribers data taken from Ministry of statistics
and programme implementation (MOSPI) database; ii) Heavy Motor Vehicle Registration
data taken from Ministry of Road Transport & Highways (MoRTH) database; iii)
MGNREGS data taken from Ministry of Rural Development database
iii. Opportunities created: an initial assessment
• India’s Pharma Sector: Among the storm of covid’s negative impact

on the economy, the silver lining has been the exponential growth
of India’s pharmaceutical and allied medical manufacturing sector.
India came forward as a global producer of COVID-19 vaccines,
COVID-19 related and other generic medicines, N95 and other

masks, PPE kits and so on. India’s pharma sector exported
USD20.58 billion worth goods in financial year 2020 and USD.
• 24.44 billion in the financial year 2021, an 18% jump from 2020, as
reported by the Pharmaceutical Export Council of India. India was
able to harness the opportunity well on this front.
• Boosting and Strengthening Supply Chains: The pandemic has
provided an opportunity to strengthen supply chain and make
them resilient. This will alter in a positive manner supply network
required for trade for the times to come. This needs to be looked at
from the long-term benefits perspective.
• Need to Re-Strategize Production: Another pertinent opportunity for
India that has come to the forefront is the realization that strategic
and necessary commodities need to be produced within the
national borders. While global integration is necessary, so is self-
reliance in pertinent areas.
• Behavioral Change of Consumers: Another noteworthy trend is the
behavioral change of Indian consumers, who are purchasing more
Indian-made products as found by Verma and Naveen (2021) and
other researchers.
5. Conclusion, policy implications and way forward
It is evident from the discussion above that each variable that lies in the
supply chain of facilitating trade has been left impacted due to the
pandemic, along with demand-side variables. The challenges posed by
COVID-19 on variables critical to trade have far outweighed the
opportunities created. Bringing our production and supply chains back on
order is pertinent, which requires a multi-pronged approach and multi-
stakeholder engagement is required by the Indian policy-makers. Fiscal
injections simultaneously in multiple sectors are necessary, rather than
concentrating the focus only on exporters and trade. Furthermore, boosting
confidence in trade is required at a macro level through government
intervention.
Recent trends indicate a sustained recovery in global trade and demand,

this situation needs to be immediately harnessed by Indian traders and
policy-makers, since the positive multiplier effects of trade are huge. The
way forward for Indian trade depends on critically addressing these issues,
identification of the lagging areas, critical analysis of key export markets
scenario in the post COVID-19 world, as well as the strengthening Indian
purchasing power and production capacities. Trade chains, partners and
commodities exported and imported are bound to alter in the post COVID-
19 world, and the earlier Indian policymakers can identify and realize this,
the earlier India will be able to emerge as a global trading leader in this new
world order. There is also an urgency to create a resilient supply chain
network nationally to tackle any such potential COVID-19 wave in the
future.
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https://doi.org/10.1177/2319714520984676
Verma, M., & Naveen, B. R. (2021). COVID-19 Impact on Buying Behaviour. Vikalpa,
46(1),27–40.
328 Innovations in Early Childhood Education in India during COVID-19
Chapter 27
Innovations in Early Childhood Education in
India During COVID-19
Nabeela Musthafa
National Institute of Technology, Calicut, India
Theme: Creativity and Innovation. Abstract. With the second year of online
learning going on in India due to COVID-19, early childhood educators have
gradually adapted to creative and innovative ways of ensuring that young
children (aged 3 to 6 years old) are not being deprived of vital development
and learning that needs to be taken care of during their early childhood itself.
Although cognitive and social development of these young children are still at
stake due to online learning, many educators have attempted to at least
partially bridge these gaps. This paper aims to analyse how both the private
sector and public sector in India have adapted to the situation through
innovative initiatives to assist educators in effectively imparting their
curriculum and help young learners continue their education in these testing
times. This study points out how innovation in the private sector of Early
Childhood Education (ECE) is higher in comparison with the public sector and
how this inequality between private and public sector initiatives has
contributed to worsening the already existing social and digital divide.
Keywords: Innovation, Online Learning, Early Childhood
1. Introduction
On 11th March 2020, the World Health Organization (WHO) declared

COVID-19 as a pandemic (WHO, 2020). Educational institutions around
the globe came to a standstill with the spread of COVID-19. And as
UNICEF points out in their website, “School closures have devastating
consequences for children’s learning and wellbeing. The most vulnerable
children and those unable to access remote learning are at an increased risk
of never returning to the classroom, and even being forced into child
marriage or child labor” (UNICEF, 2021). The United Nations “Policy Brief:
The Impact of COVID-19 on children” states Children as among the biggest

victims of this pandemic (p.2).
The Literature review done for the purpose of this study pointed out that
there hasn’t been much research in India concerning the implementation of
Early Childhood Education and the issues concerned with it during the
course of the pandemic when compared to the amount of research and
initiatives being employed in the field of secondary and higher education
across the country. As far as physical and social development through
education is concerned, it is the young children aged between 3 to 6 years
who are losing out the most during the pandemic as Vijayta Mahendru
points out, “For no other group does it have a permanent, irreversible, and
irredeemable effect as in the case of children between 3-6 years.” (CBGA,
2020). She further points out that ECE experts opine that those children
who do not receive the adequate stimuli up-till the age of six, do not reach
the full potential of their brains. This is an irreversible process i.e., if that
time-period is over, there is no way of redeeming it (CBGA, 2020). Despite
online learning being a pathetic form of substitute for actual, offline
classroom teaching when it comes to Early Childhood Education, news
reports and information collected from few government publications
reveal that there have been innovative initiatives in this field to provide
quality virtual learning lessons that are engaging (often animated
educational content) for the benefit of young children as well as to aid
teachers in imparting the curriculum virtually.
a. Early childhood care and education in India
The Indian Government’s National Education Policy (NEP) 2020 states that
“Over 85% of a child’s cumulative brain development occurs prior to the
age of 6, indicating the critical importance of appropriate care and
stimulation of the brain in a child’s early years for healthy brain
development and growth.” (MHRD,2020) This further emphasizes the
crucialness of providing quality over-all education to this age group of
learners.
The National Education Policy 2020 also openly states that there is a lack of
availability of good quality Early Childhood Care and Education (ECCE)
specially for children from socio-economically disadvantaged
backgrounds. The NEP 2020 aims to ensure universal access to high quality
ECCE across the country in a phased manner. And for this goal to be
implemented, the National Education Policy 2020 suggests revamping
Anganwadi centres with an enriched learning environment with a focus on
developing cognitive, affective, and psychomotor abilities and early
literacy and numeracy (MHRD, 2020). The National Education Policy 2020,
therefore, seems to be a promising one with regard to ECCE but the
pandemic seems to have stalled its implementation across the nation.
According to the India Report - “Digital Education”, DIKSHA, Swayam

Prabha TV Channels, Online MOOC Courses, Radio broadcasting, e-
Pathshala, National Repository of Open Educational Resources, Vidya-
Daan etc. are some of the public sector initiatives taken to help students
from Grade 1 to higher education continue their academics unhindered
(MHRD, 2020). In the subheading, ‘E-Learning Priorities’, the India Report-
“Digital Education” it is quite clear that as far as school education is
concerned, the Indian government has prioritised the education of Grades
9 to 12 and Grades 1 to 5 are the last in the list of priorities while there is
absolutely no mention of Early Childhood Education or pre-primary
education.
Since low-income families and children from the rural area in India are
usually dependent on the public sector or government funded education
programs, the pandemic has increased or worsened the inaccessibility to
education for children belonging to rural areas or low-income families. And
as Dr. Maryanna Wolf, an expert on literacy in a digital culture and ULCA
Distinguished Visiting Professor of Education has pointed out, “COVID-19
has changed our lives. The children bearing the highest brunt of the
pandemic are the ones who need access to high quality education the most.
Academicians and the government will now have to work harder than ever
to reach the unreachable.” (Singh, 2020)
b. Literature review
Early Childhood Care and Education is not merely preparation for primary
school, rather it includes a holistic development of a child’s social,
emotional, cognitive and physical needs to build a strong foundation for a
person's lifelong learning and wellbeing (UNESCO, 2021). Quality early
childhood care and education (ECCE) has the power to transform
children’s lives (UNESCO, 2018). Online teaching, the poor substitute of
classroom teaching, is proving ineffective when it comes to ECE, as it lacks
real interaction and physical proximity with the teacher and classmates
(Mahendru, 2020). A study on the experiences of parents with children
during COVID-19 noted that there were four distinct struggles: Struggle to
balance parent employment demands and learner needs, struggle assisting
multiple children in the home with learning, lack of personal balance and
parents feeling overwhelmed (Garbe et al, 2020).Inequality in early
childhood experiences and learning results in inequality in ability,
achievement, health, and adult success and this can be avoided only
through proper investments in quality early childhood education that
would in turn develop children’s cognitive skills (Heckman, 2011).
And as pointed out by Setiawan and Iasha in their study on ‘COVID-19

Pandemic: The influence of Full-Online Learning for Elementary School in
Rural Areas’, due to the limited time available for online classes, most
teachers end up using the allotted time to assign homeworks and explain
activities to be done rather than actually delivering course or curriculum
content. An article published online in the Centre for Budget and
Governance Accountability, India, advocates the use of traditional
technological aids like the Television and Radio as opposed to gadgets like
mobile, laptops or tablets which would increase screen time in young
learners (Mahendru, 2020). Another reason why Early childhood education
is better or more apt in offline mode as compared to online is because it is
often the early childhood teacher who first notices signs of developmental
delays in children like eye hand coordination, difficulty grasping, fine
motor problems etc. (Shaughnessy and Kleyn, 2012). But even if pre-
schools are reopened following COVID-19 protocols, being around masked
faces could produce feelings of uncertainty in children as facial expressions
are usually used to help communicate feelings and also provide

reassurance to young ones (CDC, 2021).
2. Initiatives and innovations in early childhood education

by the public sector and private sectors in India during
the pandemic
2.1 Public Sector initiatives & innovations in ECE
In order to check the spread of COVID-19, government pre-schools, non-

governmental organizations and private preschools/kindergartens in India
have either completely shut down or turned to remote learning strategies.
Many government pre-primary schools and programs shut down and very
few in the public sector have continued imparting education with the use
of either Radio, TV or internet (CBGA, 2020). The India Report- Digital
India states that Delhi is reported to have conducted happiness activities
and daily subject agnostic generic activities from KG till 8th grade (India
Report, 2020). Almost all the other states have implemented different
strategies to impart education virtually to primary, secondary and higher
secondary school students but there's no solid data on what they have done
for the pre-primary or kindergarten sections. Few states like Gujarat,
Haryana etc. have attempted to include Children with Special Needs in
their education system by creating specific content that is shared to their
parents through WhatsApp groups with the help of special educators
(India Report, 2020). This is indeed a positive move but again there is no
mention of how young children or preschool aged children with special
needs were included or provided the support they needed during the
pandemic.
The state government of Himachal Pradesh has also initiated a pre-primary

program titled ‘Karona, Thodi Masti, Thodi Padhai’ in more than 3700+
government schools and has benefitted approximately 30,000 and more
children aged between 3 to 5 years. Here digital content meant for young
learners were disseminated through WhatsApp (India Report, 2020).
Another initiative taken from the part of the Kerala state government is
‘Kilikonchal’, which is an initiative that id a product of collaboration
between the Kite Victers Channel and the Department of Women & Child
Development to air this program on their YouTube channel, Facebook as
well as on Television (WCD, 2017). Similarly, Madhya Pradesh has come
up with a free app titled ‘Top Parent’ to equip parents of young learners
aged between 3 to 8 years with knowledge and strategies that aid in child
development. This app provides fun, game-based digital content with an
aim of building parents’ skill as educators. This app also houses other
quality EdTech apps like Chimple, Maths Masti and Google Bolo (India
Report, 2020). The Government of Maharashtra uses ‘Galli SimSim’ which
is the Indian version of Sesame Street which aims to impart lessons of
literacy, numeracy, physical and socio-emotional wellbeing of children
across India (Sesame Workshop, 2021). This program is aired on DD
Sahyadri on weekdays in Hindi. Pratham Books - Missed Call Do Kahaani
Suno, Pratham Radio and Bookyboo Books are collaborations that the
government of Maharashtra uses to target children aged between 3 years
and 10 years. In order to improve the quality of in-service government early
educators, the government of Mizoram launched their 6-month long Early
Childhood Education (ECE) course on the 1st of May,2020 through online
mode (India Report, 2020). This is again a promising initiative as far as early
childhood education is concerned in our country.
In order to reduce the gap in learning which has worsened with the onset
of the pandemic in India, the “... Indian Space Research Organisation
(ISRO) has given its nod to the Parliamentary Standing Committee on
Education to provide technical assistance for setting up satellite TV
classrooms in the country” (Business Today, 2021). Hopefully,
implementing this idea of a satellite TV classroom across India would
enable in reducing the digital divide existing between underprivileged and
privileged students throughout the nation (Chakrabarty, 2021).
2.2 Private sector initiatives & innovations in ECE
The private sector in Early Childhood Education in India have made

attempts to sustain the market by offering special pandemic discounts,
flexible fee plans and packages to ease the financial burden as well as
encourage parents to enrol their students in preschool programs (Eurokids,
2021). Some of the innovations brought in by pre-schools to enhance virtual

learning for pre-schoolers are customized apps with digital books,
engagement videos, pre-recorded sessions based on the daily curriculum,
fun activity sessions, report cards, certificates and access to the live
classroom (Klayschools, n.d.). Most of these apps are more fun and
engageable than an ordinary online or television session would be for a
toddler.
Along with customized apps, some pre-schools and educational

technology companies are also offering or promoting the sale of certain
tablets specially for kids (Disney BYJU’S, n.d.). According to them, these
apps are safer and also make it easier for parents to exercise better control
over the content that their kids can access. A particular brand of tablet that
is recommended by a certain preschool chain, claims to be built in with a
UV protection of 33% and lower eye strain screen when compared with
other tablet screens (Kidzee, n.d.). As working parents are finding online
classes for their little ones extremely difficult and complain about not
having enough time to spare during the daytime, few pre-schools have
started providing evening or weekend classes as an alternative. Another
innovation is this field is the emergence of a new program in ECE during
COVID-19 marketed as ‘In-person and At-home Teaching and Childcare’
which basically means a teacher comes home to teach your child and also
take care of the child, so the parent is free to take care of his/her work or
home commitments (KLAY Prep Schools and Daycare,2021).
There are a number of pre-school chains in India offering home-schooling

or pre-schooling kits for parents who are on the lookout for an alternative
to online classes. These kits include textbooks, activity booklets, flashcards,
activity materials/toys, daily or monthly curriculum-based plans, multi-
sensory play kits for the parents to follow, stationery items (Flintoclass,
n.d.). These kits are marketed with a ‘0% screen-time’ tagline to attract
parents who are against screen time during the critical years of a child
(Eurokids, 2021). Preschools across the globe are no longer geographically
bound due to online learning, so some Indian preschools have broadened
their reach and are now open to providing their services not just across the
nation, but across different countries as well as mentioned on their websites
(Shemrock, 2021).
Recommendations
There is an urgent need for India to allocate a reasonable amount of funds

in order to reduce this digital divide which goes against basic Child Rights.
As S. Chandramouli, Managing Director of Feedback Insights rightly said,
‘The Education Ministry, academicians and opinion makers in this space
should come together to create a better infrastructure for this to sustain.’
(The Hindu, 2021). Ensuring gadget availability, internet accessibility,
power supply etc are some measures that could be implemented to
continue online learning for children from rural areas or economically
weaker sections of the society. Some creative strategy for reducing the
digital divide that is being created or widened across the nation should be
researched about and implemented.
For those children who have enrolled successfully in online pre-schooling

programs, ensuring that children engage in more learning-based activities
at home that can be done with the help of easily available household
materials and with minimum support from parents would be helpful. It is
also important to maintain good communication between parents and
teachers to support early childhood online learning during the outbreak
(Gayatri, 2020). And through online learning, teachers should facilitate and
enhance their session so as to encourage learning, thinking and also
communicating (Gayatri, 2020) Also, with so many private markets
entering the field of ECE in India, some quality assurance standard or
benchmark must be set to ensure safety and development of children.
As pointed out by Kavita Gupta Sabharwal, founder and managing trustee

of Neev chain of preschools in Bengaluru, many countries including China,
UK, US, Australia, Germany and France have opened up their early schools
and day cares before unlocking institutes for senior education (Kumari,
2021). Sabharwal also recommends getting early to high school teachers
vaccinated on a priority basis and laments that India has been preparing
more for opening up senior classes rather than early schools because of
their obsession with “the 10+2 culture” which is worsened by the belief that
ABCDs and playtime are ‘discretionary’ (Kumari, 2021). When Portugal
opened up their pre-schools during the pandemic, these were some of the
measures they took:
“...i) flexibility of rules for capacity (e.g., decreasing the number of children
per room, maximizing the distance between children; ii) carrying out
activities in the outer space); iii) organization of alternative routes and
schedules; iv) disinfection procedures for adults, children, spaces and
materials…”
The Indian government could follow a similar approach and re-open

schools. Another measure they could adopt from the private preschool
chains is the idea of homeschooling or preschooling kits. A similar
homeschooling kit could be produced at a lower rate of expense and
distributed for free using local Anganwadi’s. The home-schooling kits must
also contain a properly structured curriculum plan and guidebook in the
local language to make it easier for their parents to follow and implement
at home.
In order to better prepare for such unforeseen events or pandemics in the

future, the government must intervene and create a separate plan and
curriculum to be followed in the early childhood education sector during
such epidemics, pandemics or other emergencies which may force children
to stay at home. Allocating public funds specially for ECE programs must
be a priority, as UNICEF points out: “Investing in ECE and strengthening
pre-primary education systems is needed to achieve progress on the
Sustainable Development Goals, decrease inequalities and drive economic
growth.” (Murugo et. al., 2020, p.5)
Conclusion. This study has attempted to point out the creative initiatives in
the field of Early Childhood Education in India by both the private as well
as the public sector. This study concludes that one of the major issues with
India’s early childhood care and education strategies during COVID-19 is
the number of innovative and creative initiatives that have taken place in
private preschools when compared to government Early childhood
education initiatives. The present pandemic scenario was therefore a
motivating factor for such private businesses to come up with unique and
creative strategies which unfortunately the public sector didn’t pick up.
This inequality between initiatives in both these sectors deepens an already
existing social and digital divide. This unprecedented acceleration of
education inequality requires new responses (Vegas and Winthrop, 2020).
463 million children or 31% of students worldwide are at risk of not

catching up or dropping out of school entirely because they cannot be
reached by remote learning programs (“Room to Read”, 2021). Also, better
educated parents are more capable of supporting their children’s education
by directly assisting them or having higher expectations and also being able
to provide more resources (The Hindu, 2021). These are the gaps that need
to be filled, the digital and social divide created by the pandemic and
increased with the innovations in the private sector combined with the low
or almost zero focus on disabled or differently abled children are the pitfalls
of ECE during COVID-19 in India.
Also, despite all the ineffectiveness or lack in online learning for young
children, one benefit for children from stable families is the increase in
parent-child interaction which obviously would result in better emotional
well-being and development in the child. Another major advantage of the
covid-induced virtual learning system is the increase in digital literacy
among pre-school teachers or educators and an increase in their openness
in using technology for learning as well as teaching (Jena, 2020). And one
thing that needs to be sustained once the pandemic subsides is empowering
parents to support their children's education (Vegas and Winthrop,
2020). However, this study has also not taken into account the possible
issues that may arise in young children out of a shift from online education
back to offline sessions once schools reopen. This study has also not
elaborated on the issues that may probably arise out of exposure to
technology and increased screen time at this young age. There is also scope
for further research in why there is a sudden explosion in early learning
products and online programs in the Indian market. Was it induced only
by the pandemic or does the public sector’s relatively low initiatives in this
field also contributed? To conclude, “ECE is a time-sensitive matter.
Therefore, it is critical, not only for the future of the children, but of the
entire society, that this matter be addressed urgently, and alternatives be
devised promptly, and children begin to receive the vital pre-school
education.” (Mahendru, 2020)
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https://www.klayschools.com/karehome/.
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mentary-panel-to-help-set-up-satellite-tv-classrooms-300350-2021-07-03
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(2020).
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for Young Children’s Social-Emotional Learning: During and Beyond the COVID-19
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– CGBA India, https://www.cbgaindia.org/blog/losing-precious-time-impact-
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Part Eight
GENDER INEQUALITY AND
INTERSECTIONALITY
Chapter 28
Gender Prejudice among Secondary Level
Adolescent Girls in India: A Descriptive Study
Chanchal Kumari1, Guddakesh Kumar Chandan2, Roma
Kumari,2 Ajay Kumar Roy3, Brajesh Kumar Kanchan4*
Abstract. Gender prejudices discriminate against citizens based on gender and

hamper the "gender equality," i.e., sustainable development goal targeted by
united nations for 2030. The present study aimed to illuminate how and to what
extent gender prejudice exists among secondary-level adolescent girls. We
present a comprehensive descriptive interview-based study to highlights the
different prejudices and their associated factors. Our qualitative research
associates 125 adolescent girls of India. Our study reports that the level of
prejudice is such high that adolescent girls doubt their decision-making
capabilities and hope for perfection in the opposite gender. Additionally, the
intense interplay of societal comments and fear of exploitation frames the girl's
mind to follow the community rules and guidelines. In this context, the school
education framework needs to be one of the primary reasons for gender
prejudices. Furthermore, State Policies need to be reframed to establish gender
equality in boys and girls. We anticipate that the results can inspire further
qualitative and quantitative research to highlight the nullification of gender
prejudice with associated complex socio-economical behavior.
Keywords: Gender Prejudice, Adolescent Girls, Descriptive Research, School

Education, Gender Inequality
1
Department of Education, Mahatma Gandhi Antarrashtriya Hindi Vishwa Vidyalaya,
Wardha, India
2
Department of Mechanical Engineering, National Institute of Technology Silchar, India
3
Department of Management, Maulana Mazharul Haque Arabic and Persian University,
Patna, India
4
School of Extension and Development Studies, Indira Gandhi National Open
University, Delhi, India
342 Gender Prejudice among Secondary Level Adolescent Girls in India
1. Introduction
Gender equality is the fifth sustainable development goal of the united

nations for 2030 [1]. On the contrary note, gender-based discrimination has
been prevalent worldwide for ages [2]. In general, gender is a socially
defined characteristic. The process of socialization raised boys and girls
into defined standards. Despite being part of the same society, both have
different experiences. Various stereotypes are added to the minds of boys
and girls [3]. Community adds the personality and identities of boys and
girls such that the work equates to the 'ideal' or 'good' image. With these
stereotypes, the patriarchal system further creates social class where
inequality, domination, and exploitation are intrinsic. Moreover, these
stereotypes are extended to the social, economic, cultural dimensions.
Furthermore, it also highlights the complex interrelation of economic,
social relations in the present world [2,4]. Moreover, gender is determined
by culture, community and defines the social roles, responsibilities, points,
natural qualities, and relationships [5]. That is, society itself discriminates
between boys and girls. In this way, the contemplation of stature and
prejudice regarding boys and girls in society is very common. It is a part of
our daily life, but its effect is seen in outer life on a very different level [6].
There is considerable disparity between boys and girls at the community
level, as men are considered more powerful. Women are not given the right
opportunities to lead in community work. Women are given less
participation in responsible tasks because they are not regarded as worthy
of essential duties. The main reason for all this inequality is discrimination
in socialization [6]. The quest to understand gender discrimination in the
Indian subcontinent with complex geopolitical and socio-economical
constraints must be investigated comprehensively.
A plethora of work has been done on gender discrimination. Girls raised in

are a complex social construct in the Indian context in socialization. She is
born as a human being, but her reconstruction process begins with the force
of the complex cultural tools with her birth. Both men and women are
biological structures; however, their social, economic, political, and family
roles are determined by 'gender.' Gender determines the behavior, roles,

responsibilities, expectations, and rights of men and women in a particular
society [7]. Gender is related to identity on the one hand and the other hand
with the role of men and women in social development [8]. Boys are
considered courageous and independent, and these practices continue to
be maintained from generation to generation [9]. The family's patriarchal
ideology is further strengthened through gender-based socialization
(including caste, class, religion, etc.) There is also socialization of oneself.
In the process of gender-based socialization, boys and girls are treated
differently from childhood. Childhood experiences play an essential role in
shaping the self-image of boys and girls. For example, in childhood, girls
are treated softly. Girls are gently lifted, and the boys are tossed in the air.
Gender roles in society are shaped through social institutions and daily
interactions. The new generation assimilates these gender roles prevalent
in society through socialization and perpetuates or challenges them [10].
Education is such an institution that provides education to all other
institutions of society at every level. The challenge of bringing equality by
eliminating gender-based differences is to create a genuine, proactive, and
well-planned change in the education system. Education should be such
that school education extends socialization starting from the family to make
up for the loss of unequal socialization to become autonomous and equal
citizens later. Therefore, severe thought and systematic steps should bring
those fundamental changes to the education system.
Gender Prejudice is a type of stereotypical thinking about a particular

gender (female or man). Prejudice means partiality. In this, preface to
someone based on your pre-existing views bias is done. For example, one
of the reasons for gender discrimination is prejudice. Because of gender
bias, it is prevalent that only boys take care of their parents in their old age.
The role cannot be denied in the context of gender bias. Gender bias has
gone so deep into the subconscious that conventional subject matter
analysis cannot remove it and show it [11]. Gupta researched the topic "The
conflict of education discourse teacher and housewife policy" and found
some rationale behind the appointment of more female teachers, such as
the role model teacher for the new generation of girls. Growing girls should
not be kept in a particular field to break the bodies rooted in the social
structure. They should get the experience of every field of life and become
a role model [12]. In the book of Krishna Kumar "Churi Bazar Mein Ladki,
he has said that the ideological image of a woman within a man and vice
versa is not new. Its history as a myth is thousands of years old. The only
reason for all this plight is the lack of education [13]. In his book titled
"Bharatiya Nari Kal Aaj Kaat," Saroj Kumar Gupta has said in the role of
women in Badle Bhawan that women are very devoted to the changing
social and political dimension. The traditional and conservative society
considers women's education as unnecessary. It makes it a financial burden
on the family compared to male education, considering the girl child as the
wealth of a foreign household [14]. Ram (2013) conducted a research study
on socialization in schools and the development of gender sentiment.
Activities of the education system viz. access of women to education, the
opportunity to choose the subjects in the schools, the classroom formation,
and the opportunity to participate in cultural activities or the textbooks.
Gender differences can be seen in all aspects, including the language or
character displayed in the picture [15].
Based on the conclusion, even today, women are not considered equal to
men in Indian society. Therefore, in a progressive society, both women and
men should be educated equally, not only because the list of benefits is long
but also because, most importantly, their human right to get an education.
It can be seen from studies delineated above that the earlier works on
gender discrimination have mainly employed discrimination at the
workplace, society, and schools [12,14,15]. It is noteworthy to mention that
gender prejudices and their relation with gender discrimination need an in-
depth investigation. Furthermore, how an adolescent girl takes gender
prejudice and gender biasedness has remained unexplored. From the
earlier discussion, it can be summarized that few queries remained
unaddressed, and they are as follows:
• How do adolescent girls view gender bias concerning their

growing-up experiences?
• How gender bias is reflected in adolescent girl's self-identity.
• Is education becoming a medium to change their gender bias?
Hence, intending to shed light on the queries mentioned above, the present
work focuses on studying the influence of education on the self-identity of
adolescent girls. Moreover, to what extent is gender prejudice fed into a
girl's mind by society?
3. Research design
The research design attributes the plan to respond to research inquiry such
that a broader overview of the analysis can be understood in minimum
time [16]. This research aims to identify the gender prejudice problem in
adolescent girls by adopting scientific and philosophical methods. The
selection of adolescent girl as it consists most rapid phases of human
development [17]. In this regard, qualitative and descriptive research was
considered in the present investigation. Qualitative research allows a more
detailed response from the sample [18].
Fig. 1: Relationship between adolescent girls and prejudice sources
At first, the scope boundary needs to be fixed for the study. In the present
investigation, an adolescent girl with her family, society boundary, and
school constraints are considered, as shown in Fig. 1. The questions that
need to be assessed are to study gender prejudice in secondary level
adolescent girls. Further, it is supported by determining factors that
reinforce gender prejudices in society and evaluate the role of schools in

gender equality.
3.1 Questionnaire preparation
It needs to be noted that family, society boundary, and school variables are
only considered under the scope of the present study. Furthermore, the
relationship between these variables and adolescent girls is mutually
affected. A questionnaire is prepared to explore the interrelation between
adolescent girls and variables in the maximum possible manner. A detailed
questionnaire is presented in Appendix A.
3.2 Population and sample selection
The present study utilizes Wardha rural adolescent girls as its population
and considers them a sample. The selection of Wardha is attributed to the
fact that as it resembles the rural conditions in India. In the present research
work, 125 adolescent girls were selected from five secondary level schools
in the rural environment of the Wardha district. The detailed sample
selection is illustrated in Table 1.
Sl. School School Teaching Govt funded No. of

Grade
No. Name Location medium school/Private Girls
Nai Taleem
1 Rural Marathi Semi-Govt Secondary 25
School
Swavalbi
Girls
2 Rural Hindi Semi-Govt Secondary 25
Secondary
School
Rastravasa
3 Rural Hindi Semi-Govt Secondary 25
School
Swavalbi
4 Secondary Rural Hindi Semi-Govt Secondary 25
School
Ratnibai
5 Secondary Rural Hindi Semi-Govt Secondary 25
School
Table 1: Detailed sample descriptions

3.3 Data collection
The personal interview is considered as a mode of data collection from

adolescent girls. Before data collection, the school headmaster was
previously notified and asked for permission. Once, research team reached
school, and girls were briefed about the research scope and limitations.
After the briefing, the interview schedule was shared with sample girls. On
the scheduled date, the research team once again arrived to collect data.
Audio recordings were done with the permission of the interviewer.
3.4 Limitation of research
• The present research is confined to the Wardha district of

Maharashtra state.
• The present research is limited to five rural schools in the Wardha
district of Maharashtra state.
4. Result and discussion
The present investigations utilize the response of 125 adolescent girls and
summarize the answers in the subsequent sections. Three causes of gender
prejudices viz. home, school and society are investigated under the scope
of the present investigation.
4.1 Home
Home is marked as a primary and significant attribute of gender prejudice.

Most of the girls believed that indoor household activities viz. cooking,
cleaning are their responsibilities. Further, they also think they need some
male family members while traveling at night. It subconsciously frames
males as the superior gender. Moreover, they spotted dowry as a legal
offense in society. However, they do not want to challenge the family
members on this issue. Additionally, girls also believe that career selection
needs to be done by the family elders. Most of the girls think that girls do
jobs like nurses, teachers. Girls also recognized in the current day, and
female is working in almost every field. However, the magnitude of the
workforce is minimal. Most of the girls spotted their concern about higher
education, and they were uncertain about it. The girl's family also believed
that groom finding would be difficult for an educated girl. Furthermore,
fear of exploitation is a constant concern for family members. The later
constraint hinders the girl's opportunity in the world and affects their
psychological health and behavior. In Indian society, girls are regarded as
family prestige, easily spoiled by even a little public discussion with the
opposite gender. The follow-up framed stories primarily affect the family
members. Further, Indian culture believes that parents' old age is
supported by boys only, and today's society is dependent on boys only.
These stereotypes can be broken only through the education and job
prospects of girls.
4.2 School
School is also considered a cause of gender prejudices. Most of the girls

recognized the importance of studying as an essential and life-changing
characteristic. Girls also agree that education can lead to the formation of
self-identity, happy life, avoid early marriage. Indian culture also allows
discrimination in the form of building separate schools for girls and boys.
Although these schools' quantity is less, it subconsciously affects
adolescent girls as girls prefer these schools to avoid the fear of
exploitation. Even in the typical school for girls and boys, these children
are treated separately in different dress codes, seating prayer lines, and
eating arrangements. Furthermore, during teaching, prejudice is spotted in
teacher's examples as they portray girls as a stature of weak gender who
cannot take their own decision. Moreover, the style of the punishments is
also different for boys and girls. More intensive physical punishment is
done for boys. Furthermore, participation in cultural programs is
understood as a girls' job. Additionally, girl's class representatives are very
rare, and they have to face several gender-based comments. The subject
selection is also an essential distinctive feature as girls are considered good
in arts and boys in science. The participants were briefed about the
difference between urban and rural girls. In this regard, it was found that
girls believe that urban girls have higher freedom from family and society.
Most participants believe that rural girls have a limited scope for
development, due to which there is constant pressure from their family and
neighborhood. They are not able to develop themselves comprehensively.

It is highly recommended that the framework of school education needs to
be more gender-neutral. Schools should offer a gender-neutral ground for
girls' development and provide career-oriented courses based on their
choices. Traditions should be entirely fair in gender equality. The capability
of the girl child should be the primary concern for her development.
4.3 Society
Society has a significant role in the development of adolescent girls, and so

does the conceptualization of gender prejudice and stereotypes. Society
predefined the features of good girls as it wants adolescent girls to follow
these traditions blindly. Any irregularity found in the girl's behavior
categorizes that girl as a bad name and offers shame to her family. The
participating girl highlights physical and intellectual ability based on her
importance in society, decision ability, good nature, respectful behavior
towards others, family, etc. Along with this, girls give society's
responsibility, education, and moral conduct in their attitude towards
themselves. Under this, it is necessary to be educated and respectful
behavior, rites, duty, honesty, work awareness, decent behavior, right-
wrong, intelligent, calm nature with elders and younger ones.
Additionally, boys are seen as social workers, and girls are seen as
culturally prestigious and family workers. Moreover, girls are aligned to
define their self-image and identity through education and their quality.
Self-evaluation of girls and its linkage with social relations show that they
are crossing the limits of here. For example, girls say that "every person has
the right to make his own decision. Girls are also a part of the society in
which men are free to make decisions related to themselves. So, girls are
free to make our own decision". When girls talk about independence, they
are encouraged by the family to make decisions regarding their lives. Very
few girls say that "There is freedom in my house, due to which I can make
my own decision. It is my right to decide right and wrong related to my
life." An educated girl knows the difference between right and wrong so
that she can decide. But some thoughts are not able to cross the boundaries
of prejudice. Formal education is a means of empowerment for this. The
above answer also confirms that being educated for decision-making is a
prerequisite. Another participant believed that only the parents could

decide about the girl's life, education, marriage, etc. So, girls cannot make
any decisions independently. Even today, in this 21st-century society, very
few girls are free to make a few decisions. It shows that the boundaries of
their education bind the independent power of girls. It is also clear that girls
are prejudiced against biological immaturity. The participant girls consider
being intelligent as an essential quality, and they see it with gender
equality. That is why the participants say that any person is intelligent with
their thoughts. The thinking of both establishes intelligence. Most girls
believe that both have the same level of intelligence based on work, study,
ability, and ability.
5. Conclusion
The present investigation aims to highlight gender prejudice in secondary

level adolescent Girls. In this context, the descriptive mode of research was
selected as a mode of investigation. 125 Indian adolescent girls were
interviewed under the scope of the present study. The prejudice level is so
high that adolescent girls doubt their decision-making capabilities and
hope for perfection in the opposite gender. Most of the girls believed that
indoor household activities viz. cooking, cleaning are their responsibilities.
Girls also recognized in the current day, and female is working in almost
every field. However, the magnitude of the workforce is minimal. Fear of
exploitation is a constant concern for family members. Most of the girls
recognized the importance of studying as an essential and life-changing
characteristic. Girls also agree that education can lead to the formation of
self-identity, happy life, avoid early marriage. Moreover, even in the
typical school for girls and boys, these children are treated separately in
different dress codes, seating prayer lines, eating arrangements. Society
predefined the features of good girls as it wants adolescent girls to follow
these traditions blindly. Any irregularity found in the girl's behavior
categorizes that girl as a bad name and offers shame to her family. It is
highly recommended that the framework of school education needs to be
more gender-neutral. Schools should provide a gender-neutral ground for
girls' development and provide career-oriented courses based on their
choices. State Policies need to be reframed to establish gender equality in
boys and girls. Still, in the modern times of the changing culture, some
agencies challenge this type of socialization. One of those agencies is
education.
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Chapter 29
A Sociological Review of Sexual and
Reproductive Health of Married Women in
India and Its Socio-Cultural Determinants
Anuradha Sharma1, Amithy Jasrotia2
Abstract. This review paper summarizes and analyzes relevant studies related
to the Sexual and Reproductive Health (SRH) status of married women in India
and highlights its linkages with socio-cultural factors. A wide range of relevant
literature, reports, articles are identified by entering selected keywords in six
electronic databases (Academia, Jstor, Researchgate, Google scholar, Scopus
and Pubmed) and peer reviewed journals published between 1985 and 2021. In
last three decades (1990-2020), especially after ICPD conference 1994, it has
been analyzed that the discourse of SRH has shifted heavily from a narrow
focus on disease and wellbeing towards a broader orientation. Now it stresses
more on inclusion of biomedical & socio-cultural factors like gender equality,
socially constructed gender roles, cultural and sub-cultural norms, values and
reproductive health as a fundamental right. Based on WHO, IPPF, ICRW,
NFHS-4 (2015-16) data, the analysis shows that social relation and gender roles
are mutually interrelated and have larger impact on women’s health. This
review paper encourages a model of change from a woman-only approach to a
gender equality approach and suggests interdisciplinary and inclusive policies
to improve women's reproductive health outcomes and simultaneously the
quality of life in developing countries such as India.
Keywords: Sexual and Reproductive Health, India, Married Women, Gender

Inequality, Gender Roles, Socio-cultural Factors
1
PhD Scholar, University of Rajasthan (UoR), Jaipur
2
Assistant Professor, Department of Sociology, UoR, Jaipur
354 A Sociological Review of Sexual and Reproductive Health
1. Introduction
The concept of Sexual and Reproductive Health (SRH) expanded its ground
from the International Conference on Population and Development (ICPD)
held in Cairo, Egypt in 1994. An action plan was finalized, in this
conference related to population and development for the next 20 years
[UN, 1995a] followed by the Fourth World Conference on Women held in
Beijing, China, 1995 [UN, 1995b]. These two international conferences are
considered as the milestone for registering a major shift in the area of SRH.
The major shift has been registered from a woman-only approach to a
gender equality approach, that is, men and women are equally responsible
and equal participant in the arena of reproductive and sexual health.
Sexual and Reproductive Health (SRH) is the invisible part of human right,
it is not only about physical well-being – rather it also includes the right to
healthy and respectful relationships and health services [NHRC Report,
2018, p. 20]. The domain of SRH includes biomedical issues as well as socio-
cultural issues like gender equality, socially constructed gender roles,
cultural and sub-cultural norms, values and reproductive health as a
fundamental right. Few international conferences and studies across the
globe revealed that SRH has now developed with a new perspective with
a major focus on gender equality. The premise of this perspective is the
principle that everyone including women, men and LGBT have equal right
to reproductive health and wellbeing, that is, to regulate fertility safely and
effectively, to understand and enjoy their own sexuality, availability of
services and policies related to SRH, to remain free of disease, health risk
or death associated with SRH [Germain and Ordway, 1989]. The course of
research in this area justifies the role of biological and socio-cultural factors
in shaping the reproductive and sexual health of a community.
Over the years, the debate and research on the decision-making power of
women in general and in SRH, in particular have been gendered within the
power relations. Women seem to be less empowered to take their own
decisions. Women’s reproductive health rights are often inadequately
addressed. Mainly women’s health issues and rights are affected largely by
social and cultural factors. Across cultures, from the beginning of
childhood, males and females are socialized with some separate sets of
practices, symbols, representations, norms and social values that determine

their masculinity and femininity, respectively [Bruce et al., 1995; Lamas,
1996; Scott, 1996; Ortner and Whitehead, 1996; Verma, 1997; Kaur, 2005].
Men are also symbolized to be dominant, aggressive, and tough to take
risks [O’Neil et al., 1995]. “There are shortages of medical and paramedical
workers and services, and taboos, myths and prejudices which prevent a
full understanding of the particular health problems of women.” [The
World Conference of the International Women's Year, 1975, p. 77]
Therefore, this study is an effort to understand the state of awareness

amongst women about their reproductive health rights by existing
literature up to the time. The study wants to understand that at what extent
formal education, economic self-independency, family structure and
background have significant roles and influences on the decision-making
of sexual and reproductive health among women in India. In India,
especially in the Northern zone, the patriarchal structure and its ideology
are seen as the major obstacle in the empowerment of women. Thus, we
believe that SRH of women and decision-making powers need to be
understood in the context of patriarchy and the traditional Indian social
system. Patriarchy has resulted in the formation of a highly marginalized
women population. Patriarchy determined decision-making powers in all
aspects of life including reproductive health and family planning. It is
realized that there is a strong association between the socio-economic
position of women and the system of patriarchy in Indian society. And in
Indian society, patriarchal traditions strongly legitimize a husband’s
control over his wife [Mahajan, 1990].
The motivation for this research was largely based on a review of existing
literature on the involvement of men and in-laws in reproductive health
programs, and in the decision making in women’s life especially in the
South Asian region. This paper reviews and consolidates previous research
studies, a wide range of literature, reports, articles and documentaries that
identifies significant linkages between reproductive health and socio-
cultural factors that are relevant to address the issue of gender inequality
in general and family planning, use of contraception, menstrual health,
hygiene, abortion, childbearing and rearing etc., in particular. Prior studies
on reproductive health have predominantly looked into this phenomenon
from demographical, anthropological, or medical point of views. Intending

to fill up such gaps, the current study is taking a holistic approach to
explain the Sexual and Reproductive Health Rights (SRHR) of women from
the sociological point of view to inform future research and public health
interventions relating to their sexual health.
2. Objectives
The overall objective of this study was to understand the dimensions,

nature and determinants of SRH of Indian women. The specific objectives
of the study are:
1. To review a wide range of relevant literature and assessing the

gender perspective in understanding the patterns that existed in
national and international studies in the field of SRH.
2. To identify, describe, and analyze the relationship between socio-
cultural variables and status of sexual and reproductive health of
married women in India.
3. To suggest a more inclusive socio-cultural model for better SRH
policy formation to empower women.
3. Methodology
This review paper is based on secondary data. A review of relevant

literature published between 1990 and 2020 has been taken to provide
critical analysis of SRH of women and explore the pattern of discussion
about SRHR (Sexual and Reproductive Health Rights). Efforts has also been
done to find out the patterns of research and issues that has been done
globally up to the time mentioned above. The review included qualitative
and quantitative studies, published in peer reviewed Journals from 1985 to
2021, describing the sexual health status and experiences of women,
especially Indian women.
a. Search strategy and study selection:
Six electronic databases were searched: Academia, Jstor, Researchgate,

Google scholar, Pubmed and Scopus. Reference lists of included papers
were hand-searched for some articles. Table 1 presents search terms,
including keywords, combination of words.
Concept 1 Concept 2 Concept 3

Sexual health Gender Society
Reproductive health Women Social norms
SRH Married women Social structure
Sexual & Reproductive health Feminist Family
Sex education Feminine Husband
Sexual infections Female In-laws
Sexual Behavior Male Cultural values
Sexual Transmitted Diseases Men Patriarchy
Unsafe sex
Abortion
Family planning
Table 1: Key terms used in database search
Inclusion criteria: Considering the definition of SRH research, the

inclusion criteria were based on the selected variables and keywords like
SRH, Married women, India, Social and cultural factors. Proper selection of
the key terms to define the screening process of the research articles may
be a crucial step, since it defines the accuracy of the research. Therefore,
utmost care was taken while searching papers.
Exclusion criteria: In order to ensure the relevance of the selected articles,

an evaluation phase focused on an in-depth analysis of each article was
performed. The exclusion criteria were based on our research objectives
and scope, as only married women and their experience of SRH are
included. Bio-medical dimension of SRH of women was excluded.
3.1 Review process
Articles were initially screened by title, excluded irrelevant to our

objectives, interest, or context. Titles and abstracts were screened by
inclusion criteria. First of hundred articles/ papers were identified and
retrieved from electronic database search, then, on the basis of exclusion
criteria fifteen articles/ papers excluded based on keywords, title and
abstract. Finally, sixty-nine relevant studies were selected for the review. In
the next step all the papers arranged chronologically and thematically. This
process has shown in figure 1.
Articles/ studies identified through Articles/ studies excluded

database search (n = 100) based on scope and nature of
studies (n = 15)
Articles/ studies screened based on Articles/ studies excluded

keyword, title and abstract (n = 85) based on keywords, title and
abstract (n = 16)
Final articles/ studies included in Identified them chrono-

Review. (n = 69) * logically and thematically
1. Assessing 2. Gender 3. SRH 4. Information, 5. Repro-

major perspective and Socio- awareness and ductive
challenges of and cultural accessibility to rights of
SRH related involvement variables SRH services women in
articles/ of men in related among women India: laws
studies SRH related articles/ (n =07) and Policy
(n = 25) articles/ studies initiatives
studies (n = 15) (n =07)
(n = 15)
Figure 1. Flow diagram of review process

Results and findings:
Based on our research objectives and questions, we tried to summarize all

previous studies into five parts. This paper starts with brief overview of
major reproductive health issues of married women, particularly in India,
and then we explore the gendered nature of vulnerabilities in the social,
economic and cultural arenas and lastly its linkages to women’s health. In
the final section, we investigate about broader, gender-equal and more
inclusive approach to look SRH issue in current scenario to strengthen
women’s position in our society.
3.2 Major sexual and reproductive health challenges faced by

married women
In this part, particular focus is given on the family planning services, safe
motherhood: prenatal, safe delivery and post-natal care, status of
prevention and treatment of infertility, status of abortion, status of
reproductive tract infections, including sexually transmitted infections and
status of harmful social practices related to sexuality and reproduction.
The menstruation cycle plays an important and vital function for the health
status of women as it is the starting point of women’s reproductive life. It
is decisive that a woman obtains precise knowledge of menstruation and
learns to accept menstruation as a positive and natural part of her life.
Anjum et al. (2010) pronounced that attitude towards menstruation may
adversely affect women's physical, mental health, reproductive and sexual
life, disease, diet, willingness to take medication, contraceptive use, and the
ability to plan pregnancies.
In the Indian context, women probably could be denied access to secure

motherhood, contraceptive and disease prevention services due to socio-
cultural norms, taboos and family restrictions that limit women’s social and
economic mobility, access to information, and resources in the in-laws
home [Jejeebhoy, 1998; Mathur, Greene et al., 2003]. Devi (2015) in her
study in Manipur observed that even after receiving so much of formal
education and mass media exposure particularly in the urban setting, very
less women respondents have received some treatment for their

reproductive health problems. A comprehensive and comparative study
conducted by the Indian Statistical Institute, Kolkata, acknowledged that
women in Indian metro cities are also at higher risk of reproductive health
issues and there is a high need to investigate these issues in detail
[Bhattacharya et.al. 2000].
It is reported that in Asian countries, a number of women suffer from

reproductive tract infections (RTIs), including sexually transmitted
infections (STIs). An estimated 340 million new cases of curable STIs have
reported every year with 151 million of them in South and Southeast Asia
[WHO, 2001]. Sexually transmitted infections are considered to be major
health problem in third-world countries. [Thakor et al., 2004].
While talking about unmet need of family planning, unwanted pregnancy

and abortion, these are another challenging health issues that young
married women face. The World Health Organization (WHO) published an
estimate that in 2003 approximately 42 million pregnancies are voluntarily
terminated or aborted, of which 20 million are unsafe. The WHO reports
that in developed countries, nearly all abortions (92%) are safe, whereas in
developing countries, quite half (55%) are unsafe.
Poor access and low contraceptive prevalence are common to various Low
and Middle-Income Countries. There is still a gap in contraceptive uptake
across regions which results in high unmet need due to many socio-
economic and cultural factors. Frequently reported reasons for non-
contraception use are opposition from husband or husbands fear of
infidelity, as well as woman's fear of side effects or other health concerns
associated with contraceptive methods [Wulfifan, et. al., 2016].
According to the NFHS-4 Report (2015-16), Female sterilization remains the

most popular modern contraceptive method. Among currently married
women aged 15-49, 36 percent use female sterilization, followed by male
sterilization is just 0.3 percent, which is very less as compared to women.
As per ‘Hindustan Times’ newspaper data, over eight years to 2016, as
India’s population increased but contraceptives use declined almost 35%,
and abortions and consumption of emergency pills, both with some health
hazards and significant side effects, doubled. Additionally, it is an

assessment that men remain unwilling to use contraceptive measures
(Hindustan Times, Feb 18, 2017). Sterilization, abortions and consumption
of emergency pills have significant health hazards and side effects on
women’s health, thus, SRH of women need to be taken seriously for policy
attention [NFHS-4, 2015-16].
The findings of some studies explored that women’s ability to choose if and
when to become pregnant has a direct impact on her reproductive health,
therefore, it is also very important to know who is using the family
planning method [Doyal, 2000; Kantorova et al., 2020]. The findings of
some studies revealed that the use of family planning methods such as
copper-T, pills, etc by women often led to many health problems that they
had to suffer [Brinton et al., 1986; Mills, 2006]. Family planning (FP)
programmes have traditionally been conducted based on a biomedical
perspective and the pursuit of demographic goals [Doyal, 2000; Allan
Guttmacher Institute, 2003]. Efforts were concentrated on contraceptive
technology and on the female body as a panacea for the population
problem [Harcourt, 1997]. Thus, a very limited and short range of
contraceptives have been developed for men, and as a result only 28% of
couples currently practicing contraception methods that require male
affirmative participation [Blanc, 2001].
Work-pressures such as high workloads, deadlines, and difficulties in

getting time for medical treatment or advice, lack of rest intervals, excessive
working hours lead to anxiety and can harm women’s physical and
psychological health [Wong et al., 2019]. Tiredness at night can make
women temporarily more susceptible to fatigue and stress at work, which
are connected to risks of reduced immune response and increased
susceptibility to infection [Besedovsky et al., 2012]. One of 5 employers
provides information about the menopause and only 2% provide health
and safety policies covered menopause-related issues [Paul, 2003].
To maintain one’s Sexual and Reproductive Health, people need

accessibility to safe, effective, affordable and acceptable contraception
methods of their choice. They must be informed and empowered to protect
themselves from various sexually transmitted diseases. And when they
plan to have children, women must have awareness and access to proper
health services that can help to have a safe pregnancy, safe delivery and
healthy child. Every individual has a fundamental right to make their
choices about their SRH matters. It is reported that, most women sterilized
in India do not use another birth control or contraceptive method first to
space out pregnancies, which has significant health hazards [Green, 2018].
This study reveals that relevant information, awareness and accessibility of
family planning products and services are limited to women in India, as
well as decision-making power is also very less.
Randhawa (2016) conducted a comparative study to explore the knowledge

of married women regarding contraceptive methods in selected rural and
urban communities of Raikot, Ludhiana, and Punjab. Major objectives of
the study were to assess the knowledge of rural and urban married women
about various contraceptives and birth-control methods, to find out the
relationship between the knowledge of married women with selected
variables such as age, education & occupational status of the women, type
and background of the family, duration of the marriage, number of
children, monthly income of the family, etc. Following results were drawn
based on the finding of the study that urban women had better knowledge
than rural women. It is concluded that equal attention is needed on both
rural and urban women to improve their existing knowledge of
contraceptive methods. In another recent study, Bhasin et. al. (2020)
analysis shows that in the context of Indian society, women who are of
younger age, have less education, lower economic status and residing in
rural areas reported lower levels of seeking care, postnatal care and
inequitable access to health services.
Another data which shows gender-based violence or Sexual spousal

violence against women is that 33 percent of ever-married women have
experienced physical, sexual, or emotional spousal violence. Only 14
percent of women who have experienced physical or sexual violence by
anyone have sought help to stop the violence [NFHS-4, 2015-16]. Through
above mentioned research studies we get ample amount of information
about women reproductive health issues, especially for married women. It
is thus concluded that various significant health hazards are connected to
lifestyle, awareness, accessibility to proper information and timely
interventions and care-seeking needs of women are required to be

addressed.
3.3 Gender inequality and men’s influence on women’s

reproductive health
According to various studies, gender is considered as one of the social

determinants of health which include social, cultural, and economic factors
that play a significant role in the health outcomes of women in
India. Therefore, the high level of gender inequality in India adversely
impacts the health of women. Qadeer (2006) explores, patriarchal
domination exists in each level of social and cultural hierarchy, induce
gender inequality around status, roles, responsibilities, sexuality,
inheritance, access to opportunities and freedom of choice which demote
women’s roles and shift power dynamics favorable for of men; and these
unequal power relations legitimize men’s control over women life,
including her sexual life.
The sexual vulnerability of women is explained by some socio-psycho

factors, which legitimize gendered existences of process of socialization in
particular cultural settings prescribes certain roles, expectations and values
to men and women [Verbrugge, 1985] and another factor is patriarchal
family structures that centralize power in the hands of the male patriarch
and generates a series of controls over women’s work, sexual-reproductive
relations, access to facilities like health and education, her mobility and her
interactions within social and cultural institutions and organizations
outside home [Walby, 1990].
NFHS-4 (2015-16) reported a significant indicator of empowerment is the

‘rejection of gender norms’ that underlie and reinforce gender inequality.
One such gender norm is husbands’ ‘right’ to control their wives and her
decisions in various ways, including through violence. Rejection of such
norms clearly signifies greater gender equality. It is reported that 52 percent
of women and 42 percent of men believe that a husband is justified in
beating his wife in at least one of seven specified circumstances: she goes
out without telling him, she neglects the house or the children, she argues
with him, she refuses to have sex with him, she doesn’t cook food properly,
he suspects her of being unfaithful, and she shows disrespect for her in-
laws. In an average 11% of respondents agree that husband is justified in
hitting or beating his wife if she refuses to have sex with him.
Couple communication and gender norms that cause inequities between

husband and wife have been increasingly researched as two mechanisms
through which men influence women’s reproductive health [Blanc 2001].
In many contexts, couples’ communication, or lack thereof, about
reproductive matters appear to be a central pathway through which
husbands’ attitudes determine reproductive health outcomes [Blanc, 2001].
In the NFH survey - 4 men were asked some additional questions to assess
gender egalitarian attitudes. In particular, men were asked, if a woman
refuses to have sex with her husband, does he have the right to display any
of the following four different behaviors such as: get angry and reprimand
her; refuse to give her money or other means of financial support; use force
and have sex with her even if she doesn’t want to; and go and have sex with
another woman. In India, only 5 percent of men aged 15-49 agree that men
have the right to display all four of these behaviors if a wife refuses him
sex, however, 18 percent of men do agree that a husband has the right to
get angry and reprimand a woman if she refuses to have sex with her
husband [NFHS-4, 2015-16].
Attempts by husbands to closely control and monitor their wives’ behavior

are important early warning signs and correlates of violence in a
relationship. Twenty-seven percent of ever-married women report that
their husband is jealous or angry if they talk to other men, 24 percent report
that he does not trust them with any money, 22 percent report that he does
not permit them to meet their female friends, 20 percent report that he
insists on knowing where they are at all times, 17 percent report that he
tries to limit their contact with their families, and 9 percent report that he
frequently accuses them of being unfaithful [NFHS-4, 2015-16].
Another significant issue of women’s sexual wellbeing and their agency to

enjoy choices is their unmet needs for family planning. Unmet need for
family planning shows the gap between the reproductive intentions of
couples and their actual contraceptive behavior. Analysis of unmet need
showed that the lower age of the woman, lesser number of living sons,
discussion of family planning with spouse, husband’s attitude on family
planning and husband’s behavior and discouragement towards use of birth
control method are correlated with the unmet need for Family Planning
[Pal et. al., 2014].
Gender inequality affects the decision-making power as well as the

mobility of females (Rahman and Rao 2004). This affects care-seeking
behavior as well as investment in personal healthcare expenditure
significantly through control over resources (Jejeebhoy 1995; Nanda 2000).
Socio-economic inequalities in care-seeking by gender, age, caste, religion,
level of education, economic status, and women's autonomy show the
existence of multiple cultural, economic, and demand-side barriers to care-
seeking (Rani and Bonu, 2003). Another aspect of gender inequality can be
observed in working women’s role in family as well as at workplace. Dual
responsibilities of family (including childbearing and rearing) and
employment can lead to burdened life and role conflict, which results in
increased tension and depression and finally results in poor sexual and
reproductive health (Waldron et al. 1998).
Through comprehensive analysis of above studies, it is clear that social

relations and gender roles are mutually interrelated and nexus with
women’s health vulnerabilities. We seek to extend our understanding to
the fact that social process and gendered norms are shaping decision-
making power and triggering wider health inequalities experienced by
women.
3.4 Highlighting connection between socio-cultural factors and

sexual & reproductive health of women
In this section, it will be discussed in detail that some socio-cultural factors

like patriarchy system, husband’s attitude and behavior, education and
economic status of women as well as of family members influence the
decision-making power of women regarding their sexual and reproductive
health decision.
In India, women’s health is more or less shaped by the socio-economic

background of family and cultural norms. So far as Indian society is
concerned, predominance of patriarchy system endorses perpetually
women’s weak autonomy over their own sexual matters, as social norms
mandating submissiveness and less sexual autonomy and man’s control
over woman’s choice in the sexual sphere [Santhya and Jejeebhoy, 2005].
This normative context disadvantages young women, who are constrained
in negotiating protective measures for their reproductive and sexual
matters within marriage, such as use of condom or contraceptive
[McDougall et al., 2011; Joshi et al. 2001; Maitra and Schensul 2002] and can
face increased risk of forced sex [Jejeebhoy and Bott, 2005; Koenig et al.,
2008]. Patriarchal norms that subordinate women to men are also a
pathway through which men’s attitudes and behaviors influence women’s
reproductive health outcomes, in part because these norms can contribute
to lack of couple communication [Blanc, 2001].
In some research studies, it is observed and concluded that standard of

living is an important economic factor [Nanda, 2000; Johansson, 2007]
affecting health of women through access to resources [Kimhi, 2003;
Davison et. al., 2006], education level, having balanced diet, access to
reproductive health services and health-seeking behavior [Adamson et. al.,
2003]. Religion [Chapple, 1998] and ethnicity [Basu, 1993] would
significantly affect women’s health through their belief system and
customs. Reproductive morbidity can further affect pregnancy-related
risks and problems, congenital infections, infertility and chronic aches.
[Zurayk et al., 1993; WHO,1990].
Women’s decision-making power influences the use of family planning

methods. It is reported by various research and reports that it is one of the
denied fundamental rights of women, particularly in developing Asian
countries. Empowering and revamping women’s decision-making power
on contraceptive and other reproductive health issues is critical for the
community as a whole. ICRW (International Center for Research on
Women) conducted a research study in following seven states of India:
Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana, Odisha, and
Maharashtra. The findings of this study reveals that in India, men’s
controlling behavior and gender inequitable attitudes strongly decides
men’s control over family planning decisions, childbirth, and other sexual
matters, which are ultimately manifests gender inequality and biased
approach. This study says that 54% of men reported that their wives cannot
use contraception without their consent, other than that, 1 in 5 men think it
is a women’s sole responsibility to avoid pregnancy (Nanda et. al., 2014).
A study about gender, masculinity, and sexual health in South Asia by

International Planned Parenthood Federation (IPPF), in 2013, reveals that
majority of male respondent in India disagreed that contraceptive is solely
the responsibility of women and that women who use contraception may
become ‘promiscuous’. Negative perception regarding condom was
evident as more than half of the men across the country. They agreed that
male condom reduces sexual pleasure. Lack of information on male
sterilization and vasectomy was evident with more than half of the men in
India. Additionally, vasectomy is also considered by many men as a loss of
masculine quality, both in context of restricting their masculine essence, as
well as inability to perform sexually. Given this, in many cases, objections
to vasectomy come not only from men but also their spouses who perceive
it as ‘emasculation’ and hence being married to ‘lesser’ men [IPPF, 2013].
There are many aspects of the Decision-making process in reproductive life

of women, particularly socio-cultural factors, such as living conditions, job
opportunities, education status etc., to influence the decisions that young
people make [Anastasia, 1998]. While some qualitative studies on the
family dynamics behind Indian women’s reproductive choices have
studied the role of mothers-in-law, there is very little systematic empirical
evidence on the extent to which family interactions affect contraceptive
method choice [Jeffrey, 1989; Patel, 1994, Paul, R. 2017]. Studies have also
reported that mothers-in-law influence the number of children that the
couples should have [Senanayake, 1986; Moore, 1994; Hall, 2008]. Two
qualitative studies [Qurub, 1995; Rutenberg and Watkins, 1996] have
observed that mothers-in-law and husband have controlling authority over
woman’s life and her decisions. The only source of power in patriarchy
family for the young daughter-in-law is producing offspring, preferably
sons [Armitage, 1993].
By the literature on young married women in India [such as Jejeebhoy,

1999; Barua and Kurz 2001; Mathur, 2003; Pande, 2006] woman’s
reproductive health indicators include measures of her education and
employment, her knowledge and awareness of reproductive and sexual
health, and marital intimacy. In the context of Indian society, family
planning decision-making goes beyond the decision taken by the couple.
This is particularly true in such cultural groups where extended kinship
relationships and lineage structures have a socially determining role
[Barnett, 1998; Osrin, 2002; Hall, 2008]. Few studies have concluded the
influence of extended family members and kinship on the Sexual and
Reproductive Health of young couples [Barnett and Stein, 1998; Kadir,
2003; Boulay and Valente, 2005].
From above studies we can evaluate that the power dynamics in Indian
society and also in family is decided by age, gender, and ownership of
resources, so as in patriarchy system all factors that usually favor men.
SRH, including family planning is linked with the interplay of social and
gender norms. The ICPD Programme of Action (PoA) has reported on this
aspect in saying that men play a key role in most societies, they exercise
preponderant power in every sphere of life, to promote gender equality, it
is inevitable to encourage men to take responsibility for sexual and
reproductive health and their social and family roles [International
Conference on Population and Development, 1994].
3.5 Information, awareness, and accessibility to sexual and

reproductive health services among women
Some research studies and government policies, which are explained

further, highlight the importance of women’s access, awareness and
knowledge to a broader range of sexual and reproductive health services
i.e., access to safe motherhood, institutional delivery, maternity care,
contraceptives, safe pregnancy, care & treatment, counseling, safe abortion
services, knowledge of modern birth control and family planning methods
etc.
The availability and accessibility of safe abortion services is limited, leading

to large number of informal abortion service providers and unsafe
abortions, especially in rural areas of Rajasthan [Iyengar et al., 2009]. It is

highlighted from another study, conducted by Stillman et. al, (2014), shows
that both availability and accessibility of safe and legal abortion services in
rural districts of India is very limited. Recent study, conducted by Jejeebhoy
et. at. (2020), estimates that postpartum care evades many women and
majority of abortions take place outside of legally sanctioned provider.
Very few adolescents access comprehensive sex education, and in general,
sexual and reproductive health needs are poorly met. Access to sexual and
reproductive health services and exercise of informed-choice are far from
satisfactory level [Jejeebhoy et. al., 2020].
Services for sexual and reproductive health remain a challenge in most

parts of India. Bhasin et al. (2020) highlights the need to address barriers to
care- seeking and to improve accessibility, knowledge and measurement of
gynecological assistance in national health surveys and policies.
Additionally, the National Health policy of India initiates provision that
the health care needs to be provided free of cost and with dignity in the
public and private sector to the survivors/ victims. Women’s access to
healthcare needs to be strengthened by making public hospitals more
women friendly and ensuring that the staff should have orientation to
gender-sensitive issues. [National Health Policy, 2017].
The universal access to SRH services for all human being are being
encouraged and accepted worldwide [Sippel , ICPD, 2014]. The global
reproductive health (RH) strategy was again announced in 2004 by the
World Health Organization (WHO), which recommended the monitoring
of RH services at the national level [Sepúlveda & Murray, 2014]. Hence, the
enjoyment of SRH services is a fundamental right and very important to all
individuals. Sexual and reproductive rights in India must include: a
concern to reduce maternal death rate, access to maternal care, safe
abortions, access to contraceptives, recognition of adolescent sexuality,
removal of stigma and discrimination against women, girls and LGBT
persons on the basis of their gender, sexuality and access to treatment and
counseling. [Kothari J. et al., The Hindu, 2019, April 23].
3.6 Reproductive rights of women in India: laws and policy

initiatives
The Constitution of India (1950) guards SRH rights as fundamental rights

that the government has an obligation to uphold, including the right to
equality (Article 14) and non-discrimination (Article 15) and right to life
(Article 21). Right to life has a very broad scope which includes rights to
health, better standard of life, hygienic conditions in the workplace &
dignity of life, freedom from torture and ill treatment, and privacy.
Therefore, right to health is an inherent and inevitable part of a dignified
life for all individuals. [Parmanand Katara v. Union of India, The Supreme
court of India, 1989].
India is also a signatory country to various international conventions, such

as the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination
against Women (CEDAW); the International Covenant on Economic, Social
and Cultural Rights (ICESCR); the Convention on the Rights of the Child
(CRC), and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights
(ICCPR); all of them recognize reproductive health rights. Article 51(c) of
the Indian Constitution directs that the government has a constitutional
obligation to abide by international law and treaty obligations. The
government of India also approves a constitutional obligation to make sure
legal remedies for violations of any fundamental rights of all citizens.
Directive Principles of State Policy (DPSP) bounds the government to
encourage equal access to justice and free legal aid as a means to ensure
that opportunities for equal justice will not be denied to any citizen on any
ground of economic, social or other disabilities (article 39(a)).
The Government of India is making notable efforts toward improving

national and regional level sexual and reproductive Health, including
making significant progress in maternal and newborn health
indicators. Yet many women continue to have an unmet need for modern
contraception, receive inadequate access to pregnancy-related care and not
much aware about reproductive health services [NFHS-4, 2015-16]. In
India, policies since the 2000s and the recent National Health Policy (2017)
promotes the expansion of women’s health services beyond maternal
health to include treatment for reproductive tract infections (RTIs), cervical
cancer screening and non-communicable diseases etc. [GOI, National

Health Policy, 2017]. Most recently, the 2018 India Strategy for Women,
Adolescents and Child Health (I-WACH) supports these policies to build a
life-course approach to women’s health that encloses prevention,
promotion, treatment and social determinants of health. India Strategy for
Women’s, Children’s and Adolescents’ Health (I-WACH), 2018-30 an
attempt to ensure that every child, adolescent and woman should have
equal access to achieve the highest possible level of physical-mental health,
along with that they should also have social and economic opportunities to
participate fully in shaping inclusive and sustainable society.
As India advances on the path towards Universal Health Coverage (UHC),

it is critical to enhance policy priorities to expand women’s health beyond
maternal health and family planning. The National Health Policy strongly
recommends strengthening of general health systems to control and
manage maternal health complications, to ensure continuity of care and
emergency services for better maternal health. In order to address issues
related to maternal and child survival, the policy seeks to deal with the
social determinants through developmental action in all sectors. [National
Health Policy, 2017]
Recently, Indian food delivery service ‘Zomato’ have proclaimed to give

female employees up to 10 days of "period leave" per year. This kind of
initiative has triggered a debate about menstrual health and gender
equality in the South Asian nation. Menstrual or period leave is an
employment welfare policy that allows individuals to take additional paid
or unpaid leave from work during menstruation cycle [King S., 2021].
Zomato’s decision to grant period leave to its women employees has raised
a polarized debate on whether such a policy will sow seeds of
discrimination at the workplace or offer a relief for women employees
dealing with cramps every month. What remains relatively unspoken is
how, nearly 30 years ago, the Lalu Prasad government in Bihar introduced
such a revolutionary step for working women. [ Johri, Ankita Dwivedi, The
Indian Express (E-paper), August 31, 2020]. Menstrual leaves are
considered in few other countries, among them Japan, Taiwan, Indonesia,
South Korea and Zambia significantly. Some private Indian companies
have also started such initiatives in recent months.
Another maternity benefit program run by the government of India is

Pradhan Mantri Matru Vandana Yojana (PMMVY) to improve nutrition
and compensate wage loss for more than 50 million pregnant women and
lactating mothers before and after delivery. Since 1971 with the enactment
of the Medical Termination of Pregnancy Act (MTP), safe abortions by
registered medical practitioners are legally permissible in India. One of the
recent schemes of Govt. of India Janani Suraksha Yojana (JSY) makes
provisions for safe-motherhood intervention under the National Rural
Health Mission (NRHM) being implemented with the objective of reducing
maternal (MMR) and Infant mortality (IMR) by promoting institutional
delivery (centrally sponsored scheme, GOI). The Supreme Court of India
has also been very progressive on women’s reproductive rights. the court
has held clearly, that women have a right to sexual autonomy and the
constitutional right to make reproductive choices, as a part of personal
liberty under Article 21 of the Indian Constitution [The Puttaswamy
judgment, 2017; Navtej Johar judgment, 2018].
However, the recognition of SRHR of women in the nation still remains

negligible even after 70 years of independence. Over the years, women
have gained great grounds in various fields with remarkable achievements
in reducing gender gaps. Yet ground realities of women and girls getting
trafficked, maternal health, deaths related to abortion every year has hit
hard against all the development that has taken place. According to
UNICEF and World Bank data, India counts among the highest number of
maternal deaths worldwide. India witnesses 45,000 maternal deaths every
year, coming to an average of one maternal death every 12 minutes [WHO,
World Bank, 2019]. Lack of access to safe abortion clinics, particularly
public hospitals, and stigma and attitudes toward women contribute to this
[WHO, 2019].
In light of above-mentioned information, we can conclude that access to

health services and counseling is an integral part of sexual and
reproductive equality. Government policies and legislation needs to be
reformed comprehensively so, that it can be more inclusive and sensitive
towards the plight of married women. As in the words of Swami
Vivekananda “It is not possible to talk about the welfare of the world unless
the condition of women is improved as it is quite not possible for a bird to
fly on only single wing.” The responsibility also lies with civil society and
other development actors to address these issues for public debate and
work proactively.
4. Discussion: Empowering women through socio-cultural

approach of SRH
Women’s sexual and reproductive health studies will be enriched and

enhanced the sensitivities, content and debates within social science
disciplines through confronting them with socio-cultural issues such as
patriarchy and gender and it will become more cohesive in return. Gender
roles, sexual and reproductive health decisions are deeply rooted in socio-
cultural milieu and consequently responsible for sexual health
vulnerability of women. Thus, sexual and reproductive empowerment of
women has been conceptualized and measured in several ways. The sub-
domains of SRH are couple-communication, decision-making, family
planning, coercion and violence in sexual relations, and social and gender
norms.
Medical sociologist draws a distinction between disease – the presence of

physical pathology, and illness- the patient’s subjective experience of
symptoms including socio- cultural influences. This conclusion was arrived
at through empirical observation of social variations in the discourse of
health. [Wainwright, 2002]. A significant study was conducted by Chanu
and Arunkumar (2015) on the cultural practices and some specific
traditional knowledge regarding reproductive health care among the
Thadou, a tribal community of Manipur state. Thadous strongly believe in
traditional methods (use of various herbal plants& products) of health care
and treatment for reproductive illness like vaginal discharge and other
problems during pregnancy and post-partum. Certain edible food items are
prohibited during pregnancy of women and her breast-feeding period. A
threat to the indigenous knowledge emerges gradually due to the process
of industrialization, urbanization, external cultural contact and wide
availability of western medicine services.
Additionally, improving educational and economical status of women will

help in betterment of sexual and reproductive health of women. Based on
WHO report in 2000, socio-economic factors have been observed to affect
women’s health, notably nutritional wellbeing and the presence of any
reproductive health problems. Women’s access to resources, awareness,
and information about health risks, ability to make decisions about well-
being improve by educational status [Jejeebhoy 1995; Bloom et. al. 2001].
Higher educational status can also lead to increased knowledge of
contraceptives and the use of birth control, which ultimately affects the
reproductive health of women. [Jeffery and Basu 1996; Ganguli 1998; Basu
2002]. Thus, it is important to remember that not all women with unmet
need are ready to use modern contraceptives therefore, satisfying unmet
need also includes an informational and educational efforts.
NFHS-4(2015-16) also indicates that sexual violence declines sharply with

women’s schooling and wealth. Similarly, the experience of physical
violence ranges from 40 percent among women in the lowest wealth
quintile to 19 percent among women in the highest wealth quintile. Women
in couples in which the husband and wife have equal amounts of schooling
are less likely (24%) to have experienced spousal violence than women in
couples in which neither attended school (46%) or one or the other has more
schooling.
As Sharifi explored, multiple factors are responsible for the problems of

reproductive health, but hidden social factors aggravate this issue [Sharifi
et al., 2017]. WHO refers to gender, income, education, employment, and
ethnicity as social determinants of health inequity, because each of these
factors, by themselves or through interconnection with each other, leads to
health inequalities [Omeje et al., 2011]. In fact, low education, poor socio-
economic conditions, and gender inequalities are among the factors behind
women’s inability to promote sexual and reproductive health [Sharifi et al.,
2018]. Thus, this review study encourages a model to change from a
woman-only approach to a gender equality approach.
5. Limitations
Before referring to the research conclusion it is important to highlight the

main limitations of this study. The main limitation of this review study is
related with the scope of the research. This review has some limits in
systematizing information about sexual choices of married women in India.
There are few regional studies with a sample composed specifically by
married women. Some of the studies selected did not deal entirely with
married women, but also included unmarried adolescent boys and girls,
men and/or native people in their samples. We have restricted the literature
search to studies indexed in limited databases only, which might have
excluded publications outside of these databases.
6. Conclusion
Society, family and culture play very important role in shaping women’s
sexual and reproductive health outcomes, but little research has examined
how cultural and gendered norms influence women’s sexual expression.
This review paper examines various determinants that affect the
prevalence of reproductive health problems to strengthen programmes
aimed at improvement in woman's health in India and also provides
valuable information and a research gap for social scientists, policy makers
and health professionals to improve the quality of life and empower
women in India. Based on the results of this study, we suggest an
interdisciplinary and inclusive approach to plan socio-cultural based
health policies in order to improve women's reproductive health outcomes
in the developing countries such as India.
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Chapter 30
Resilience and Renewal: Objectified Portrayal
of Women in Maya Angelou's
Autobiographical Writings
Anita Chalka1
Nupur Tandon2
Abstract. Gender inequality has long been debated and discussed; over the
centuries and across the countries. But the debate over gender inequality
gained much more prominence in the twentieth and twenty first century. More
and more voices came to be heard and seen and read in the form of writers and
literatures, performers and theatres, and films and activists making their points
loud and clear. Maya Angelou was one such personality among the eminent
and prominent feminist voices such as Simone de Beauvoir, Betty Friedan,
Gloria Steinem, Angela Davis, bell hooks, and many more who stood against
unequal treatment despite all odds. In her autobiographical volumes, the
author Maya Angelou uses humour, satire, irony and pun to depict the
inequality faced by the black women characters in her autobiographies.
Though Angelou’s literature reflects sadness and despair at the plight of the
blacks and especially black women who are doubly suppressed, still there is no
feeling of bitterness or revenge in her tone of writing or reciting. Unequal
treatment of genders in every walk of life needs to be addressed every now and
then. This paper deals with the portrayal of women, mainly in terms of female
objectification, by the author Maya Angelou and how they withstood the most
humiliating, unequal treatment at the hands of male dominated society.
Keywords: Gender Inequality, Women, Objectification, Maya Angelou,

Martha Nussbaum
1
PhD Scholar
2
Professor, Humanities & Social Sciences Department, MNIT, Jaipur
382 Resilience amd Remewal
Feminism, in the twentieth century, became more revolutionary and

progressive in its approach and its subject area. It gained more momentum
in the postmodern period. Author Sandra Bartky writes, “they call it
consciousness-raising. A raised consciousness on the part of women is not only a
causal factor in the emergence of the feminist movement itself but also an important
part of its political program.” (12, 1990). This ideology grew fast in the form
of different waves namely first, second, third, fourth and fifth wave.
According to the author Amy. S. Wharton, “the study of gender in Sociology
grew out of the second wave of the Women’s movement” (4,2005). Prior to this
period, women were not considered worthy of any serious research or
study in any discipline, especially in Sociology. Sociology, as a discipline,
did respond to sociologist Jessie Bernard’s question, “Can (sociology) become
a science of society rather than a science of male society?” (4 2005) and
eventually, woman as a gender and as a subject of serious study, began to
be included in sociological scholarship.
Literature and society are very closely interrelated and interdisciplinary in

nature. Women’s Studies and Women’s Writings began to gain popularity
among scholars, and more scholarship and literature began to be produced
which attracted more interested readership. Wharton is of the view that “a
related development in the sociology of gender is the field’s increased concern with
the relations between gender and other bases of distinction and stratification, such
as age, race or ethnicity, sexual orientation, social class, or nation” (5,2005).
Gender inequality occurs because of a complex interplay of various factors
like human interactions, social structures and social institutions. Wharton
emphasizes that gender distinctions are inextricably linked to gender
inequality. She states that, “another angle from which to explore these issues is
to examine the interrelations of gender and race, as they together shape people’s
views of gender inequality” (236, 2005). The physical attributes which classify
a woman as a female or feminine are used or rather misused to objectify a
woman. These are the same differences which differentiate a woman from
a man biologically but, “socially constructed, narrow definitions of beauty and,
thereby, sexuality are used as mechanisms to maintain social, political, and
economic control by those who benefit from traditional patriarchal structures” (2,
1997).
Scholar Travis, Meginnis and Bardari observe that, “The socio-political

context in most societies has consistently advantaged men at the expense of women.
In particular, North American ideals of sexuality have functioned largely as a way
of keeping women in their (subservient) place. Controlling women’s sexuality, like
controlling women’s bodies in general, is a medium through which the oppression
of women occurs” (p239, 2000).
Objectification has been one of the major themes of Feminist concerns.

Sexual objectification is one of the important concepts within Feminist
theory. However, the approaches to perceive, understand and analyse this
concept are various and thus differ in nature. Objectification of a female
body and the practice of representing the female body as a product has
been prevalent in almost all societies of the world. The Oxford dictionary
defines the term ‘objectification’ as “the act of treating people as if they are
objects, without rights or feelings of their own.” Both the modern and
westernized as well as underdeveloped and traditional societies had the
biased approach of looking at the female body as a product or an object.
Sandra Lee Bartky states that, “sexual objectification occurs when a woman’s
sexual parts or sexual functions are separated out from her person, reduced to the
status of mere instruments, or else regarded as if they were capable of representing
her” (35, 1990). The portrayal of female body, how it is viewed as an object
and how the American norms of beauty can interfere in a healthy mental
growth of any female and specially a black female in White society, are
vividly described in the autobiographical volumes of the African American
author Maya Angelou, namely, I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings, Gather
Together in My Name, and Singin’ and ‘Swingin’ and Gettin’ Merry Like
Christmas.
Martha Nussbaum has identified at least seven notions which are involved
in the idea of objectification. She defines them as, “Instrumentality, Denial of
autonomy, Inertness, Fungibility, Violability, Ownership and Denial of
subjectivity wherein the objectifier treats the object as something whose experience
and feelings (if any) need not be taken into account” (218,1999). Along with
Nussbaum, Australian- British professor of Philosophy, Rae Langton, has
further added to the above list of characteristics of objectification namely,
‘silencing and reduction to bodily appearance’. Kant’s views on
objectification primarily focus on the understanding that ‘as object of the
other's appetite, that person is in fact a thing, whereby the other's appetite
is sated, and can be misused as such a thing by anybody’ (156, 1992).
Maya Angelou, as a girl child, while growing up in the segregated rural

south could not escape the American-European female beauty norms
(which objectify a female body) from penetrating her innocent mind and
which made her fall prey to self-doubts and inferiority complex obstructing
a healthy mental growth. At one point of time, Angelou had secretly
wished and wanted to be fair with blue eyes with a wishful thinking to
appear as, “I was going to look like one of the sweet little white girls who were
everybody’s dream of what was right with the world.” Psychologists Kenneth
and Mamie Clark’s ‘the doll tests’ conclusions were that African-American
children had low self- esteem arising from feelings that their own skin was
ugly or unattractive’ (Clark & Clark). Angelou imagines that “Wouldn’t they
be surprised when one day I woke out of my black ugly dream, and my real hair,
which was long and blond, would take the place of the kinky mass that Momma
wouldn’t let me straighten?” (4, 1971). Angelou, at least in her childhood and
teenage years, is acutely aware of her ugly blackness which made her feel
unbeautiful and hence unassured of herself. She is painfully made aware
of ‘nappy black hair, broad feet, and a space between her teeth that would hold a
number- two pencil’ (5, 1971).
When the criterion to fall in the ‘beauty’ norms is not met with, an
individual develops negative self-image. Body objectification is manifested
in the form of a need for every female to look and appear beautiful. Both
men and women can be objectified but most commonly, it is the women
who are victims of objectification. Among the community of women,
African- American women are more likely to be sexually objectified
because of the intersectionality of classist, racist and sexist ideologies,
considering the fact of the slave history where black women were
considered fully owned property of the white slave owners and masters
who had the right to use the black body physically and sexually without
being questioned.
Scholar Iman Cooper observes that “as a result of commodification, black bodies
were rendered disciplined subjects; beholden to the will of white men.” The status
of a woman, when viewed as an inferior or lesser being by the opposite
gender, leads to gender disparity and inequality, further degrading the

position of a woman in the scheme of things. Bell hooks writes that she,
“found that it was commonly accepted that one “shopped” for sexual partners in
the same way one “shopped” for courses at Yale, and that race and ethnicity was a
serious category on which selections were based” (47, 2015). Hooks observes that
the ‘other’ is viewed as exotic and hence the desire to experience and
possess this unfamiliar body in terms of interracial sexual desires can be
psychologically analysed as the desire to “claim the body of the coloured Other
instrumentally, as unexplored terrain, a symbolic frontier that will be fertile
ground for their reconstruction of the masculine norm” (48, 2015).
The concept of ‘male gaze’ as used and redefined by film critic Laura
Mulvey includes the behaviour of looking at a female body as an object of
sexual pleasure or desire. According to Mulvey, male gaze ‘is a social
construct derived from the ideologies and discourses of patriarchy.’ Maya
Angelou in Gather Together describes the upsetting and unsettling gaze of
the dancer named R. L. Poole when he looked at, “My legs (long), my hips
(spare), my breasts (nearly non -existent)., “he looked me over, one feature at a
time. He drank the coffee slowly… His eyes moved from an examination of my body
back to my face. (101, 1975).
Author Sandra Lee Bartky, in her much-quoted book, ‘Femininity and

Domination: Studies in the Phenomenology of Oppression’ explains that
“in our society, of course, women of color are not so fortunate; white women, as a
group and on average are substantially more economically advantaged than many
persons of color, especially women of color” (16, 1990). In the same book, she
further states that, ‘American women-white women and women of color-are
stereotyped, culturally dominated, and sexually objectified.’ (23, 1990). Bartky
writes elaborately on the subject of sexual objectification of the female body
which is common to and applicable to the entire women community.
Women as a gender ‘female’ are vulnerable to multiple kinds of
objectification when Sandra Bartky emphasises the view that “women of all
races and ethnicities, like Fanon’s ‘black man’ are subject to not only stereotyping
and cultural depreciation but to sexual objectification as well” (26, 1990).
Maya Angelou has mentioned a number of incidents which happened in

her life, of which she gives a detailed description in her autobiographical
volumes mentioned above. Angelou is only too willing to follow the beauty
norms, the absence of which makes her feel ‘locked into a too-tall body, with
an unpretty face’ (119, 1975). The need to be able to present one’s body as a
beautiful object in order to survive in both personal as well as professional
sphere, can lead a person to self-objectification. Martha Nussbaum points
out the negative impact (on an individual’s emotional and mental growth)
of this approach as this perception of a female body can lead to viewing of
one’s own body as an object because one "can grasp self only as thing’ (214,
1999) and there is total negation of one’s humanity. In Singin’ and Swingin’
Angelou records one such incident of objectification where a Large lettered
advertisement, looking for female dancers, read, “BEAUTIFUL GIRLS!
CONTINUOUS ENTERTAINMENT!” (49, 1976).) This is an example of
objectification, “that occurs when women are part of situations, environments,
and subcultures where the sexual objectification of women is encouraged and
promoted” (12, 2011). Maya Angelou was required and instructed to just,
“wear brief costumes and dance” (60, 1976) in order to attract more customers
(read males) by being ‘an object of desire’ (240, 2000) because it is not the
woman herself but the ‘Others who largely define women’s sense of identity and
worth’ (240, 2000).
The authors Travis, Meginnis and Bardari are of the view that, “The social
construction of beauty, sexuality, and identity is based on the translation of
sexuality into external features of appearance and style that may be monitored and
controlled by men” (242, 2000). Sexual objectification, or objectification of the
female body is of immense interest to the male gaze because it is a way of
entertainment for, “These old guys come in strip joints because they want to look
at pretty women. Pretty naked women” (63, 1976). Nussbaum points out that
sexual objectification is problematic or objectionable because this notion
“show indifference to the person's feelings and experiences; sometimes, to proceed
as if the person's boundaries are not deserving of the same respect that one's own
deserve; sometimes, to treat the person as fungible, easily replaceable by other
similar objects” (244, 1999).
Nussbaum’s ‘fungibility’ and ‘denial of subjectivity’ and Rae Langton’s

‘reduction to appearance’ are the most common objectification
characteristics which apply to the women characters, including her own-
self, described by Angelou in autobiographical volume ‘Singin’ & Swingin’.
Angelou describes one such incident where she writes that the dancer’s
body was detached from her feelings and, “Rusty's face seemed divorced from
the actions of her body”, but “the customer's eyes were focussed on the indifferent
dancer. They were using her feinting body to erase their present and catapult
themselves into a fantasy…” (65, 1976). In her popular essay, ‘Visual Pleasure
and Narrative Cinema’ published in British Film Theory journal ‘Screen’,
film theorist, Laura Mulvey observes from a feminist perspective in the
context of the ‘male gaze’ and states that, “pleasure in looking has been
split between active/male and passive/female” given the traditional,
patriarchal social and political construct where, “women are simultaneously
looked at and displayed, with their appearance coded for strong visual and erotic
impact so that they can be said to connote to-be-looked-at-ness. Women displayed
as sexual object is the leitmotiv of erotic spectacle: from pinups to striptease, from
Ziegfeld to Busby Berkeley, she holds the look, plays to, and signifies male desire.”
(366, 1975).
From a feminist standpoint, the impact of objectification and sexual

objectification on the psychological mental health of women is
destructively multi-fold in nature. Sexual objectification is a subdivision of
objectification which reduces a female to a mere object of entertainment,
pleasure and sexual desire for a male and thereby degrading and taking the
essence of humanity away, resulting in loss of subjectivity of a person
which may lead one to depression, low self-esteem, over anxiety, and a
feeling of worthlessness. This is high time that the ‘second sex’ takes the
primary stage in order to realize and awaken the feminist consciousness
because Sandra Lee Bartky aptly points out that “although the oppression of
women is universal, feminist consciousness is not” (12,1990).
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390 Women as a Site of Resistance
Chapter 31
Women as a Site of Resistance in Toni
Morrison’s The Bluest Eye and Sula:
Ankita Bhowmick1 and Paonam Sudeep Mangang2
Abstract. The paper presents the oppression and resistance of black women in
Toni Morrison’s fictions, The Bluest Eye and Sula. It analyzes the sufferings of
black women in twentieth-century America, after the abolition of slavery. Being
subjected to various forms of discrimination and oppression for decades, black
women resort to violence both verbal and physical as forms of resistance. For
these characters, violence is a mode of escape, a disruption of white patriarchal
power. The role of black women has often been defined with respect to their
maternal aspect. According to Robert Staples in The Black Women in America,
“motherhood in the African American community represents maturity and
fulfillment of one’s function as a woman.” Transcending beyond the
stereotypical notions of black women by wreaking havoc, the women in
Morrison’s novels try to find a new vision for African-American womanhood
and femininity. These atypical mother figures are often seen as searching for
their self-worth and identity, which are otherwise denied by society. Barbara
Christian asserts that the ideal image of black motherhood has served as
“content for some other major dilemma or problem the society cannot solve.”
The aura surrounding black motherhood has been born out of the slavery
system where the father was inevitably separated from their children. Women
were seen as valuable commodities as the breeders of children who would
serve as future slaves. The Black women were seen as nurturing forces who
would go to any extent in protecting their children. Even after the abolition of
slavery, the patriarchal society has continued to identify black women as strong
mother figures. The female characters in her novels range from children,
adolescents to adults whose rebellion can be seen as a reprojection of the
oppression that has been etched into their souls. Realizing their value in a
1
Research Scholar, Department of Humanities and Social Sciences, National Institute of
Technology, Shillong, Meghalaya, India
2
Associate Professor and Head, Department of Humanities and Social Sciences,
National Institute of Technology, Shillong, Meghalaya, India
society where they are completely ignored, these characters redefine the
boundaries of their power and powerlessness.
Keywords: Oppression, Resistance, Violence, Femininity, African American

Women
1. Introduction
Toni Morrison presents women in her novels who are emotionally and
physically scarred by the various oppressive constructs of society. Being,
sexually abused, racially discriminated against, these women continue to
strive in society with their scars. Morrison’s women are portrayed as strong
women who often resort to violence to avoid further victimization. In this
way, violence can be seen as a tool of rebellion resisting oppression. The
female characters in her novels range from children to adolescents to
women who are all victims of patriarchal society and moreover by the
white patriarchal society. They are excluded from society; their voices go
unheard. Rejecting the racialized gender identity, they wreak havoc to
create a new idea of black women in society. The violence committed by
these women sometimes affects the community in which they reside,
however, their actions are the outcome of the racialized and sexualized
violence perpetrated around the world. In other words, the violent resort
taken by Morrison’s women can be harmful to the individual’ psyche, but
it is ultimately the reprojection of the oppression that has been etched into
their souls. By redirecting the violence forced on them, these women
become the site of resistance to oppressive powers. This resistive nature
emerges in the early childhood of black women when they start to realize
that their self-worth and their value are in question. They try to redefine
the boundaries of power and powerlessness. These youthful characters in
Morrison’s novels learn violence in a matrilineal setting where they are also
exposed to torture from their mother and grandmother. Frequently
enslaved they are abused by various sources: father, spouse, slave owners
amongst others.
The main source of identity attributed by society to women has been

motherhood. More specifically, the role of black women has been defined
with respect to their maternal aspect. The maternity of Black women has
been culturally and historically stereotyped. According to Robert Staples,

in The Black Women in America, “motherhood in the African American
community represents maturity and fulfillment of one’s function as a
woman.” The women in Toni Morrison’s works transcend beyond these
stereotyped notions of motherhood to establish their distinct individuality.
These atypical mother figures are often seen as searching for their self-
worth and identity, which are otherwise denied by society. Barbara
Christian asserts that the ideal image of black motherhood has served as
“content for some other major dilemma or the problem the society cannot
solve.” The aura surrounding black motherhood has been born out of the
slavery system where the father was inevitably separated from their
children. Women were seen as valuable commodities as the breeders of
children who would serve as future slaves. The black women were seen as
nurturing forces who would go to any extent in protecting their children.
Even after the abolition of slavery, the patriarchal society has continued to
identify black women as strong mother figures. Reverting the stereotypical
notions about black motherhood, Morrison has focused on the
abandonment of the children by the mother which in turn has resulted in
child-driven violence. Being detached from familial bonds the children act
out violently and thus home becomes a site for experiencing pain and
society is a place for acting out. Finally, the complexity of black
motherhood is established by child murder reflecting the dilemma between
creation and destruction.
2. Analysis
In the novel, The Bluest Eye, Claudia feels the need to rebel against society
as she felt invisible and missing from popular culture. Her hatred toward
white people began with her aversion towards a white star child and white
baby dolls. Claudia’s dislike for Shirley Temple, the child star who danced
with a popular black tap dancer in various movies reflects her adult-like
understanding of the discrimination prevalent in society. “I couldn’t join
[Freda and Pecola] in their adoration because I hated Shirley. Not because
she was cute, but because she danced with Bojangles, who was my friend,
my uncle, my daddy, and who ought to have been soft-shoeing it and
chuckling with me”. [Morrison, The Bluest Eye, 19] To her, it was unfair as
it seemed like something was stolen from her and given to a white kid
which should have been rightfully hers. The invisibility and absence of a
black girl along with Bojangles enrages Claudia and her anger is projected
on Shirley Temple, someone who is in view and yet far from reach. By
dismembering the white dolls that Claudia receives as gifts, she disrupts
the obsession for white attributes.
Unlike the external conflict that is faced by Claudia, another female

character, Pecola faces inner conflict and turmoil. Ignored by her father and
despised by her mother, her character can be seen as an example of
accepting white standards of beauty. As Kathy Russell, Midge Wilson, and
Ronald Hall explain the effects of white standards of beauty among black
girls: “According to psychiatrists William Grier and Price Cobbs, authors
of Black Rage, every American Black girl experiences some degree of shame
about her appearance. Many must submit to painful hair-combing rituals
that aim to make them look, if not more ‘White-like,’ at least more
‘presentable’” [43]. Instead of fighting the norms of standard beauty, Pecola
bows down to white oppression. Growing up in an abusive family,
suffering from two traumatic rapes and the internalized concept of
standard white beauty ruins her life. Pecola’s desire for “blue eyes” is
related to her notion that the cruelty that she experiences, and witnesses is
related to how she looks. These notions of standard white beauty led to
Pecola’s imagining herself as invisible which was a defense mechanism for
her but had tangible effects in reality. As Malin LaVon Walther states: “the
effect of popular American culture’s specular construction of beauty is that
it bestows presence or absence. One’s visibility depends upon one’s
beauty”. [777] The hopeless desire for blue eyes ultimately led to her
madness. The destructive psychological effects of racism and rape affect
forming Pecola’s identity. She accepts her inferior position as society
decrees her unworthy of love and affection. The novel shows the complete
victimization of Pecola by both the white and black cultures. The character
of Pecola is characteristic of many black people who suffered the same
trauma. On this note, Morrison states that: “the tragic and disabling
consequences of accepting rejection as legitimate. Who made her [Pecola]
feel that it was better to be a freak than what she was?” She also argues that
“the extremity of Pecola’s case stemmed largely from a crippled and
crippling family” and that “some aspects of [Pecola’s] woundability [are]

lodged in all young girls”. [Morrison, The Bluest Eye, 11- 12]
The community in which the girls reside has accepted the concept of white
beauty and the girls living under such oppressive forces can either succumb
to believing their ugliness or will have to resort to resistance in order to
preserve a positive self-image. The female characters in Morrison’s novels
resort to verbal violence to resist oppression.
Similarly, in the novel, Sula, there are many instances of child teasing which
ultimately escalates into self-mutilation, accidental murder of an innocent
child, and the effort to cover up the crime to avoid punishment. Early in the
novel, it can be seen that the title character and her friend Nel try to resist
the white bullies who enjoyed “harassing black schoolchildren”, forcing
them to take “elaborate” paths home from school [Morrison, Sula, 53]. Sula
takes control of the situation by pulling out her grandmother’s knife one
day and cutting her finger to scare them away. “Paring knife. . . . Holding
the knife in her right hand, she . . . presses her left forefinger down hard on
its edge. . . . She slashed off . . . the tip of her finger” [ibid., 54] While this
action can be seen as an “internalized . . . lesson of racist oppression”
[Bouson 2000, 63], it can also be interpreted as an example of redefined
power. Sula’s bold attitude of harming herself turned the status quo of
society. She regained power over her situation and marked a place of her
own. As it is seen in the other novel, The Bluest Eye, most of the black girls
learn violence from their home, mostly from other female characters which
makes this violent attitude generational. According to bell hooks, “Black
women resisted [white oppression] by making homes where all black
people could strive to be subjects, not objects, where we could be affirmed
in our minds and hearts despite poverty, hardship, and deprivation, where
we could restore to ourselves the dignity denied us on the outside in the
public world”. [hooks 1990, 42] Emotional trauma perpetuated by the lack
of empathy from the mother figures leads to the violent nature of the young
girls. Learning about her mother’s disapproval of her, Sula turns into a
violent and distant teenager. After listening to her mother explain that she
has maternal feelings for Sula but does not love her, Sula felt
“bewilderment . . . [and] a sting in her eye”. [Morrison Sula, 57]. The
emotional violence felt by Sula on discovering her mother’s passive
hostility for her enables her to watch death and other tragedies from a close
distance. Later, in the novel, it can be seen that Sula watches her mother
getting, mother to death nonchalantly which made grandmother Eva
believe that she did so out of twisted curiosity
Another important character and the main propeller of the Peace family in
the novel is the matriarch, Eva Peace who sought to provide for her three
children after being left alone by her alcoholic and abusive husband,
BoyBoy. She left her children to a neighbor for a day. However, “Eighteen
months later she swept down from a wagon with two crutches, a new black
pocketbook, and one leg”. [Morrison, Sula, 34] It was conjectured by the
townspeople that she sacrificed her leg for the insurance money. This
instance also points to the fact that women in Morrison’s novels harm
themselves to reclaim their power back in society. Self-mutilation can be
seen as an important tool in resisting the various oppressive forces.
3. Conclusion
The female characters represented by Toni Morrison in her novels are

undoubtedly flawed, all trying to grapple with the various oppressive
agents of society by violence. However, in doing so they make themselves
powerful and control of their own lives by becoming dominant forces. Yet
these are actions are not without repercussions. They often feel the heat of
their violent activities along with the people upon whom they have been
violent. The characters act out in unsanctioned ways to redefine the concept
of black femininity and femaleness. They transform their position from
being powerless women into hauntingly powerful women and girls by
choosing their destinies and reclaiming their rightful position in society.
References
Abberley P.: The Concept Oppression and the Social Theory of Disability. Disability,
Handicap, and Society. 2(1)1, 5-19 (1987).
Bouson, J. Brooks.: Quiet as It’s Kept: Shame, Trauma, and Race in the Novels of Toni
Morrison. State University of New York Press, Albany (2000).
Boyce Davies, Carole.: Black Women, Writing and Identity: Migrations of the Subject.
Routledge, New York (1994).
Henderson, Mae C.: Pathways to Fracture: African American Mothers and the
Complexities of Maternal Absence. Black Women, Gender, & Families 3(2), 29–47
(2009).
Hinson, D. Scot.: Narrative and Community Crisis in Beloved. MELUS 26(4), 147– 67
(2001).
hooks, bell.: Homeplace. In Yearning: Race, Gender, and Cultural Politics, 41–49. South
End Press, Boston (1990).
Iannone, Carol. “Toni Morrison’s Career.” Commentary 84, no. 6 (1987): 59–63.
LaVon W. M.: Out of Sight: Toni Morrison’s Revision of Beauty. Black American
Literature Forum, 24(4), 775-789 (1990).
Morrison, Toni.: Sula. Plume/Penguin Books USA, Inc., New York (1982).
Morrison, Toni.: The Bluest Eye. Plume/Penguin Books USA, Inc., New York (1994).
Russell, Kathy, Midge Wilson, and Ronald Hall.: The Color Complex: The Politics of Skin
Color Among African Americans. Doubleday, New York (1992).
Chapter 32
Contradicting Patriarchy towards the
Discovery of a Room of One’s Own:
Alice Walker’s the Color Purple
Deepti Sharma1
Vikas Choudhary2
Abstract. Man for the field and woman for the hearth, Man for the sword and
for the needle she:
Man with the head and woman with the heart: Man to command and woman
to obey…
(Lord Alfred Tennyson’s the Princess 427-431)
Patriarchy is a social system where the males enjoy a higher status, where men
have social power in every important structure of society and women do not
have any real access to such structures. Feminism, on the other hand maintains
that women have frequently and systematically been unable to participate fully
in all the available social arenas and social institutions.
Many writers of English Literature have emphasised the scuffle of women

against the male-domination. The soundless woes of women, their outlook
towards the struggle to conquer the challenges of patriarchy, their zeal to seek
freedom, to raise their voice against any disparity, to maintain their own
dignity and quest for identity have been the key issues in their writings. It is
the status of woman that has been subjected to many great deviations over the
past ages and the image of woman has undergone considerable changes
accordingly.
Alice Walker, the Afro-American female writer, coined the term womanism
and through her novels portrays the universal theme of womanhood. The
present paper is a study that focuses on man-woman relationship in Walker’s
1
Assistant Professor of English, KVA DAV College for Women, Karnal, Haryana
2
Professor Department of Humanities and Social Sciences NIT, Kurukshetra, Haryana
398 Contradicting Patriarchy towards the Discovery of a Room of One’s Own
The Color Purple, highlighting the progress made on gender issues in a global
context, specifically in terms of equality. The paper also reflects on how a
woman stabilizes the most persistent social, economic, and political pressures
of patriarchy and transfigures her position from periphery to the centre. In
addition, the paper will also discuss how individuals resist and challenge
gender inequalities and attempt to correct its causes and consequences.
Keywords: Gender, Patriarchy, Women, Sufferings, Identity
1. Introduction
Race, class, and gender have constantly been reasons for oppression for the
Afro-American women. There has always been a necessity to create a new
identity and give a voice to these black women in American society to build
their self-confidence socially, emotionally and spiritually. Black women
had to undergo both racial and patriarchal domination as they remained
relegated because of their colour and gender. It has been proved to be very
traumatic as opined by Jessica Lewis (2017) that “identity experiences and
traumatic experiences are intricately related to the psychology of trauma”
(24). These women were never appreciated by men either of their
community nor the outsiders i.e., the white men. They were completely
muted, as King-Kok Cheung (1988) calls them “thrice muted on account of
sexism, racism and tonguelessness, that results from prohibitions or
language barriers” (163). These women were victimized in one or the other
way and did not even have a room of one’s own, neither literally nor
superficially.
Alice Melsinior Walker (b. 1944), the first Afro-American female writer to
win the ‘Pulitzer Prize’ for fiction and ‘American Book Award’ for her book
The Color Purple, was also the first female to coin ‘Womanism’ a term for
black feminism. She was the one who used the term “womanism to refer to
African American feminism or the feminism of women of color” (Nandita
Sinha, 28) in In Search of Our Mother’s Gardens: Womanist Prose (1983). Also,
for Walker, “Womanist is to feminist as purple is to lavender” (Nandita
Sinha, 29). It deliberated upon women’s culture, strength and flexibility.
Racial discrimination, patriarchal oppression, and gender violence are the

general themes of Walker’s works. Through her female protagonists, she
presents a perceptible portrayal of the mistreatment, downgrading and
multi-faced exploitation of the Afro- American women who have been
suffering for centuries. She also depicts how the life of her protagonists
change from self-denial, silence and powerlessness to self-acceptance,
confrontation and empowerment. Alice Walker strongly advocates for the
emancipation of black women that they will never submit or beg for any
sympathy from the male-dominating society around them who mercilessly
exploited them for years and years.
The subjugation of women has been a universal phenomenon irrespective

of culture, caste and creed. The novel The Color Purple under study
highlights the transformation of Celie, fourteen-year-old girl which is
conceivable, only with the help of inspirational and persuasive females in
her life. Through their distinct bond with her, she is able to modify herself
from an illiterate, subservient and dependent girl into a confident,
economically independent and complete woman. She gains courage to
revolt and contradict the patriarchy and discovers a ‘room of her own’- a
space for herself which every woman wants. Virginia Woolf rightly
expresses the same in her essay “A Room of One’s Own”, “Lock up your
libraries if you like; but there is no gate, no lock, no bolt that you can set
upon the freedom of my mind.” (76) Woolf’s intention here is not to rave
upon the superiority or inferiority of men but simply that women have
been expatriated from conversations, resources and institutions where
knowledge is expanded only by the male mind. Similarly, Walker like
Woolf, doesn’t present any kind of hatred but a defiance and also an action
plan to show the patriarchal society that women are no less than males in
any sphere of life.
The Color Purple: Contesting patriarchy towards self -discovery of

Celie
The impression of feminine inventiveness is a source of incapacitating the

coercion and the transcendence that occurs through such artistic expression
later becomes one of the significant themes in Alice Walker’s fiction.
Written in an epistolary style, the main protagonist of The Color Purple,

Celie, passive but hardworking, writes letters to God in a form of a diary,
narrating her story, and her innermost thoughts which describes her
complete self. In her very first letter to God, “Maybe you [God] can give me
a sign letting me know what is happening to me” (1). These letters express
Celie’s view about herself and the world, showing her growth and
development from a victimized girl to a woman who becomes strong with
time to change her condition and love herself. Set in the South and an
unnamed African country during 1930 to 1940s, the novel portrays the
gradual liberation of Celie a poor, Black woman who must overcome abuse
and torment of her step-father and husband and also the separation from
her beloved sister Nettie.
The whole story of the novel The Color Purple is woven from the feminine
perspective. The male domination and oppression are foregrounded from
the very opening sentence of the story with a pre-echo of Celie’s stepfather
Alphonso, who repeatedly rapes her, “You’d better never tell nobody but
God. It’d kill your Mammy” (1). Celie has two children with Alphonso, and
he takes each child away after birth. Her continued exploitation stifles and
suffocates her inner strength and she resigns herself to the male brutalities.
Despite fear and pain of her situation, Celie tries to protect her sister from
her Pa. Keeping Nettie’s safety in mind, she marries a widower Albert, with
whom Pa trades her off. She bears the humiliation of being looked upon as
a piece of property. She is married to look after the widower’s unruly
children, to maintain his house and satisfy him sexually.
Celie becomes a “a wood… a tree” (23) and reinforces all the negative
features of patriarchal exploitation and oppression when she describes the
colonial relationship of her husband to Shug, “…like he going to the toilet
on you… Just do his business, get off go to sleep…” (81) The novel deals
with the role of male domination in frustrating the black women’s struggle
for identity and independence, representing how women are oppressed
and manipulated by men and humiliated to powerlessness.
Albert is infatuated with the blues singer Shug Avery, symbolised as a role
model and a catalyst for change in the community. He beats and abuses his
wife Celie saying, “Cause she my wife. Plus she stubborn. All women good
for” (23) but she tolerates all this with stoic patience and feels that revolt
may prove disastrous. Even Harpo, Albert’s eldest son disrespects her as
his father. Nettie comes to live with Celie when Pa turns his attention to
her, but Albert makes her leave his home when she rejects his advances
towards her. Before going, Nettie promises to write, but Celie never
receives any letters. Adding fuel to fire, Albert brings home Shug for Celie
to nurse her to health when she is unwell. Celie manages to heal Shug with
good food and leisure, and the two women strike up an unlikely friendship
initially. During the time, Celie learns to love Shug, who teaches her about
her own pleasure and also uncovers that Albert has been intercepting and
hiding letters from Nettie for years. With reference to Nettie’s letters and
the hold, dominance and hierarchy of the males, Wendy Wall observes that
Albert intercepts them because “he fails to seduce her and that he rapes her
language because he fails to rape her body”. (83-97).
Celie reads years and years of letters from her sister. In her letters, Nettie
recounts about her whereabouts and how the village of the Olinka (where
she went with Samuel’s family) was destroyed when an English rubber
company took over the land. Celie also discovers in one of the letters from
Nettie that Alphonso is not actually their biological father which Nettie
discovers from Samuel, who tells the story of how he came to have the
children, Olivia and Adam, who were actually Celie’s children born from
Pa and also that Nettie has married Samuel after his wife’s death.
Celie’s life dramatically changes over the years. She lives with Shug in
Memphis for a time as her lover and companion when she is not able to
bear Albert’s betrayal in hiding the letters. This radical but fulfilling love
provides Celie with self-confidence, identity and voice. She resurrects from
a silent, dominated abused and passive life into active and industrious life.
She starts her own company “Folkspants Unlimited”.
When Alphonso dies, Celie and Nettie inherit a store, a fine house, and
land. Celie experiences heartbreak when Shug leaves Celie for a younger
man. Celie also receives word that the ship carrying Nettie and the children
sank after hitting a German land mine. This news turns out to be false,
however, since Celie still receives letters from her sister. Shug eventually
turns up, ready to take up life with Celie again. Nettie, Olivia, and Adam,
at last, make it to Georgia. The family reunites, and Celie is content towards
the end.
The novel shows the heroism of Celie, who fights to escape from the yoke
of the forced identities that drive her to an unchosen path. The title signifies
the carnival of beauty, the pleasures of living and how that festivity is at
the centre of spiritual and personal growth. Celie’s complete
transformation (economic, sexual and religious) is when she is liberated
towards her spiritual freedom from traditional Christianity which is seen
to endorse the oppressive patriarchal power structure. Shug reveals to
Celie about God is not “big and old and grey-bearded and white” (203) but
an erotic God who “love everything you love” (204), thus changing her
notion of God as neither male nor female but as an androgynous spirit, who
is the part of the natural world and of mankind itself.
Though the novel deliberates upon how Black women use their faith,
relationships, and creativity to survive racial and sexual oppression, Alice
Walker suggests that her purpose has not only been “to create and control
literary images of women and black women in particular but to give voice
and representation to these women who have been silenced and confined
by life and literature” (Nandita Sinha 60)
Among the women-Celie, Nettie, Shug and other minor female characters
like Mary Agnes, Sofia, Odessa, Corrine, Tashi and Olivia exist a bond
which develops into a community, radiating love and sisterhood- Walker’s
black sisterhood. Womanism permeates through the novel in the sense of
sexual and emotional bonding between the black women against all
patriarchal tyrannies. These women are affianced in expeditions of self-
discovery and progress and attempt to free themselves from any
domination, be it masculine, societal or cultural.
The main protagonist Celie discovers a room of her own- a space for herself.
From the very beginning, her identity was crushed- initially by her father
and later by her husband. The Color Purple analyses how this fourteen-year-
old girl faces the patriarchal opposition and comes out of it fearlessly,
emerging into an independent woman who has neither black nor white but
purple color as her preferred choice. Beginning her journey from self-
realization to self-identification, she frees herself from all the limitations

and choking situations that society and family impose on her. The
epistolary style of this novel, moreover, enables Celie to portray her desires
to break with the oppressive situations and reveal her feelings within this
patriarchal structure.
The Color Purple emphasises on the issues of chauvinism, discrimination

and gender discernment which Alice Walker criticizes and refutes. Some
characters do not have a stable identity, but their identity is fluid and
dependent on their language and desires, having a rich array of female
characters.
2. Conclusion
The Color Purple was translated into 22 languages and sold over four million
copies. In 1985, Steven Spielberg directed an acclaimed film adaptation of
the book and was also adapted for the theatre and premiered in 2005.
The paper discussed the transformation of Celie towards self -discovery,

refuting her slave image and adhering to the modern archetype of the
liberated, free-thinking woman. The Color Purple offers a specimen of
women’s voice- contesting patriarchy towards the freedom of self. Alice
Walker’s apprehension in the novel focuses on dissenting vehemence
against women, with rape, incest, and forced marriages as structures of
male dominance. While she celebrates the bonds of women in their struggle
against subjugation, she also valorises the role of the erotic in a woman’s
search for fulfilment, proclaiming the liberal power of spiritual
consciousness, the sense of oneness with the universe beyond the confines
of conventional thoughts.
The black women, in their own ways, become the modifiers of self and
society as Alice Walker quotes in one of her poems “On Stripping Bark for
Myself”, “I find my own/Small person/a standing self/against the world”.
References:
C. Barbara. Alice Walker’s The Color Purple. N.Y.: Barnes & Noble, Inc., 1998.
Cheung, King-Kok. “Don’t Tell: Imposed Silences in The Color Purple and The Woman
Warrior”. 1998. PMLA 103(2), 162-174. doi: 10.2307/462432.
B. Harold. Ed. Modern Critical Views: Alice Walker. New York/Philadelphia: ChelseaHouse
Publishers, 1989.
P. Kun. Alice Walker’s Womanist Theory and The Color Purple. Ocean University of China,
MA. 2009.
Lewis, Jessica. “Gender, Race and Violence: A Critical Examination of Trauma in The
Color Purple”. 2017 Sacred Heart University Scholar 1(1), 24-38. Retrieved from
http://digitalcommons.sacredheart.edu/shuscholar/vol1/iss1/4/
Priya, K. “Violence in Alice Walker's The Color Purple”. IOSR Journal of Humanities and
Social Sciences 9(7), 51-54. (2014).
Ray, M. K. Studies in Women Writers in English. New Delhi: Atlantic Publishers, 2005.8.
Singh, Nandita (Ed). Alice Walker’s The Color Purple: A Reader’s Companion. New
Delhi: Asia Book Club, 2002.
Walker, A. Collected Poems: Her Blue Body Everything We Know: Earthling Poems. London:
Orion books, 1965.
------------. The Color Purple. New York: Harcourt, 1982.
------------. In Search of Our Mothers’ Gardens: Womanist Prose. New York: Harcourt Brace
Jovanovich, 1983.
------------. The Same River Twice: Honoring the Difficult. London: Phoenix, 2005.
Wall, Wendy. “Lettered Bodies and Corporeal Texts in The Color Purple,” in Gates
and Appiah. 16(1), 83-97.
Woolf, Virginia. A Room of One’s Own. London: Hogarth Press,1929.
Chapter 33
Manasa-Vacha-Karmana Dhira Karna:
An Embodiment of Loyalty and Candour
Anila Pillai and Urvashi Kaushal
Department of Applied Mathematics and Humanities,
SVNIT, Surat, India
Abstract. The world today is baffling between ‘to be or not to be’. The
ambiguity that cultural space has drawn when drifts with the exposure of the
age, conflict arises leaving a bizarre outlook towards life. One needs to yield
and act courageous in inextricable situations. The knowledge and wisdom that
the Indian mythic tales render is unredeemable in such contexts. To immerse
in varied dimensions of the tales adds spark to the rendering. The objective
here is to observe and explore the character of Karna with reference to his
emotional impact and subtleties of virtue, thoughts, and actions. The critical
conquest widens the road to further poignant discoveries. Karna, the
belligerently dispossessed character embraces valuable lessons to abide. He is
a model, signifying human values vital in society. The qualitative approach
aids to identify Karna, as the warrior leader who is more than his (claimed)
flaws. Karna represents the future man who should trust in his own instinct,
leadership qualities and devoid the narrow barriers of caste. The family
pressure with which today’s generation has been coiled, through this
humanistic study would instill that the character of Karna directs towards
appropriate positioning of one’s capabilities and resurrect towards humanity
routing to skill-based empowerment. The study observes that Karna, being
considered an outcast did not allow his mind to be adulterated with what
others labelled. Instead, he chooses the path of self-discovery to elate himself
towards goal attainment.
Keywords: Leadership, Mahabharata, Karna, Self-Discovery, Indian Mytho-

fiction
One knows the tale; it has been told a thousand ways

Joseph Campbell
406 Manasa-Vacha-Karmana Dhira Karna
Introduction
Life does not walk on a set path. Every thought, decision, and action will
experience unforeseen reactions and impact. It becomes essential to be
ready to face and accommodate even unpleasant phases and not make
them indulge in determining one’s fate. To lead in such “unique stressors”
necessitates for a “unique focus” (Gardner, Avolio, & Walumbwa, 2005).
The purpose of this study is to observe the mythic character Karna through
retellings of the humongous narrative exploded with wisdom to abide by,
the Mahabharata. In the twenty-first century, there has been a tremendous
increase in people returning to mythological tales and providing
individualistic perspectives through mythological fiction. Since 2015, there
has been at least one fiction based on Karna, the first of which was the Roll
of Dice Books I and II by Anand Neelakantan, which is thus considered the
primary text for the current study. As the author himself has stated the
book is about “the others” (Neelakantan, 2013) in Mahabharata which
includes Suyodhana, Karna, Shakuni, Ekalavya, Ashwathama and few others.
We can gain a great deal of awareness and direction towards leadership

attributes by listening to stories from an ancient treasure trove. The deeds
and misdeeds of the characters point to a possible understanding of how to
respond in similar situations in the future. As a result, “strategic leaders”
should be deeply involved in “storytelling,” (Boal & Schultz, 2007)
particularly those that may serve as a guide. Ancient stories and “myths,
fairy tales,” and literary narratives have all mentioned leadership traits,
especially resilience (Campbell, 1968). For instance, the Mahabharata is a
magnificent narrative that has the potential to bring solutions to all of
humanity’s problems. In terms of the complex or vast structure, while
counter with the re-telling with varied perspectives also hold immense
capability to illustrate and hold a positive mindset.
1.1 Mahabharata and re-telling
The Indian mythic-tales embedded in the Mahabharata, pervade all strata of

society, with their universality and captivating style, and prove significant
in developing and managing associations and affinity. As observed by
(Fisher, 1984), human beings are exceptional storytellers and can appreciate
stories as they assist them to comprehend the living world. They “have
evolved to respond” (Paxton, 1990; Kent, 2015) to tales, whether they are
fantasy for children, for religious rituals, or through regional mythologies,
the connections seem deep-rooted. The age-old tales with its prudence and
heroism continue to influence the mass. To immerse into diverse variations
of the same plot, adds spark to the rereading.
1.2 Re-telling and leadership
From carved pillars to printed stories and fables, ancient stories have made
great strides. This distance implies that an ancient tale has undergone a
series of re-rendering procedures, regardless of its form. “Retellings” help
responder on the “way through a text” thus is a tool to supplement
“understanding” (Owocki & Bird, 1999). The narratives always dwelled
upon heroes and villains, victory and defeats, which were fundamentally
about good versus bad.
Leadership, on the other hand, often depends on elements like viewpoint,

context and adherents. “Leadership is an art” that includes several
“variations” in terms of approach, and is challenging to simplify as it
depends on a person’s mindset, choices, and “circumstances” (Rainey,
2013). How a person acts or reacts in specific circumstances is a discrete
decision from which transmits the leadership lesson. Since there is no clear
methodology or explanation for universal leadership attributes, a skewed
view of leadership might exist and be appealing at any time. This
observation goes in tune with the revamped tales too. As a result, according
to reasoning, the foundations for retellings and leadership abilities are
perception and awareness.
1.3 Leadership and resilience
Leadership requires “knowing yourself” and being able to “work well

with” others (Jagger & Lewith, 2016). The founder of resilience training
firm, Dean Becker believes that a leader’s “level of resilience” will decide
her/his success or failure rather than her/his “education, experience or
training” (Southwick, Martini, Charney, & Southwick, 2017). A leader’s
success carries a whole slew of crisis, fear, unexpected happenings and
stress, and it all hinges on how well she or he can unpack with potential.
The key to convert such spates into power, to rise and strike is resilience.
Renowned psychologists (Masten, 2001) call it “ordinary magic”, (Werner,

1982) defines it as “the capacity to cope”, (Rutter, 2006) describes it as
“interactive concept”, (Ungar, 2008) underlines it as “the capacity of [the]
individual” towards “well-being”, (Luthar, Cicchetti, & Becker, 2000) calls
it a “dynamic process” of positivity and (Garmezy, 1991) urges the need for
“functional adequacy” (the ability to function competently amid a
disturbing emotional intensity). Problems bring out the true essence of a
“leader,” (Conger & Kanungo, 1987) argue some theorists, while others
employ potential associations of “hardship and resilience” (Masten & Reed,
Resilience in development, 2002; Howard & Irving, 2013). The implication
is that resilience, the salient trait, can help an individual to avert stressful
day-to-day affairs and emerge towards attainment of a positive approach
to life. This will also aid to fulfil personal goals, responsibilities and enable
one to embrace one’s true potential.
Resilience is the key skill that can set the benchmark. The subdomains of
resilience are self-awareness, positive cognitive strategies observed under
myriad situations. Few other characteristics of resilience include “integrity,
positive self-worth, accountability, resourcefulness” (Helwig, 2013).
Initially the trait involved with “sense of self, determination and social”
(Dyer & McGuinness, 1996) comportment. Later add-ons were skills like
adaptability, tolerance, “self-efficacy,” leadership, “pro-active coping
strategies” under stressful situations (Gillespie, Chaboyer, Wallis, &
Grimbeek, 2007). Resilience is a multifaceted concept that includes
determination, “controllability, adaptation,” and the formation of “a new
steady” condition, according to more current research (Dinh, Pasman, Ga,

& Mannan, 2012; Howard & Irving, 2013).
2. Methodology
The paper uses discourse analysis using the mythic tales from selected
mytho fiction, to assert the fact that resilience is one key ingredient trait for
an empowered world. The humanistic study would inculcate that Karna,
the character from the great epic tale of Mahabharata when observed
through a positive and broader outlook exhibits valuable life lessons. To
understand leadership traits, the study projects him as a model who
emerged from the midst of adversity.
a. Research objective
The paper through a qualitative approach aid to identify the character,

Karna who is seen less for his empowering and leading skills. Through him,
the purpose of the study is to have a concept analysis thereby confirm the
relationship between narratives and nuances of leadership skills to leap
forward when dealing with hardships. For theoretical consideration,
Campbell's idea of a hero is taken. Amidst various complexities dealt with
the character Karna in various retellings, the study observes the best version
of him as an individual, which is worth inspiring. To err is human, and he
too had his flaws, but that did not make him suppress his individuality and
soar through determination, courage, and resilience to be what he really
was capable of being.
3. Manasa Vacha Karmana Dhira Karna
“Perceptions and reputations” play a big role in “leadership and luck”

(Hart & Rhodes, 2014, p. 12). Events over which the leader in question has
little or no control can make or break leaders and their reputations;
however, we must first understand how reputations are built. They are not
given or stated facts; rather these “political” objectives pivot on
“metaphorical and mythical cues” (Edelman M. , 2013, p. 83). The illusions
and symbols of nationalism are the most prevalent and harmful, but race
and religion are never far behind. Karna was sidelined in the name of caste.
Yet, he never considered this aspect as his pullback factor. On the other
hand, he overcame imposed barriers, as he knew he was self-sufficient thus
created new steady strategies to learn and move ahead with controllability.
In Drona Parva section 185, Karna’s description is as the one who is “truthful
in speech,” performs “penances,” keeps “vows,” and is gracious even to
enemies (Ganguli, 2003). V.S. Sukthankar in the section The Mahabharata and
its Critics observes that the dharma is “a very laudable objective” and further
analysis that, the killing the truly noble Karna taking hindrance when he
was “humbly pleading for time” cannot justify the claim of Pandavas been
“models of heroism, chivalry, nobility or righteousness” (Sukthankar,
1957). In the mytho-fiction Ajaya, Anand Neelakantan observes the
characters and asserts that Karna is “generous, charitable” and an ardent
learner seeking the optimum out of himself (Neelakantan, 2013). Another
contemporary fiction, Karna: The Unsung Hero of The Mahabharata (Zutshi &
Kotru, 2015) glorifies the character for his virtues and argues throughout
that he is the one who rightfully should have had everlasting bliss and joy
in his life.
Joseph Campbell, in his work, The Hero with a Thousand Faces, lists out the
power and influence of mythic tales of ancient times, which speak and
spread insights beyond time. To elucidate, the first part of the book is about
the Adventure of the Hero, which further divides into chapters as “departure,
initiation, return and the keys” (Campbell, 1968). Karna blends with
Campbell’s idea of a hero when observed through his comparative
mythological work. Karna being the offspring of Lord Sun (Suryaputra) has
a supernatural connection, and has protective armour (Kavacha-Kundala), The
Ultimate Boon, by birth (which is taken rather begged back by Lord Indra as
a means to save his son, Arjuna from Karna in the war). Born to the virgin
Kunti, the queen abandons him in the Ganga after his birth. His foster
parents, who belong to a lower caste, shower him with love and care. He is
tormented emotionally a number of times in the name of his low birth, and
thus he travels The Road of Trials for no fault of his own. He from the
beginning portrayed chivalrous qualities and was powerful with body and
mind. Yet, Dronacharya refused him knowledge, he takes refuge under Lord
Parashurama, who teaches him, but when he realises that he has an elite
class (Kshatriya) spirit, curses him, saying only a “Kshatriya can bear the
pain” the way he did, silently and “for hours” (Neelakantan, 2013). Karna
had no clue on what basis he was removed from his learning space. All he
did was to ensure that his tutor was comfortable and never disturbed when
relaxing. For the same reason, he bore the pain of the bite of a “wasp” when
Lord Parashurama was “resting” on his thigh (Neelakantan, 2013).
However, he acts according to what Campbell calls it, Refusal of the Return.
There is another side: when due to bad health, Parashurama was bedridden,
and after some days, when he mumbled, “Karna . . . I want to see (my)
Karna” (Neelakantan, 2013), it was perceived that the Guru wanted him
killed. It can be alluded to that, the Guru had remorse, and others mistook
that.
Later when he attempts to showcase his learnt and practiced skills in the
open arena, the Pandava brothers mock him with reference to his lineage.
(Dur)Suyodhana rescues him from the insult and reveals that “caste” has
nothing to do with potential and that he bears his “warrior” (Neelakantan,
2013) skills and is vibrant to reign. Suyodhana further states most “great
kings” own “inherited” monarchy, but Karna is a worthy “Kshatriya” who
is “truly deserving” based on “his merits” and thus makes him the King of
Anga, which was his province (Neelakantan, 2013). An endless friendship
bond thus begets Karna, the Freedom to live with jest and pomposity. With
his confidence, courage, and capability, takes “charge as commander”
(Nain, 2014) of Suyodhana’s soldiers and conquers all the land he fights for.
Soon, he realizes The Key to being a leader is by being generous (Daanveer)
towards the needy, which accords with “Hindu” teaching that acclaims that
for “happiness,” one must be involved in “the art of giving” (Pandey,
Upadhyay, & Tripathi, 2020). He held an unyielding perception of loyalty
in thought (Manasa), whoever came up to him for help he was generous in
converse (Vacha) and action (Karmana). Aware of the fact that he was
waging war at the side, which was against Lord Krishna, still he
commanded with courage and chivalrously (Dhira) he fought thus, rising
to be the leader par excellence.
a. Karna and resilience connection
Karna, the valiant leader (Dhira) surpasses all his tormenting circumstances
and with determination and endurances faces the world. He never yielded
to adversities and always held his Dharma, which was to live an honorable
life. Krishna tries to fetch him by his side in the war, by revealing his
identity, and tries to make him understand being the first born “the throne
is rightfully” his (Neelakantan, 2015). However, he being self-indebted to
Suyodhana refuses humbly. Had he wished for fame, he “could have been
an emperor” instead he chooses to be by his friend’s side (Neelakantan,
2015).
Through the above said facet, who else can be an epitome of resilience other
than Karna. He hails as a warrior who knew well to “self-differentiate” and
demonstrate “developmental antecedents” (Howard & Irving, 2013). He
took the entire burden on himself, led, and breathed his last as a true
warrior. No vices of his can demean a character like Karna, unless he
himself gets succumbed to trials. He resembles Aristotelian Tragic Hero,
who “moral” (Reeves, 1952) by nature is flawed for more than his own
flaws. Never did he remorse on the circumstances, instead rose to better
himself with each adversities. For an individual to render as a leader,
performance, and effectiveness largely depend on knowledge, skills, and
efforts. One is expected to manage well: relationship and emotions. Sound
of success is huge and sweet. Though fact is, the real testing material for a
leader is the fire of failure, which makes confrontation with many realities.
It helps to draw inner resources and exhibit motivation and resilience.
The character of Karna in the Mahabharata envisages the conflict that is due
to his decision to fight on Kauravas’ side. The epic authors use the story of
Karna, opting to both undercut and expand the spectrum of what dharma
might cover. The present study considers this same decision as a display of
a brave answer and not as a hyped serious ethical dilemma. Karna fought
on the side who always trusted and appreciated him for who he really is
and never judged him by caste or other segregation. The character and his
zeal with which he lived is the probe. Karna demonstrates “many core
resilience” traits like “self-awareness, effective team-work,” (Jagger &
Lewith, 2016) competency, conflict management, loyalty and
determination which are strong leadership skills as well. With his life,
Karna proves that with self- management, controllability, determination,
confidence, fearlessness and with proper sense of self, resilience helps to
bounce back on any pressure, stress, or adversities. To be trustworthy is
altogether a separate and special element, which when mixed with the
above set of skills, envisages a leader on whom anyone and everyone may
count upon.
4. Conclusion and recommendations
Human beings hold capacity, which is a mix of heroes, villains, and

everything in between. Characters in the mythic narrative, who lay
underappreciated, belittled, or denigrated, as well as their canonical
attributes that went overlooked, can have a huge impact on principles
worth living by. When we bring our awareness to a complete stop, it emits
the same stench as still water. Rather than being influenced by verbal or
written traditions, one should cultivate an open attitude and outlook and
move beyond being confined. The current trend calls for people to have
their own questioning mindset.
Karna, generally considered as marginalized, who fought on the wrong side

thus suffered when changes to Karna the leaders who with self- awareness,
candour and resilience raised his own bar and proved that skill-based
empowerment can overshadow all other imposed adversities. This
consideration will instill inspiration and motivation for any human to rise
and seek his path to achievements. The study thus longs to endorse that
shadowed or marginalized characters in the retellings can evoke adversity
management and rise as leaders sending inspiring vibes to the readers.
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416 Restructuring of Gender Binaries
Chapter 34
Restructuring of Gender Binaries in Chitra
Banerjee’s the Palace of Illusions
Dr. Prerna Vanjani
Department of Humanities and Social Sciences,
IIIT Kota, India.
Abstract. Chitra Banerjee undertakes the re-reading of the epic of Mahabharata

from a feminist perspective in her work ‘The Palace of Illusions’. Written from
the point of view of Draupadi, the re-telling of the epic opens up ancient social
discriminations which have been accepted by generation without questioning.
This study investigates Draupadi as a confessional character of Chitra Banerjee
who boldly shatters the conventional cannon of epic and voices her story from
a totally new perspective. Banerjee showcases the subjective experience of the
protagonist, Draupadi as she breaks the gender binaries and shows how
restructuring of the social order is necessary. Her assertive, rebellious and
strongly independent role directs the destiny of her kingdom. Her situation
provides a unique approach of critical analysis of human experience. The
interpretation of epic takes a different hue when the female becomes the pivot
around which the male characters weave their destinies. Further the framework
of myth provides an inevitable reference to which she turns to, whenever she
needs a system that universalizes her personal destiny. Through the gaze of
subjective experience, the canon of myth is twisted to show a world that has
been consciously blinded and made silent. The female voice and action thus
assertively restructures the gender binaries and builds up a new social fabric
through the bold adventures of one of the most intelligent and beautiful queens
of India.
Keyword: Gender Bias, Assertion, Self, Confessional Writing, Myth

Introduction
Chitra Banerjee Divakaruni is an Indian American writer born in Kolkata,

India in 1956. She is a writer of short stories, poems, novels and fiction. She
has created a space for herself by winning many accolades and awards. The
Palace of Illusions, a historic fiction revisits the mythological story of
Mahabharata. She captures the magical world of epic for twentieth century
readers and presents a different interpretation of the existing myth. She
seems to be unsatisfied by the portrayal of women in historic times so she
gives a powerful voice to Draupadi, who with her firm determination and
heroic courage speaks her mind and tries to search her own identity and
individuality. She becomes an epitome of feminine assertion and selfhood
in the hands of Chitra Banerjee. As Draupadi takes the reader through the
cobwebs of her past, she analyses her life from an objective standpoint. Her
journey evolves in the narrative discussions which keep the
autobiographical element in the story alive. Divakaruni presents a story
that a narrator unfolds in front of the reader. Thus the voice becomes
indirectly a double voice bringing an old age story into the relevance of
present-day society. As far as human history can be traced the idea of
weaving stories through narration has always been done by human
community. Interestingly, myths began as primitive religious narratives
and have now occupied an important place not only in human psychology
but also in society. They act as a bridge that helps us to dwell in the past. It
is also through myths that we hold a key to our future. Myths have shown
some commonality across times and cultures thus they have a universal
appeal. Critiques believe that myth is the foundation of life; it is the timeless
schema, the pious formula into which life flows when it reproduces its
traits out of the unconscious. They further emphasize the eternal nature of
myth and refer how it is an inevitable reference to which a man turns to,
when in need of a system to universalize his predicament. Literature
connects the past with modern perspectives through mythological
references.
According to Carl Jung, ‘Myth is not just about the world, it is about the
mind’. Mircea Eliade further elucidated the cosmogonic nature of myths
and suggested that myths narrated acts of creation and are paradigmatic.
According to this concept, a man tries to imitate the exemplary acts of a god
or a mythical hero or simply by recounting their adventures try to regain a
lost paradise. In addition to these studies, Leitch points out to the strong
connection that can be felt between myth and literature. The thematic
connection is visible as the themes are of perennial interest. The story line
is the same which is passed on from generations to undergo a change when
fiercely strong woman shakes the set patriarchal patterns by her bold
outlook of life. Hermeneutics has looked at myths from all possible
perspectives. The old age myth of the Mahabharata takes a completely
different form when a female protagonist transforms the whole social
dynamics through her assertive voice.
Reading scriptures like Mahabharata becomes akin to a quest of some

truths about human existence and its conditions. The epics offer a peep into
daily life in the form of interactions, conversations, dances, songs, poems
and proverbs. Recent trends of going back and revisiting epics from a
feminist perspective has opened new frontiers to our already existing
knowledge. The self-imposed restricted vision of the patriarchal society
quite interestingly silenced the women angle. But when a women writer
revisits these epics and re-tells the stories along with her personal
experience of facing obstacles and shattering the boundaries set by
patriarchy, a totally new dimension of the existing myth comes to life.
Shashi Deshpande comments on this trend of partial interpretation by
saying “...the basic problem is that not only myths have originated with
men, but their interpretation has also been in male hands. “Thus, a critical
study of canon literature from a new perspective provides numerous
dimensions to gender studies. Banerjee provides a renewal of the epic
Mahabharata and focuses on the perspective of the female character in the
story through the gaze of woman writer.
Discussion
Chitra Banerjee is a fearless feminist who has advocated her cause without
shame, fear or guilt. She has been a game changer through her art. Her
unique voice is too loud to be ignored, and too realistic to be brushed aside.
She makes the subjective element of the protagonist as a pivot around
which the whole discussion revolves in the novel. Her uniqueness lies in
the way she makes use of the mythical elements in her work and
intermingle it with the protagonist’s personal theory in a confessional
writing form. She expresses the innermost strife and struggle of Draupadi
as a woman in a world as hostile as the primitive one yet inhabited by the
so called educated and cultured people. She symbolizes the oppression that
was directed towards women even in ancient times as reflected in ancient
Indian literature. She becomes a symbol of oppression that any woman
goes through as a daughter, a wife and a mother quite interestingly; the
novel presents a fresh approach as though she is represented as a weak
woman in the gamut of a strict male-oriented, political society. She
nevertheless has not been stereotyped as a passive, meek and submissive
wife. Her persona has the spark of a brave, assertive, courageous and an
intelligent woman who is ready to face challenges that stops her from
acting her destiny. Her resistance to the oppression makes her a more self-
reflective and conscious person and she draws a sharp subjective
awareness of reality. She becomes the subject and the core while the world
around her becomes the object and the outer reality. This construction of
making Draupadi’s character as ‘female’ and ‘central’ to the story gives a
totally new direction to the understanding of a ‘culturally foundational
Text’. As Banerjee deals with a ‘Mythological Canon’, one that is the oldest
and longest epic of the world, Mahabharata, she reflects on the
philosophical, spiritual, religious and educational values. As an accepted
code for moral ethics, social norms and gender roles, where all rules are
framed from men’s point of view, she charts into a territory where woman
is not considered as a law maker. When this epic is rendered in the hands
of Banerjee, the female protagonist becomes the ‘Hero’ and affects the lives
of all men characters of the epic. She becomes the reason that brings about
a change in her kingdom and further a transformation in the history of the
nation.
To present the inner workings of the protagonist, the writer chooses the
narrative technique. This subjective element is further strengthened by the
narrative structure created by the writer where the feelings, emotions,
fears, dreams and sentiments of Panchali find space in the novel giving an
extra -ordinary viewpoint to the gender question. By bringing a woman to
express her intentions in the foreground, the old age epic convention is
reconstructed and, in this reversal, Draupadi’s voice is given full

expression. Banerjee, herself did not like the idea of women characters to
appear as mere shadowy figures supporting the actions and motives of the
males for ages. In the Introductory note of the novel, she retorts
“I was left unsatisfied by the portrayal of the women...they remained

shadowy figures, their thoughts and motives mysterious, their
emotions portrayed only when they affected the lives of the male
heroes, their roles ultimately subservient to those of their fathers and
husbands, brothers or sons. If I ever wrote a book ... I would place
the women in the forefront of the action. I would uncover the story
that lay invisible between the lines of the men’s exploits” (POI xiv-
xv).
Banerjee begins retelling of the Mahabharata by rebuilding the definition

of Womanhood which Patriarchal settings had tried to curb over the
centuries.
Theoretical perspective
The study takes into consideration the structural analysis method from the
perspective of feminist theories. Such an analysis reveals gender issues that
the protagonist experiences. As Mary Wollstonecraft fought for the rights
of women in her book A Vindication of the Rights of Woman (1792) which
questioned how women were given the freedom for domestic education
and only derived virtue from their relationships with men. Her
postulations further highlighted how patriarchy was formalized by
education. Accepting the physical difference between the two genders,
Wollstonecraft argued that a false system of education deprived women of
sufficient strength of mind. As Rousseau advocated obedience as a core
feminist virtue but Wollstonecraft attacked Rousseau and believed that
emancipation starts from the right kind of education that not only
strengthens the mind but also forms a stronger heart. Another feminist
theory was propounded by Friedrich Engels in the 19th century who
brought out the class dynamics into play in gender relations. He reiterated
Marx’s idea of class antagonism and said the first-class opposition
coincides with the development of the antagonism between man and
woman in monogamous marriage, and it coincides with that of the female

sex by the male. Emma Goldman also talked about false emancipation in
her book The Tragedy of Woman’s Emancipation. She pointed out that
emancipation of woman turned into a new form of oppression from which
women had to break free. It merely involved formal emancipation; only the
overt shackles had been broken by it, further creating newer, inner
shackles. A battle of the sexes was not what the true meaning of
emancipation was. Her study pointed out how a woman could break free
from this hold of patriarchy. Judith Butler further brought to light the
‘performative’ nature of gender saying that the woman was constructed
and not born. In this context also, the protagonist is a strong character who
is ambitious, intellectual and manipulative. She juggles many roles and
creates her own space in history. Her straight-forwardness and her focus
make her become the pivot around which her five husbands move. As a
character, she is multilayered and multidimensional. In fact, the intense
layering of her character becomes evident in her relationships with others
in the different roles that she plays a wife, mother, daughter, daughter– in-
law and Queen.
Method
The paper takes into consideration the technique of narration as an

important tool used by the protagonist as it provides a lot of contextual
understanding of stories in literature. The term narration in fact refers to
‘telling’ a story or a part of a story, either orally or by some other means. It
refers to the activity of the narrator. The narrator is sometimes equaled to
the author. As Paul Cobley (2003) points out that in its simplest form, all
narratives are the movement from a beginning point to a finish. Seymour
Chatman (1978) elaborated this concept and gave an important distinction
between the ‘what’ and the ‘how’. The formal content or the story is the
answer to ‘what’ while the formal expression element of narrative is the
answer to the ‘how’. In addition to this, David Boje (2001) argues that
narration is not just a record of a sequential events, or stories in organized
context. He further elaborated this concept and coined a new term to
express the whole experience of a narration: ante-narratives.
Chitra Banerjee through this technique of narration in the novel presents a

double voiced discourse as there is a dual conflict that goes on in the mind
of the writer as a woman and as the protagonist. She breaks free from the
traditional role of just a writer and makes her protagonist challenge the
strong grip of patriarchy by portraying her protagonist act as a strong
woman. In many places the writer uses alternative or first and third-person
narrative suggesting the multi-layered levels of meanings. Myth criticism
has also proved to be rewarding for a study of women’s fiction, and more
studies depend on structuralism and deconstructive process. Mahabharata
was also supposedly composed by Sage Vyasa who played a part in the
events and was an eyewitness to many of them. As he retells the
happenings, the character of Draupadi is shaped by each event.
Nothing can be considered ordinary about her life. The protagonist is

smart, resilient, and courageous. Panchal, as she is called, is born of fire,
she marries all five of the famously heroic brothers, harbors a secret love
for Karna, endures a long exile in the wilderness, instigates a catastrophic
war and slowly learns to accept her destiny and comes to know the truth
about Krishna, her mysterious friend. The many episodes are like layers
that are created to make a character come to full bloom. The novel is
divided into forty-three chapters and each chapter takes the reader through
the life journey of Draupadi. Each chapter has been given a title of a single
word. Quite interestingly this key word has an important part to play in
the life of Draupadi and it became the pivot of action that she takes.
Symbolically the title of each chapter act as dots that the reader has to
connect to decipher the narrative. Some of the interesting titles are fire,
blue, milk, cosmology, smoke, incarnation, fish, portraits, brinjal and so on.
The novel portrays Draupadi as a woman of flesh and blood. Her life
journey and situation are unique as the undercurrents of power and
authority can be felt. She experiences a strong hold of power right from her
early childhood. When she is born in the Drupad’s Kingdom, she is the
second child and not a ‘wanted’ one. She is not as much needed as her
brother who was the first child of Dhrupad. She closely experiences the
segregation of power and gender roles. She experiences the discriminatory
treatment of gender in her close environment i.e., her home itself. After
accepting the reality, she starts rebelling in her way. Her quest for gaining
independence leads her to grow skills like political diplomacy, just like her
brother. She is well versed in all womanly skills and is an epitome of

beauty, delicacy and intelligence. There is a mischievous side to her identity
also. She keeps searching for answers about life. It is Krishna, who as a good
friend sorts the chaotic thoughts of Draupadi. He mystically is always there
when Draupadi needs any guidance and help. In fact, he is the one who
provides cues to solutions to her problems. The story begins with the
presentation of the life of an innocent young girl struggling with her
extraordinary life in the encapsulated castle of a father, conscious of her
different looks and always waiting for a knight in shining armor to come
to the rescue to free her from a boring life. Little does she realizes that
history is waiting to be overturned by her actions and she herself is the
shinning knight who will be the reason for changing the destiny of many
others. Her pangs of emotions are realistically brought out in the open
when she as a young girl is sacrificed for the sake of politics and is made to
marry Arjuna and not Karna, by a carefully crafted marriage alliance -
Swayamvar, in which only the Kshatriyas can participate.
Banerjee‘s style of narration is at its very best as it is compact and at no

point does it allow the story of Mahabharata itself to overwhelm the
journey of Panchali. More than the revisiting of the epic, it is the rendering
of Panchali’s soul. There is no need for the reader to go back to the facts of
Mahabharata as the revisiting of the original myth is so forceful that the
reader is convinced to question the fairness of the societal norms, whenever
Draupadi is treated adversely by societal codes. The connected symbolism
technique becomes another high point of the narrative structure in the
novel. Multiple symbols are used to suggest the stronghold of patriarchy
in the life of women. The ‘closed door’ image on the cover of the book, is
strongly symbolic. The journey of the protagonist is filled with realistic
descriptions of her own life, in her own words as she goes through her
adolescent years, to the day of the swayamvar, then to her life as Panchali,
the daughter of the Kingdom of Punjab and the wife of the five Pandavas,
then to the great war of Kurukshetra and finally to gain passage into the
other realm of the world. The novel connects the present life to the life after
her death. The story is thus a spiritual journey where she completes her
purpose on earth and then mingles with the divine. The closed-door
imagery becomes highly suggestive as it also shows how she enters the
other realm. The narrative is like a soul questioning what Draupadi does to
make her be the woman she desires to be.
The story is like revisiting a myth which opens new levels of meaning.
Talking of myth as the main point Banerjee in revisiting Mahabharata has
given a female perspective by providing Draupadi with a voice. She has
tried to reconstruct a new method in the content of the myth that is already
believable in the Mahabharata. She probes deeper into the mind of her
protagonist and presents her with a voice that has the sensibilities of the
women of the modern times. This woman is fiercely independent and
intelligent enough to understand the strategic working of a patriarchal
setting. All through the narrative, she rebels against the boundaries set by
male members. Be it her father who disallows her for an equal education as
being bestowed to her brother or her brother’s tutor who asks Draupadi to
learn feminine charm instead of Kshatriya duties. Banerjee’s protagonist
angrily questions the discriminatory practice of keeping women in the
background. She is also forced to keep silent and not ask questions and is
discouraged to think beyond masculine restrictions. Draupadi reacts just
like the modern-day feminist, by questioning her brother, “And who
decided that a woman’s highest purpose was to support men? “She boldly
declares through the mode of constant interrogation that “I plan in doing
other things with my life” ( 26). Mythology is filled with examples that
women were denied any central position and were given no access to the
best of knowledge, just as is the case in Banerjee’s text where the education
imparted to Dhri and Dhrupadi differs. Many episodes in the novel suggest
the discrimination prevalent in families while raising children. Thus, social
upbringing becomes a key factor in silencing the voice of the female.
Draupadi shatters all such limitations and boldly takes decisions in her life.
Her actions change the course of her life and also the destiny of the nation.
She stands tall to bear the consequences of her actions till the very end of
her life as she loses one by one all her loved ones, first the husbands and
then her children. Her quest for identity brings her to a point where she is
not just a receiver of patriarchal sympathy but one who directs her life
towards a much needed and transformed social order.
Conclusion
The study thus presents an audacious woman who questions, not only the
traditional codes set by society but also go on to chart her own destiny.
With her actions, desires and decisions she is able to change the course of
history as it was destined to be. All through her journey she questions her
own existence and restructures the set beliefs about woman in ancient
times. As a precursor of feminist ideas, Draupadi leads a struggle which
paves the way for reversal of gender roles in times to come. In Every
challenge she strengthens her endurance and moves towards awareness
about her identity. As the ‘hero’ of the tale, she directs the course of history
fearlessly taking decisions to suit her emotional, social and spiritual being.
The story also talks about her interactions with Krishna, who is a soul mate
to her, and it is Krishna who is an embodiment of a spiritual anchor in her
life. Thus the retelling of the myth of Mahabharata has no doubt opened up
multiple avenues of new perspectives related to gender roles and male -
female identity. Draupadi, thus through her actions and decisions is able to
restructure the binaries of gender roles as set by patriarchy.
References
Chatman, Seymour B: Story and Discourse: Narrative Structure in Fiction and Film
(1978).
Connel, R. W.: Gender and Power: Society, the person, and sexual politics, UK: Polity
Press (1987).
Culler, J.: Deconstruction Theory of Criticism after Structuralism. New York: Cornell
University Press (1962).
Deshpande, Shashi: Collected Stories, Vol. 1, India: Penguin, 41-42 (2003).
Divakaruni, Chitra. B: The Palace of Illusion: Picador (2008).
Eliade, Mircea: Myths, Dreams, and Mysteries: The Encounter between Contemporary
Faiths and Archaic Realities, London: Collins (1963).
Engels, Friedrich: The Origin of the Family’. Rossi, Alice S. (Ed.) Feminist Papers: from
Adams to de Beauvoir Northeastern University Press, Boston), pp. 482 (1884).
Goldman, Emma: ‘The Tragedy of Woman’s Emancipation’. Rossi, Alice S. (Ed.) Feminist
Papers: from Adams to de Beauvoir, Northeastern University Press, Boston), 511-513
(1906).
Irigaray, L.: "The question of the other". Yale French Studies, Vol. 87: 7-19 (1995).
Jung, C.G: Psychological Types CW6 (1921).
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UK (2016)
Oakley, A.: Sex, gender, and society. Gower/ M.T. Smith, Translator, England: Gower
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Resilience and Transformation

for Global Restructuring

Manju Singh, Nupur Tandon, Vidy Potdar and

This book first published 2022

Ethics International Press Ltd, UK

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

Copyright © 2022 Ethics International Press Limited

Print Book ISBN: 978-1-871891-59-1

eBook ISBN: 978-1-871891-60-7

Part One: GLOBAL RESTRUCTURING

Chapter 1. A Historical Analysis of the Nexus between Migration and

Chapter 2. Challenges Before the Indian Justice and Court Administration

Part Two: CREATIVITY AND INNOVATION

Chapter 3. ‘Liminality’ in Chamber Dramas: Malayalam Cinema’s

Chapter 4. Fintech Industry Start-Ups: Analyzing Trends, Challenges and

Part Three: DEVELOPMENT FOR A SUSTAINABLE WORLD

Chapter 5. Impact of COVID-19 on Quality Education in North-East India,

Chapter 7. Students’ Employability: An Empirical Study, Kiran Vaghela

Chapter 8. Critical Analysis of Eco-System and Sustainable Development,

Chapter 9, Right Livelihood for Sustainable Mountains: A Conceptual

Chapter 10. Religious Regimes in the Pandemic: An Analysis of Hybrid

Chapter 11. Blended Learning: A Means of Adapting to the New Normal,

Part Five: TECHNOLOGY FOR ALL

Chapter 13. Stabilising Farmers’ Income through Pradhan Mantri Fasal

Chapter 14. Demographic Profile and ePayment Usage: An Empirical

Chapter 15. Inclusive Design for Higher Education Institutions:

Chapter 16. Media and Development: The Future of Women’s Health,

Chapter 17. Mapping the New Dynamics of Employee Engagement and

Chapter 18. The Influence of Socio-Demographic Characteristics on Use of

Part Six: CULTURAL DIMENSIONS OF WELL-BEING

Chapter 19. ‘Cha’, ‘Kwai’ and ‘Apong’ as Stimulus for Well-being: A

Chapter 21. Understanding Health Resource Allocation in Kerala Based

Part Seven: POST COVID-19 OPPORTUNITIES

Chapter 24. Contemplative Pedagogy: An Experiment with School

Chapter 25. Social Entrepreneurship as A Tool for Sustainable Social

Chapter 26. Restructuring India’s Merchandise Trade Post COVID-19:

Chapter 27. Innovations in Early Childhood Education in India During

Part Eight: GENDER INEQUALITY AND INTERSECTIONALITY

Chapter 28. Gender Prejudice among Secondary Level Adolescent Girls in

Chapter 29. A Sociological Review of Sexual and Reproductive Health of

Chapter 31. Women as a Site of Resistance in Toni Morrison’s The Bluest

Chapter 32. Contradicting Patriarchy towards the Discovery of a Room of

Chapter 33. Manasa-Vacha-Karmana Dhira Karna: An Embodiment of

Chapter 34. Restructuring of Gender Binaries in Chitra Banerjee’s the

The present publication consists of selected articles on challenges

Keywords: Migration, Diffusion, Mizo, Tribal, Conflict

Objectives of the study

1. To examine the migration and diffusion processes of the tribal

3. History of the emergence of the Mizos

'Mizo' is a generic term combination of 'Mi' and 'Zo', literally interpreted as

4. Migration and diffusion processes of the tribal Mizos

5. Original home of the Mizos

6. Coming to the present habitat

7. The Kabow (Kubo) Valley or Shan State settlement

8. Chin Hills settlement

9. The present settlement

It was believed by some writers that the Mizos approached Mizoram at

10. Determinants of migration of the Tribal Mizos

11. Socio-economic formation during migration

The Mizos are claimed to be a stock or a mixture of Huns, who migrated to

Keywords: E-courts, E-judiciary, Information Technology Act, COVID-19

The judiciary is in charge of interpreting the constitution. It functions as the

Globalization and rapid technology development are impacting global