Module 3 Preliminary Three-View Drawing

PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module No. 03: Preliminary Three-View Drawing
LEARNING
MODULE NO. 03:
Preliminary Three-View
Drawing
AE 416 – AIRCRAFT DESIGN I
Prepared by:
AERO FACULTY
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
TIME
TOPIC PAGE
ALLOTMENT
Initial Sizing 4 30 minutes

The Three-View Drawing 17 15 minutes
TIME
ACTIVITY PAGE
ALLOTMENT
Laboratory Report No. 6 23 205 minutes

Laboratory Report No. 7 23 200 minutes
Reflective Journal No. 1 23 30 minutes
Research No. 1 23 60 minutes
Laboratory Reflective Journal No. 1 23 30 minutes
Individual Peer Rating Report No. 1 23 30 minutes
HONESTY CLAUSE
As an institution of higher learning, students are expected to display highest degree

of honesty and professionalism in their class work, requirements, and activities; thus,
in no case that cheating—or any form of it, may it be plagiarism, copying other
students' works, and fabrication of materials—shall be tolerated. The college
assumes as a simple and minimal preferred of habits in academic matters that
students be truthful and that they publish for deposit solely the merchandise of their
personal efforts.
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LEARNING OUTCOMES
Course Learning Outcomes [CLO]
Module Learning Outcomes [MLO]

CLO 5: Utilize computer aided software to
generate and calculate required data from
a conceptual aircraft design. MLO 1: Clearly define a conceptual Topic Learning Outcomes [TLO]
aircraft and its mission requirements
CLO 7: Apply previous knowledge in civil
and international laws in consideration of MLO 2: Perform comparative analysis
of different reference aircraft related to TLO 6: Apply knowledge in engineering
crafting an original aircraft design. drawing and computer aided drafting to
CLO 8: Display professional commitment the formulated conceptual aircraft
generate an accurate orthographic
to ethical practice in complying the MLO 3: Define a design mission profile drawing of the conceptual aircraft
academic requirements such as technical for the conceptual aircraft TLO 7: Comprehend the concept of initial
reports and other module activities.
MLO 4: Perform initial design analysis design procedures through output
CLO 9: Express leadership, good for determining aircraft parameters. activities presented using the designer’s
communication, sense of responsibility conceptual aircraft design.
and teamwork in accomplishing all given TLO 8: Identify good design practices
collaborative tasks. through readings of recommendations for
CLO 10: Acknowledge the importance of initial design procedures such as for the
airplane design in the interest aviation wing and tail geometry selection.
industry and its contribution to national
development.
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I. INITIAL SIZING
Aircraft sizing was introduced in the previous module which is a process of
determining the takeoff gross weight and fuel weight required for an aircraft
concept to perform its design mission. This was done based upon minimal
information about the design in estimating the sizing parameters. This module
will be presenting a refined method of dealing with most types of aircraft sizing
problems.
If an aircraft is sized using some existing engines which are fixed in size and
thrust and hence the term “fixed engine” which refers to engine size. On the
other hand, a new design engine can be built in any size and thrust required and
hence, the term “rubber engine” because of its flexibility to be stretched during
the sizing process to provide any required amount of thrust. Rubber engine sizing
is used during the early stages of aircraft development program common for
major military fighter or bomber program and sometimes for supersonic
transports. For these cases the designer will use a rubber engine in early stages
of design and tell the engine manufacturers the characteristics the engine should
have. Later on, when the manufacturers finished the engine design, it becomes
fixed in size and thrust and is used for the designed aircraft as a fixed engine.
However, a new jet engine cost around billions of dollars and developing and
certifying a new piston engine is also very expensive. This is why most projects
do not rate development of new engines and hence selection of existing engines
are favored. Note that some projects which must use existing engines may start
with rubber engine design study to determine the characteristics to look for and
compare it with existing engines.
A. RUBBER ENGINE SIZING

i. REVIEW OF SIZING
The previous module presented quick sizing method based on a
configuration sketch and selected aspect ratio where an estimate of
maximum L/D and mission weight fractions are approximated. For
different classes of aircraft, the statistical equations for empty weight
fractions provided previously were used to find the takeoff weight by
iteration using the equations provided below:
𝑊𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑤 + 𝑊𝑝𝑎𝑦𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
𝑊0 = 𝑒𝑞. (3.1)
𝑊𝑓 𝑊
1 − (𝑊 ) − (𝑊𝑒 )
0 0
Where:
𝑊𝑓 𝑊𝑥
= 1.06 (1 − ) 𝑒𝑞. (3.2)
𝑊0 𝑊0
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Equation (3.1) is limited to use in missions which do not have a

sudden weight change such as a payload drop and, in many cases, it
cannot be used for fixed engine sizing.
ii. REFINED SIZING EQUATION

For missions with a payload drop or other sudden weight change, a
slightly different sizing equation must be used. A similar takeoff
weight calculation is expressed below accounting for fixed and
dropped payload. Likewise, the empty weight is also expressed as an
empty weight fraction but the fuel weight is determined directly.
𝑊0 = 𝑊𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑤 + 𝑊𝑓𝑖𝑥𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑎𝑦𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 + 𝑊𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑎𝑦𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 + 𝑊𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙

+ 𝑊𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑦 𝑒𝑞. (3.3)
Or
𝑊0 = 𝑊𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑤 + 𝑊𝑓𝑖𝑥𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑎𝑦𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 + 𝑊𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑎𝑦𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 + 𝑊𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙
𝑊𝑒
+ ( ) 𝑊0 𝑒𝑞. (3.4)
𝑊0
As with the equations provided above, an initial guess of the takeoff

weight is used to determine a calculated takeoff weight, and the
solution is iterated until the two are approximately equal to within a
few percent.
iii. EMPTY WEIGHT FRACTION

Refined methods for selecting the empty weight fraction are done
using improved statistical equations. The tables provided below
better reflect the weight impact of major design variables which are
the aspect ratio, thrust to weight or horsepower to weight ratio, wing
loading and maximum speed. The equations result in a better
statistical fit; however, these equations should not be used to conduct
design trade studies for one particular methods.
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iv. FUEL WEIGHT

The fuel weight was previously estimated as fuel fraction by
determining the ratio between the weight at the end of the mission
and the takeoff weight considering that only weight loss during the
mission was due to fuel usage. The fuel fraction as found simply as
𝑊
(1 − 𝑊𝑥 ) which cannot be assumed as the case if the mission includes
0
a weight drop. If the mission includes a weight drop, it is necessary to
actually calculate the weight of the fuel burned for every mission leg,
and sum for the total mission fuel. Similar calculations for the
individual mission segments apply other than those which are weight
drops. For each mission segment fuel weight is calculated as:
𝑊𝑖
𝑊𝑓𝑖 = (1 − ) 𝑊𝑖 𝑒𝑞. (3.5)
𝑊𝑖−1
The total mission fuel is then equal to:
𝑊𝑓𝑚 = ∑ 𝑊𝑓𝑖 𝑒𝑞. (3.6)

1
The total aircraft fuel includes mission fuel as an allowance for

reserved and trapped fuel which is 5% and 1% respectively. The total
aircraft fuel is then expressed as:
𝑥
𝑊𝑓 = 1.06 (∑ 𝑊𝑓𝑖 ) 𝑒𝑞. (3.7)

1
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v. ENGINE START, TAXI AND TAKEOFF

Like previously assumed, mission segment weight fraction for engine-
start, taxi and takeoff is estimated historically as shown below:
𝑊1
= 0.97 − 0.99 𝑒𝑞. (3.8)
𝑊0
vi. CLIMB AND ACCELERATE

Weight fraction for an aircraft climbing and accelerating to cruise
altitude and Mach number, will be approximately as follows:
𝑊𝑖
𝑆𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑛𝑖𝑐: = 1.0065 − 0.0325𝑀 𝑒𝑞. (3.9)
𝑊𝑖−1
𝑊𝑖
𝑆𝑢𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑜𝑛𝑖𝑐: = 0.991 − 0.007𝑀 − 0.01𝑀2 𝑒𝑞. (3.10)
𝑊𝑖−1
For acceleration beginning at other than Mach 0.1, the weight fraction
calculated above should be divided by the weight fraction calculated
for the beginning Mach number. For example, an acceleration from
Mach 0.1-0.8 should have a weight fraction of about 0.9805, whereas
from Mach 0.1-2.9 will give about 0.937. To accelerate from Mach
0.8-2.0 would require a weight fraction of about (0.937/0.9805) or
0.956.
vii. CRUISE
The same equation for cruise will use the Breguet range equation. For
a propeller aircraft, the specific fuel consumption “C” is calculated
from the propeller specific consumption (Cbhp or Cp) which will give
the following equations for jet and propeller powered aircraft
respectively.
𝑊𝑖 −𝑅𝐶
𝐽𝑒𝑡: =𝑒 𝑉(𝐿/𝐷) 𝑒𝑞. (3.11)
𝑊𝑖−1
Where:
R = Range
C = Specific fuel consumption
V = Velocity
L/D = Lift to drag ratio
−𝑅𝐶
𝑏ℎ𝑝
𝑊𝑖 550𝜂𝑝 (𝐿/𝐷)
𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑟: =𝑒 𝑒𝑞. (3.12)
𝑊𝑖−1
Where:
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𝜂𝑝 = Propeller efficiency
During cruise and loiter, the lift equals the weight, so the L/D can be
expressed as the inverse of the drag divided by the weight:
𝐿 1
= 𝑒𝑞. (3.13)
𝐷 𝑞𝐶𝐷 𝑜 𝑊 1
𝑊/𝑆 + 𝑆 𝑞𝜋𝑒(𝐴𝑅)
Note that the wing loading used for the equation above and
subsequent weight fraction equations is the actual wing loading at the
condition being evaluated, not takeoff wing loading.
viii. LOITER
Using the same equations for the loiter conditions for jet and
propeller before:
𝑊𝑖 −𝐸𝐶
𝐽𝑒𝑡: =𝑒 (𝐿/𝐷) 𝑒𝑞. (3.14)
𝑊𝑖−1
Where:
E = Endurance or Loiter time
−𝐸𝑉𝐶𝑏ℎ𝑝
𝑊𝑖
𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑟: = 𝑒 550𝜂𝑝 (𝐿/𝐷) 𝑒𝑞. (3.15)
𝑊𝑖−1
ix. COMBAT
The combat mission leg is normally specified as either a time duration
“d” at maximum power where typical values of d = 3 minutes, or as a
certain number of combat turns at maximum power at some altitude
and Mach number. The weight of the fuel burned is equal to the
product of thrust, specific fuel consumption, and duration of the
combat, so the mission segment weight fraction is:
𝑊𝑖 𝑇
= 1 − 𝐶 ( ) (𝑑) 𝑒𝑞. (3.16)
𝑊𝑖−1 𝑊
Note that the T/W is defined at combat weight and thrust, not at
takeoff conditions.
If the combat is defined by some number of turns, the duration of

combat (d) must be calculated. The time to complete “x” number of
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turns is the total number of radians to turn divided by the turn rate.
When combined with the turn rate equation previously yields:
2𝜋𝑥 2𝜋𝑉𝑥
𝑑= = 𝑒𝑞. (3.17)
𝜓 𝑔√𝑛2 − 1
The load factor for a sustained combat turn is found by assuming that
the thrust angle is approximately aligned with the flight direction, so
the thrust must equal the drag. The lift must equal the weight times
the load factor n:
𝑇 𝐿
𝑛 = ( )( ) 𝑒𝑞. (3.18)
𝑊 𝐷
This is subject to the constraints of maximum structural load factor,

and maximum available lift:
𝑛 ≤ 𝑛𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑒𝑞. (3.19)
𝑞𝐶𝐿 𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑛≤ 𝑒𝑞. (3.20)
𝑊/𝑆
The lift to drag ratio is found by including the load factor term in Eq.
(3.13) which results in the equation below. The changes to CDo and e
at combat conditions which were discussed in the previous section
should be used in the equation given below.
𝐿 1
= 𝑒𝑞. (3.21)
𝐷 𝑞𝐶𝐷 𝑜 𝑛(𝑊/𝑆)
+
𝑛(𝑊/𝑆) 𝑞𝜋𝑒(𝐴𝑅)
x. DESCENT FOR LANDING

Descent is estimated historically as:
𝑊𝑖
= 0.990 𝑡𝑜 0.995 𝑒𝑞. (3.22)
𝑊𝑖−1
xi. LANDING AND TAXI BACK

Historical approximation for landing and taxi is used:
𝑊𝑖
= 0.992 𝑡𝑜 0.997 𝑒𝑞. (3.23)
𝑊𝑖−1
xii. SUMMARY OF REFINED SIZING EQUATION

The figure below shows the design and sizing method similar to the
first order method shown in the previous module but this sizing
method uses a more sophisticated analytical techniques which
permits sizing to missions including weight drops.
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B. FIXED ENGINE SIZING

The difference between fixed engine sizing and rubber engine sizing is that
the mission range or the performance must be considered a fallout
parameter and is allowed to vary as the aircraft is sized.
Allowing the range to vary facilitates an easy sizing problem where the
required T/W is determined to provide all required performance capabilities
using the known characteristics of the selected engines. The takeoff gross
weight is determined as the total engine takeoff thrust divided by the
required takeoff thrust to weight ratio.
𝑁𝑇𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑒
𝑊0 = 𝑒𝑞. (3.24)
𝑇/𝑊
Where:
N = Number of engines
With the takeoff weight known, the range can be determined from Eq. (3.4)
using a modified iteration technique and the range for one or more cruise
legs is varied until the calculated W0 equals the known W0. This technique
can also be used to vary mission parameters other than range. However, as
stated previously, the performance will be a fallout. The takeoff gross weight
will be set by fuel requirements and the fixed engine size may not necessarily
provide the thrust to weight ratio desired for performance considerations.
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In this case, the takeoff gross weight can be solved by iteration as for the
rubber engine case with one major exception. The thrust to weight ratio is
now permitted to vary during the sizing iterations and Eq. (3.16) cannot be
used for determining weight fraction for combat mission legs as is assumes a
known T/W. Instead, the fuel burned during combat by a fixed engine is
treated as a weight drop. For a given engine, the fuel burned during a combat
leg of duration d is simply the thrust times the specific fuel consumption
times the duration expressed as:
𝑊𝑓 = 𝐶𝑇𝑑 𝑒𝑞. (3.25)
The fuel weight calculated by Eq. (3.25) is treated as a weight drop in

iterations to solve Eq. (3.4). Once the takeoff weight is determined, the
resulting thrust to weight ratio must be used to determine the actual aircraft
performance for the requirements set in the previous module. If
requirements are not met, it is either the design is not very good or the
requirements are too tough.
C. GEOMETRY SIZING
i. FUSELAGE
Once the takeoff gross weight has been estimated, the fuselage wing
and tail can be sized. May methods exist to initially estimate the
required fuselage size. In fact, for certain types of aircraft, the
fuselage size is determined strictly by real world constraints. For
example, the length and diameter of a transport aircraft fuselage are
determined once the number of seats and passengers are known. For
initial design of fuselage sizing, the table below provides statistical
equations for fuselage length. The values resulting from the equation
provided are based solely on takeoff gross weight, and give
remarkably good correlations to most existing aircraft.
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Fuselage fineness ratio is the ratio between the fuselage length and
its maximum diameter. If the fuselage cross section is not a circle, an
equivalent diameter is calculated from the cross-sectional area.
Theoretically, for a fixed internal volume, the subsonic drag is
minimized by a fineness ratio of about 3.0 while supersonic drag is
minimized by a fineness ratio of about 14. Most aircraft fall between
these values. A historically-derived fineness ratio can be used along
with the length estimate to develop an initial layout. However, real
life world constraints such as payload envelope must take priority. For
most design efforts, the realities of packaging the internal
components will establish the fuselage length and diameter.
ii. WING
The actual wing size can now be determined by dividing takeoff gross
weight and the takeoff wing loading. Remember that this is the
theoretical wing reference area (trapezoidal wing which includes the
area extending to the aircraft centerline).
iii. TAIL VOLUME COEFFICIENT

For the initial layout of the empennage, a historical approach is used
for the estimation of the tail size. The effectiveness of a tail in
generating a moment about the center of gravity is proportional to
the force (lift) produced by the tail and to the tail moment arm.
The primary purpose of the tail is to counter pitching moments

generated by the wing; thus, it can be expected that its size should be
in some way related to the size of the wing. In fact, there is a directly
proportional relationship between the two. Therefore, the tail area
divided by the wing area should show some consistent relationship
for different aircraft if the effects of tail moment arm could be
accounted for.
The force due to tail lift is proportional to the tail area, where the
effectiveness is proportional to the tail area times the moment arm.
This product has units of volume, which leads to the “tail volume
coefficient” method for initial estimation of tail size. Rendering this
parameter nondimensional requires dividing by some quantity with
units of length. For a vertical tail, the wing yawing moments which
must be countered are most directly related to the wing span, b w,
which leads to the vertical tail volume coefficient. Meanwhile, for a
horizontal tail or canard, the pitching moments which must be
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countered are most directly related to the wing mean chord, cw,
which leads to the horizontal tail volume coefficient.
𝐿𝑉𝑇 𝑆𝑉𝑇
𝑐𝑉𝑇 = 𝑒𝑞. (3.26)
𝑏𝑤 𝑆𝑤
𝐿𝐻𝑇 𝑆𝐻𝑇
𝑐𝐻𝑇 = 𝑒𝑞. (3.27)
𝑐𝑤 𝑆𝑤
Note that the moment arm (L) is commonly approximated as the

distance from the tail quarter-chord (i.e., 25% of the mean chord
length measured back from the leading edge of the mean chord) to
the wing quarter chord.
The definition of tail moment arm and tail area are shown in the
figure below. Notice that the wing and aft horizontal tail is measured
from the center line of the aircraft while a canard is measured from
the intersection to the fuselage. If twin tails are used, the vertical area
is the sum of the two.
The table below provides typical values for volume coefficients for
different classes of aircraft. These values are conservative averages
and are used to calculate the tail area given by the equations below:
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𝑐𝑉𝑇 𝑏𝑤 𝑆𝑤
𝑆𝑉𝑇 = 𝑒𝑞. (3.28)
𝐿𝑉𝑇
𝑐𝐻𝑇 𝑐𝑤 𝑆𝑤
𝑆𝐻𝑇 = 𝑒𝑞. (3.29)
𝐿𝐻𝑇
To calculate the tail size an approximation of the moment arm should

be estimated as a percentage of the fuselage length. For an aircraft
with front mounted propeller engine, the tail arm is about 60% of the
fuselage length. For an aircraft with wing mounted engines, the tail
arm is about 50-55% of the fuselage length. For aft mounted engines,
the tail arm is about 45-50% of the fuselage length. A sailplane has a
tail moment arm of about 65% of the fuselage length. For an all-
moving tail, the volume coefficient can be reduced by about 10-15%.
For a T-tail, the vertical tail volume coefficient can be reduced by
approximately 5% due to the endplate effect, and the horizontal tail
volume coefficient can be reduced by about 5% due to the clean air
seen by the horizontal. Similarly, the horizontal tail volume coefficient
for an H-tail can be reduced by about 5%.
For an aircraft with V-tail, the required horizontal and vertical tail
sizes should be estimated as above and then, the V-surfaces should be
sized to provide the same total surface area as required for
conventional tails. The tail dihedral angle should be set to the
arctangent of the square root of the ratio between the required
vertical and horizontal tail areas. This should be near 45 degrees.
The horizontal tail volume coefficient for an aircraft with control type
canard is approximately 0.1 based upon the relatively few aircraft of
this type that have flown. For canard aircraft, there is a much wider
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variation in the tail moment arm. Typically, an aircraft with canard will
have a moment arm of about 30-50% of the fuselage length. For a
lifting canard, the volume coefficient method isn’t applicable. Instead,
a split in area must be selected by the designer. The required total
wing area is then allocated accordingly. Typically, the split allocates
about 25% to the canard and 75% to the wing, although there can be
a wide variation. A 50-50 split produces a tandem wing aircraft.
For an airplane with a computerized “active” flight control system, the

statistically estimated tail areas may be reduced by approximately
10% provided that trim, engine-out and nosewheel lift off
requirements can be met.
iv. CONTROL SURFACE SIZING

The primary control surfaces are the ailerons (roll), elevator (pitch),
and rudder (yaw) where the final sizing involves dynamic analysis of
control effectiveness, structural bending and control system effects.
For initial design purposes the required aileron area can be estimated
from the figure presented below. For span the ailerons typically
extend from about 50% to about 90% of the span. In some aircraft,
ailerons extend to the wing tips but the extra 10% provides litter
control effectiveness due to the vortex flow at the wing tips but can
provide a location for an aileron mass balance.
Wing flaps occupy the part of the wing span inboard of the ailerons. If
a large maximum lift coefficient is required, the flap span should be as
large as possible. One way of accomplishing this is through the use of
spoilers rather than ailerons. Spoilers are plates located forward of
the flaps on upper surface of the wing, typically aft of the maximum
thickness point. Spoilers are deflected upward to reduce the wing’s
lift and deflection on one wing will cause a large rolling moment.
While commonly used to augment roll control at low speed for jet
transports, they could also reduce lift, and add drag during landing
roll. However, a nonlinear response characteristic makes them
difficult to implement for roll control manually. Some high-speed
aircraft experiences aileron reversal where the air load upon a
deflected aileron is so great that the wing is twisted. This twist can be
so severe that the rolling moment produced exceeds the rolling
moment of the aileron causing the aircraft to roll the wrong way. To
avoid this, transport jets use an auxiliary, inboard aileron for high-
speed roll control.
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Elevators and rudders generally begin at the side of the fuselage and
extend to the tip of the tail or to about 90% of the tail span. High
speed aircrafts sometimes use rudders with large chord which only
extend to about 50% of the span to avoid rudder effectiveness
problem similar to aileron reversal. Control surfaces are usually
tapered in chord by the same ratio as the wing or tail surface so the
control surface maintains a constant percent chord to allow spars to
be straight tapered rather than curved.
Ailerons and flaps are typically about 15-25% of the wing chord.
Rudders and elevators are typically about 25-50% of the tail chord.
Flutter is defined as a rapid oscillation of the surface caused by the air
load which can tear off the control surface or even the whole wing.
Flutter tendencies are minimized by using mass balancing and
aerodynamic balancing. Mass balancing refers to the addition of
weight forward of the control surface hinge line to counterbalance
the weight of the control surface aft of the hinge line which reduces
flutter tendencies. To minimize the weight penalty, the balance
weight should be located as far forward as possible. Some aircraft
mount the balance weight on a boom flush to the wing tip. Others
bury the mass balance within the wing, mounted on a boom attached
to the control surface.
An aerodynamic balance is a portion of the control surface in front of

the hinge line. This lessens to control force required to deflect the
surface and helps to reduce flutter tendencies. Aerodynamic balance
can be a notched part of the control surface, an overhung portion of
the control surface or a combination of the two. The notched balance
is not suitable for ailerons or for any surface in high-speed flight. The
hinge axis should be no farther aft than about 20% of the average
chord of the control surface. The horizontal tail for a manually
controlled aircraft is almost always configured such that the elevator
will have a hinge line perpendicular to the aircraft centerline. This
permit connecting the left- and right-hand elevator surfaces with a
torque tube, which reduces elevator flutter tendencies. Some aircrafts
use a stabilator (all moving tail) to provide variable tail incidence
which provides outstanding elevator effectiveness at the expense of
heavier weight.
For initial design purposes, the elevator area varies from 35-45% of
the horizontal tail surface area. Examinations of airplanes of all sizes
that the common ratio of the horizontal tail surfaces to the effective
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wing area varies from 20 to 25%. The greater the tail moment arm is
in terms of the wing chord; the smaller percentage area is required.
For vertical tail surfaces a percentage of 10-15% in reference to the

wing area. About 30-50% of the area will be devoted to the rudder. An
exception will be the designs employing dorsal or ventral fins, where
the movable portion of the vertical tail surfaces is likely to be no more
than 30% of the total area.
II. THE THREE-VIEW DRAWING

The three view of a projected design is composed of the top, front and side view
which corresponds to the photographs that might be taken of the top, front and
side view of a completed airplane. After a designer has his set of specifications,
he makes a few sketches of what he believes his final design should look like
which helps him visualize arrangements more readily as a basis for weight
estimates and balance calculations.
An experienced designer will first make a hasty thumb-nail three view sketch and
no further three view is then made until the design has been almost completely
decided upon as to dimensions, correlation of wing, engine, landing gear, and tail
surfaces. However, an experienced designer usually finds it to make several
three views each one more accurate as compared to its predecessor.
The thumb nail sketch is excellent to determine the type, initiate the design, and
to record particular features of exceptional nature that the designer has in mind
where the first design on which such work as the weight estimate and balance
diagram can be based is the preliminary three view.
Note that the fundamental principles of airplane design always hold, and there is
no better way to understand them than by working through conventional designs
first. Radical designs are usually radical because they disregard fundamental
principles with the result that the designer will eventually be disappointed. An
outline which shows how standard data on existing airplanes may be made of
use in laying down the preliminary three-view as shown by the figure below.
17 | P a g e
The figure provided above illustrates how certain available data may be
assembled in preparation for the initial three-view which represents the
following:
1. A – overall length required for the propeller hub, engine, engine accessories,
etc., with sufficient clearance allowed for the removal of the rearmost
accessory
2. B – distance allowed for pilot’s cabin
3. C – length of the cabin of about 30(N+1) inches, where N represents the
number rows of seats and 30 inches the distance allowed between rows
4. D – equal to about 1/3 of the overall length which is the approximate location
of the center of gravity of the complete airplane in rear of the nose
5. E – equal to 2.5 to 3.0 times the mean geometric chord length of the wing
6. F – is allowance for desired headroom in cabin
7. G – allowance for depth of the front-wing spar
L – overall length of the fuselage with an engine located in its nose
A. STEPS IN ASSEMBLING PRELIMINARY DATA FOR THREE-VIEW DRAWING

The information necessary to draw up the first three-view can be assembled
easily, provided the specifications for the airplane have been given and a
study of existing airplanes which seem to meet the specifications is made.
From the information at hand, and a knowledge of the engine specifications
empirical data is important to aid in drawing the three-view.
i. ESTIMATION OF GROSS WEIGHT

From the first section of this module, an estimation of the gross
weight is done using refined sizing methods using equations and
statistical data provided in the previous sections.
18 | P a g e
ii. ESTIMATION OF WING AREA

Estimation of the wing area has been presented in the previous
module where the wing reference area may be computed using the
ratio of the estimated gross weight (W0) and the estimated wing
loading (W/S) value.
iii. DETERMINING THE LENGTH OF THE SPAN

Upon determining the reference wing area, reference trapezoidal
wing provided formulas for the basic geometry of the wing planform
including the area, and span.
iv. DRAWING UP THE WING PLANFORM

Drawing up the wing planform was established in the previous
module using the reference wing area (trapezoidal wing) which starts
from the aircraft reference center line. The type of wing planform
may be evaluated using concepts presented in the previous module
about the advantages and disadvantages of different wing
configuration and properties.
v. DETERMINATION OF THE MEAN AERODYNAMIC CHORD

The Mean Aerodynamic Chord is the average geometric chord of wing
planforms with taper ratio. This chord is the average value of different
chord lengths of each airfoil in the wing planform and was also
provided with formula considering the root chord, tip chord, aspect
ratio, taper ratio and area.
vi. DETERMINING THE LENGTH OF THE AIRPLANE

Using statistical equations as a function of solely the gross weight, an
estimate of the total fuselage length is provided in the first section of
this module.
vii. LOCATING THE ENGINES

For the case of a twin-engine design, the propeller diameter of each
engine can be found by formula. About a two-inch clearance between
the propeller tip and the side of fuselage should be allowed. If the
nose fuselage is later faired even more clearance will usually result,
however, this would not be undesirable.
The centerline of each engine would then be located outboard from

the side of fuselage, a distance equal to [D/2 + 2] inches. The fore and
aft position of the propeller is located by taking into consideration
that the propeller plane, and vertical planes intersecting this plane at
19 | P a g e
5 degrees ahead or 5 degrees behind at the center of rotation should

not cut through the fuselage where any personnel is located. Usually,
the placement of the pilot as far forward as possible in the nose of the
fuselage will locate the critical personnel. Once the propeller has been
located, the rest of the engine nacelle can be sketched easily.
Other requirements for propeller clearances for different aircraft

categories are found in FAR part 23 and 25.
viii. PLANFORM OF HORIZONTAL TAIL SURFRACES

Recommendations for planform of horizontal tail surfaces were made
in the previous module which gave values for the sweep angle and
taper ratio for the tail surfaces. Determining the area and control
surface size was given in the first section of this module.
ix. COMPLETING THE TOP VIEW

The top view of the airplane can be completed by sketching in the
missing lines from the draft made for the side view drawing. Note that
accounting for principles of an orthographic drawing, each part should
match those that could be found in other views.
x. COMPLETING THE SIDE VIEW

The side view drawing was accomplished first hand using the
specifications calculated from the refined method of aircraft sizing.
Dimensions should include wheel base of the landing gear.
xi. COMPLETING THE FRONT VIEW
20 | P a g e
The front view can now be completed using the top and side view.
Dimensions should include wheel track of the landing gear.
B. GENERAL NOTES FOR THREE-VIEW DRAWING

The propeller should have a minimum ground clearance of 9 inches when the
airplane is in the horizontal or level landing position with the shock absorbers
and tires deflected as they would be under the normal gross weight of the
airplane. For all normal considerations, the shock absorber may be assumed
to be deflected about two-thirds of its normal travel and the tires about one-
quarter of their normal travel. Proper allowance must be made for the
configuration of the landing gear when the members are so disposed that the
deflection of the shock absorber may cause a greater deflection of the
landing gear. Generally, it is not wise to allow more than 9 inches of
clearance for the propeller since this will tend to increase the length of the
landing gear members and thereby increase the weight of the landing gear
structure.
Seaplanes should have a propeller clearance of at least 18 inches when the

sea plane is at rest. A clearance of at least 2 inches between the tips of
propellers or any part of the structure should be allowed also.
Elevators should clear the ground by at least 2 or 3 inches when the airplane
is in the three-point landing position or at rest.
For the location of the various parts such as the wing, tail surfaces, and
landing gear, which are placed in relation to the center of gravity, it is
desirable to assume the center of gravity location. For a low wing monoplane,
the center of gravity is from 2 to 6 inches below the thrust line. For a high-
wing monoplane, it is about 2 to 4 inches above the thrust line for airplanes
up to about 20,000 pounds gross weight. In lieu of more accurate information
obtained from a balance diagram, such a location is sufficiently accurate to
assume for the purposes to be served by the preliminary three-view drawing.
C. FINAL THREE-VIEW DRAWING

The final three-view drawing is based upon more accurate information than
the preliminary three-view since the weight estimate has been more
accurately determined and the final balance diagram has been completed.
Both the balance diagram and the final three view depend in some degree on
the structural layout of the wing, landing gear, and fuselage, but once these
difficulties in structural arrangements and the like have been ironed out, it is
possible to go ahead with the final three view.
21 | P a g e
It may be found that the balance diagram has made changes in the following:
1. Position of the wing
2. Location of the landing gear
3. Location of the tail surfaces
4. Location of the center of gravity
Structural layouts may have caused changes in:

1. Wing planform, perhaps because the spar intersected the fuselage where
a bulkhead was found to be undesirable.
2. Arrangement of the landing gear members due to changes in spar
location.
3. Placement of tail surfaces with respect to planes of symmetry.
4. Vertical position of engine due to installation and vision requirements.
Only after all points have been considered should the final three-view be
made. Usually, it is desirable to wait until the control surfaces and landing
gear, as well as cabin installations, have been made in order to incorporate
the latest correction.
22 | P a g e
LABORATORY REPORT NO. 6 – WING LOADING SELECTION

Instructions for the following activity will be given by the designated instructor and will be
submitted to the designated platform agreed upon by the class.
LABORATORY REPORT NO. 7 – INITIAL AIRCRAFT SIZING

Instructions for the following activity will be given by the designated instructor and will be
submitted to the designated platform agreed upon by the class.
REFLECTIVE JOURNAL NO. 1 – PRELIM JOURNAL

Submit a reflective journal for all the topics you learned from the lecture. Use the
designated template as instructed by the instructor. The designated platform for submission
will be given by the instructor.
RESEARCH NO. 1 – PRELIM RESEARCH

Conduct research about common and unique design configurations for at least 5 different
aircraft types today. Also, give your personal insights on the benefits of each design
configuration and emphasize its key points in the purpose intended for each aircraft
involved.
LABORATORY REFLECTIVE JOURNAL NO. 1 – LABORATORY PRELIM JOURNAL

Submit a reflective journal for all the topics you learned from the laboratory activities. Use
the designated template as instructed by the instructor. The designated platform for
submission will be given by the instructor.
INDIVIDUAL PEER RATING REPORT NO. 1 – PRELIM

Each member of a designated group should submit an individual peer rating based on their
peer’s performance in the designated activities provided by the instructor. Template and
format will be given by the designated instructor.
23 | P a g e

Module 3 Preliminary Three-View Drawing

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Module 3 Preliminary Three-View Drawing

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS

INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

AE 416 – AIRCRAFT DESIGN I

Initial Sizing 4 30 minutes

Laboratory Report No. 6 23 205 minutes

As an institution of higher learning, students are expected to display highest degree

Course Learning Outcomes [CLO]

Module Learning Outcomes [MLO]

A. RUBBER ENGINE SIZING

Equation (3.1) is limited to use in missions which do not have a

ii. REFINED SIZING EQUATION

𝑊0 = 𝑊𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑤 + 𝑊𝑓𝑖𝑥𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑎𝑦𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 + 𝑊𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑎𝑦𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 + 𝑊𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙

As with the equations provided above, an initial guess of the takeoff

iii. EMPTY WEIGHT FRACTION

iv. FUEL WEIGHT

The total mission fuel is then equal to:

𝑊𝑓𝑚 = ∑ 𝑊𝑓𝑖 𝑒𝑞. (3.6)

The total aircraft fuel includes mission fuel as an allowance for

𝑊𝑓 = 1.06 (∑ 𝑊𝑓𝑖 ) 𝑒𝑞. (3.7)

v. ENGINE START, TAXI AND TAKEOFF

vi. CLIMB AND ACCELERATE

If the combat is defined by some number of turns, the duration of

This is subject to the constraints of maximum structural load factor,

x. DESCENT FOR LANDING

xi. LANDING AND TAXI BACK

xii. SUMMARY OF REFINED SIZING EQUATION

B. FIXED ENGINE SIZING

𝑊𝑓 = 𝐶𝑇𝑑 𝑒𝑞. (3.25)

The fuel weight calculated by Eq. (3.25) is treated as a weight drop in

iii. TAIL VOLUME COEFFICIENT

The primary purpose of the tail is to counter pitching moments

Note that the moment arm (L) is commonly approximated as the

To calculate the tail size an approximation of the moment arm should

For an airplane with a computerized “active” flight control system, the

iv. CONTROL SURFACE SIZING

An aerodynamic balance is a portion of the control surface in front of

For vertical tail surfaces a percentage of 10-15% in reference to the

II. THE THREE-VIEW DRAWING

A. STEPS IN ASSEMBLING PRELIMINARY DATA FOR THREE-VIEW DRAWING

i. ESTIMATION OF GROSS WEIGHT

ii. ESTIMATION OF WING AREA

iii. DETERMINING THE LENGTH OF THE SPAN

iv. DRAWING UP THE WING PLANFORM

v. DETERMINATION OF THE MEAN AERODYNAMIC CHORD

vi. DETERMINING THE LENGTH OF THE AIRPLANE

vii. LOCATING THE ENGINES

The centerline of each engine would then be located outboard from

5 degrees ahead or 5 degrees behind at the center of rotation should

Other requirements for propeller clearances for different aircraft

viii. PLANFORM OF HORIZONTAL TAIL SURFRACES

ix. COMPLETING THE TOP VIEW

x. COMPLETING THE SIDE VIEW

xi. COMPLETING THE FRONT VIEW

B. GENERAL NOTES FOR THREE-VIEW DRAWING

Seaplanes should have a propeller clearance of at least 18 inches when the

C. FINAL THREE-VIEW DRAWING

Structural layouts may have caused changes in:

LABORATORY REPORT NO. 6 – WING LOADING SELECTION

LABORATORY REPORT NO. 7 – INITIAL AIRCRAFT SIZING

REFLECTIVE JOURNAL NO. 1 – PRELIM JOURNAL

RESEARCH NO. 1 – PRELIM RESEARCH

LABORATORY REFLECTIVE JOURNAL NO. 1 – LABORATORY PRELIM JOURNAL

INDIVIDUAL PEER RATING REPORT NO. 1 – PRELIM

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